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They can be described as compounds that contain a phenol moiety. Phenol itself is a benzene ring that is substituted with a hydroxyl group (Figure 1). Thus, its systematic name is hydroxybenzene.
The structure of phenol.
Phenolic compounds display a wide range of biological activities. For instance, they are known to exhibit antioxidants, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. They are ubiquitous in nature. For instance, they are present in various types of fruits such as apple, banana, orange, mango, peach, papaya, strawberry, pomegranate, watermelon, and pineapple. For example, myricetin (a flavonol) is found in apple, gallic acid (a hydroxybenzoic acid) is found in banana, quercetin (a flavonol) and cyanidin (an anthocyanin) are found in pomegranate,
Phenolic compounds can generally be classified into simple and polyphenolic compounds [9, 10, 11, 12].
Phenolic compounds that contain one phenol unit (or a derivative of it) are considered “simple”. Fundamentally, they are substituted phenol compounds. Simple phenolic compounds have C6 general skeleton representation. The general structure is shown below (Figure 2). The group denoted by “R” (an organic group which could be alkyl, alkenyl, aryl …etc. or hydroxy, alkoxy, amino …etc) which can be in the
General structure of simple substituted phenols.
Below are some simple phenolic compounds.
Simple substituted phenol compounds can be hydroxyphenols or dihydroxybenzenes. Examples are catechol (1,2-dihydroxybenzene), resorcinol (1,3-dihydroxybenzene), and hydroquinone (1,4-dihydroxybenzene) (Figure 3).
The structure of hydroxyl-substituted phenols.
Other simple substituted phenol compounds can also be dihydroxyphenols or trihydroxybenzenes. Examples are pyrogallol (1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene), hydroxyquinol (1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene), and phloroglucinol (1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene) (Figure 4).
The structure of dihydroxyl-substituted phenols.
Phenols that contain a carboxylic acid are termed as phenolic acids. If the carboxylic acid functional group is directly bonded to the phenol ring, the phenolic compound is termed as hydroxybenzoic acid. When carboxylic acid functional group and the phenol ring are separated by two doubly bonded carbons (a C=C bond), phenolic compounds are termed as hydroxycinnamic acids.
Hydroxybenzoic acids are benzoic acids substituted with a hydroxyl group. Alternatively, they can be viewed as phenols that are substituted with a carboxylic acid functional group that is directly bonded to the phenol ring (Figure 5).
General structures of hydroxyl-substituted benzoic acids.
The hydroxyl group in hydroxybenzoic acids can be
Structures of hydroxybenzoic acids.
Dihdyroxybenzoic acids are benzoic acids that are substituted with two hydroxyl groups. The two hydroxyl groups can mainly be in 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4-, and 3,5- relative positions (Figure 7).
Structures of main dihydroxybenzoic acids.
Trihdyroxybenzoic acids are benzoic acids that are substituted with three hydroxyl groups. Examples include 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzoic acid and 3,4,5- trihydroxybenzoic acid (gallic acid) (Figure 8).
Examples of triihydroxybenzoic acids.
When the carboxylic acid functional group is separated from the phenol ring by a C=C bond, phenolic acids are described as hydroxycinnamic acids (Figure 9).
General structures of hydroxyl-substituted cinnamic acids.
Examples of hydroxycinnamic acids are 2-, 3-, and 4-hydroxycinnmaic acid shown below (Figure 10).
Examples of hydroxycinnamic acids.
Other common examples of cinnmaic acids are caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acids shown below (Figure 11).
Common examples of hydroxycinnamic acids.
Phenolic compounds that contain more than one phenol unit are considered “polyphenol”. Polyphenolic compounds have C15 general skeleton representation.
Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds with the general structure shown below (Figure 14).
General structure of flavonoids.
Generally, rings A and C are either mono, di, or trihydroxylated. The
Classification of falvonoids.
Tannins are known to bind to and precipitate proteins and amino acids. They are subdivided into three types; hydrolyzable, condensed and complex. Hydrolyzable tannins can be gallotannins or ellagitannins. Gallotannins are polyols that are substituted with gallic acid units. The galloyl units in gallotannins are linked by depside (ester) linkages. Commonly the polyol core is a D-glucose that is substituted with gallic acid units. Tannic acid is an example of gallotannins (Figure 16).
Gallotannins.
Similar to gallotannins, ellagitannins are hydrolysable 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucose. However, unlike gallotannins characterized by depside linkages, adjacent galloyl groups in ellagitannins are linked by C-C bonds (Figure 17).
Structure of ellagitannin.
Condensed tannins (Figure 18) are polymeric phenolic compounds that consist of catechin units. When depolymerized, they give anthocyanidin. Thus condensed tannins are called proanthocyanidins.
General structure of condensed tannins.
Complex tannins are gallotannins or ellagitannins bonded to a catechin unit (Figure 19).
General structure of complex tannins.
Stilbenes are phenolic compounds in which two phenol units are linked by two-doubly bonded carbons (Figure 18). Examples of stilbenes include resveratrol, pterostilbene and piceatannol shown (Figure 20).
Stilbenes.
Lignans consist of two phenol units linked by four carbons. Examples include matairesinol, secoisolariciresinol and pinoresinol (Figure 21).
General structure of lignans and examples.
Lignins consist of phenol units or phenolic compounds that are linked with each other by carbon chains (Figure 22). Lignins are high molecular weight polymers.
A segment of lignins.
An important chemical feature of phenolic compounds is the acidity of the phenol moiety. The unequal shift of electrons in the O-H bond in phenol is caused by the difference in electronegativity between H and O. The arbitrary electronegativity values according to Pauling scale are 2.1 and 3.5 respectively. Thus the formed inductive effect imparts a positive partial charge on the H atom (Figure 23). Thus the H atom is removable in the form of a proton by a suitable base. The pKa of phenol is 9.9, relatively stronger as an acid than aliphatic alcohols (pKa ca. 16) [13].
Acidity of phenol caused by inductive effect.
The resultant conjugate base, the phenoxide ion, is further stabilized by resonance (Figure 24). The lone pair placed as a result of proton abstraction is delocalized over the phenyl ring. Electron delocalization by resonance results in stabilization of the phenoxide ion.
Resonance stabilization of the conjugate base of phenol, the phenoxide ion.
Substituents on the phenol ring can have a significant effect on the acidity of phenol (Figure 25). For instance, electron withdrawing groups (EWG) increase the acidity of phenol. EWG stabilize the phenoxide ion further by inductive and resonance effects. On the other hand, electron donating groups (EDG) decrease the acidity of phenol. EDG lower the stability of the phenoxide ion by donating of electrons by inductive or resonance effects.
Effects of substituents on the acidity of phenol.
For example, 4-nitrophenol with a pKa of around 7 is more acidic than phenol itself. The nitro group withdraws electrons by resonance and thus imparts an additional resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion (Figure 26). Thus, 4-nitrophenoxide ion is more stable than the simple unsubstituted phenoxide ion.
Resonance stabilization of the conjugate base of 4-nitrophenol.
For example, 4-aminophenol with a pKa of around 10.3, is less acidic than phenol itself. The nitro group imparts an additional resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion which is then more stable than the simple unsubstituted phenoxide ion (Figure 27).
Resonance stabilization of the conjugate base of 4-aminophenol.
The inductive effect of the O-H bond in phenol induces a negative partial charge on O and a positive partial charge on H. Therefore, the hydrogen (H) atom can interact with heteroatoms possessing nonbonding electrons, such as O, N, F. This type of interaction is noncovalent and rather electrostatic and constitutes hydrogen-bonding (H-bonding) [14]. The H atom of the O-H bond in phenol can form a H-bond with the O atom in another phenol molecule, constituting intramolecular H-boning (Figure 28). In addition, the H atom is also capable of interacting with heteroatoms in other molecules to form intermolecular H-bonding.
Intramolecular and intermolecular H-bonding of phenol.
Phenolic compound with adjacent hydroxyl groups such as protocathechuic acid, can exhibit intramolecular H-bonding (Figure 29). Phenolic compounds with adjacent hydroxyl and alkoxy groups are also capable of intramolecular H-bonding.
Intramolecular H-bonding of phenolic compounds.
Another structural possibility for intramolecular H-bonding is the presence of a hydroxyl group
Intramolecular H-bonding of phenolic compounds.
Intramolecular H-bonding can result in formation of five-membered rings as in Ferulic acid (Figure 29) and six-membered rings as in Flavanone (Figure 30). Such rings are inherently stable which would consequently influence the chemistry of phenolic compounds. For instance, intramolecular H-bonding can lower the solubility and reactivity of phenolic compounds in esterification and etherification reactions.
Phenolic compounds can take part in esterification reactions. They can contribute the phenolic hydroxyl group upon reactions with a carboxylic acid or a carboxylic acid derivative such as acid anhydrides or acid halides typified by acid chlorides (Figure 31), forming phenolic esters.
Esterification of phenolic compounds.
The other esterification possibility of phenolic compounds is for them to contribute their carboxyl group upon reactions with alcohols to produce the corresponding phenolic ester (Figure 32).
Esterification of phenolic compounds.
Phenolic compounds can undergo etherification reactions. Thus they can react with alcohols to produce the corresponding phenolic ether (Figure 33).
Etherification of phenolic compounds.
Phenolic compounds can undergo oxidation reactions. Homolytic (symmetrical) oxidative O-H bond cleavage gives rise to a phenolic radical (Figure 34). Such radicals are stabilized by resonance by delocalization of the resultant single electron over the ring.
Oxidation of phenolic compounds to form phenolic radicals.
Phenolic compounds can be analyzed using various techniques. Mass spectrometry (MS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), GC–MS, calorimetry, ultraviolet (UV), ultraviolet–visible (UV/VIS) spectrophotometry, and other spectrophotometric techniques represent examples of such techniques [15, 16, 17, 18]. Total phenolic content (TPC) of phenolic compounds in plants is commonly measured using spectrophotometry techniques such as Folin-Denis and Folin–Ciocalteu methods [19]. The latter method which is based on electron-transfer, was found to be more preferable and thus more common [15, 16]. GC has been used to analyze phenolic acids, condensed tannins, flavones, and falvonoids. HPLC has been used to analyze anthocyanins, hydrolysable tannins, phenolic acids, cinnamic acids and favonoids [18]. Anthocyanins have been analyzed using UV absorption at a wavelength range of 489–550 nm [18]. Hydrolysable tannins have been also analyzed at a wavelength of 500–550 nm [18]. Based on their ability to bind proteins, tannins have been analyzed using protein-binding methods [20, 21]. Calrimetric methods have been used to determine the TPC in flavonoids and tannins. Other techniques for analysis of phenolic compounds include capillary electrophoresis (CE) and micellar electro-kinetic chromatography [22].
Recent methods of analysis include ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) [23], ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-orbitrap (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap) [24], high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) [25], liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray- ionization triple quadrupole time- of- flight mass spectrometry (LC- ESI- QTOF- MS) and high- performance liquid chromatography- photo diode array (HPLC- PDA) [26], ESI-Ms/MS [27].
There are two general routes for the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds; shikimic acid pathway and the acetic acid pathway [12, 28]. In the shikimic acid pathway (Figure 35), hosphoenolpyruvate and erthrose-4-phosphate react in few steps to provide 3-dehydroquinate. Dehydration with shikimate dehydrogenase gives 3-dehydroshikimic acid. Reduction with NADPH gives shikimic acid. 3-Dehydroshikimic acid could lead to gallic acid in several steps. Shikimic acid is then converted into chorismic acid which undergoes Claisen rearrangement to afford prephenic acid. The product is then converted in several steps into tyrosine. The amino acid serves as a central point and a crucial precursor for the biosynthesis of various phenolic compounds (Figure 35).
Shikimic acid pathway toward phenolic compounds.
Another route toward phenolic compounds, is the phenylpropanoid pathway (Figure 36). This route is essentially similar to the shikimic acid pathway until L-phenylalanine stage where the phenylpropanoid pathway takes form. L-Phenylalanine undergoes deamination catalyzed by phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) enzyme to give cinnamic acid. Hydroxylation followed by conversion to the Coenzyme A provides
The phenylpropanoid pathway toward phenolic compounds.
There have been many methods that are used to synthesize phenolic compounds in the laboratory. For instance, phenolic compounds were obtained using Copper-catalyzed synthesis from 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds employing dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) as a methylene source (Figure 37) [29].
Copper-catalyzed synthesis of phenolic compounds from 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds.
Phenolic compounds have also been obtained using biocatalysis. Thus phenolic compounds were synthesized by lipase-catalyzed synthesis (Figure 38) [30].
Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of phenolic compounds.
Various imine phenolic compounds were synthesized starting from 3-aminobenzoic acids as schematically represented below (Figure 39) [31].
Synthesis of imine phenolic compounds.
Various Schiff bases were also accessed from 3-nitroaniline (Figure 40) [31].
Synthesis of imine phenolic compounds.
Other azomethine-based phenolic compounds were prepared from 3-nitroacetophenone (Figure 41 i) [31].
Synthesis of imine phenolic compounds.
Sulfonyl amide phenolic compounds were prepared from 3-nitrobenzenesulfonyl chloride (Figure 41 ii) [31].
Carbohydrate-based polyphenolic compounds were synthesized from 1,5-anhydro-D-glucitol as schematically shown below (Figure 42) [32]. Thus maplexin J (R1 = R2 = R3 = OH) and its derivatives were synthesized using this route.
Synthesis of maplexin J and its derivatives from 1,5-anhydro-D-glucitol.
Another example is the synthesis of an analog of tellimagrandin I from benzyl glucoside (Figure 43) [32].
Synthesis of tellimagrandin I analog.
Functionalization and expeditious transformation of phenol derivatives into new functional molecules have been made possible with metal-catalyzed C-H bond functionalization [28, 29]. The C-H activation science has allowed accessing new and further functionalized phenol derivatives in an expedient and efficient manner (Figure 44). Thus catalysts based on various transition metals such as Pd, Rh, Ru, Ir, Au and Fe have allowed functionalization of inert C-H bonds in simple phenolic compounds and subsequently their transformation into new functionalized molecules [33, 34].
C-H bond functionalization of phenol derivatives.
Recently, 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (Click chemistry) of cellulose-based azides with alkynes derived from phenolic compounds were transformed into new phenolic compounds-based adducts (Figure 45). The new triazole products display some applicable anti UV properties [35].
1,3-Dipolr cycloaddition of cellulose-based azides with alkynes obtained from phenolic compounds.
Simple phenolic compounds such as 4-aminophenol were transformed,
1,3-Diploar cycloaddition of alkynes obtained from 4-aminphenol with aryl azides.
Natural phenolic compounds were transformed via ther alkyne-derivatives into the corresponding triazole adducts by the click reaction with aryl azides (Figure 47). The method demonstrates an example of synthetic elaboration of phenolic compounds into new ones of potential biological functions [37].
1,3-Diploar cycloaddtion of alkynes derived from natural phenolic compounds and aryl azides.
Phenolic compounds possess a wide range of biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Such properties allow phenolic compounds be able to reduce various illnesses and diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and hypertension. Therefore, they can be used in pharmaceutical industry as therapeutic agents. The antioxidant and antimicrobial properties enable phenolic compounds to function as food preservatives and additives. Thus they have also applications in food industry. In addition, phenolic compounds have applications in cosmetic and packaging industries. Exploitation of the full potential of phenolic compounds lies in the development of prudent and efficient methods for their detection, isolation, and analysis. Also, a key direction is their synthetic transformation and elaboration into new and potentially more biologically active molecules. Moreover, another prospect is the developments of new methods for the expeditious synthesis of phenolic compounds.
Phenolic compounds are ubiquitous in nature. Phenolic compounds display a wide range of biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, they have versatile applications in various industries such as pharmaceutical and food industries. Developments of efficient methods and protocols for the identification of phenolic compounds, their detection and analysis should continue. Due to their high potential and applications in various industries, development of efficient methods for their synthesis and synthetic elaborations into new phenolic compounds is sought. This chapter has been an attempt to provide the reader with a quick guide and reference for the classification, chemistry, analysis and synthesis of phenolic compounds.
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This study’s aim is to reduce traffic congestion, improve safety, and accidents. Path planning algorithms are one of the main elements in autonomous vehicles that make critical decisions. Motion planning methods are required when transporting passengers from one point to another. These methods have incorporated several methods such as generating the best trajectory while considering the constraints of vehicle dynamics and obstacles, searching a path to follow, and avoiding obstacles that guarantee comfort, safety, and efficiency. We suggested an effective path planning algorithm based on Model Predictive Controller that determines the maneuvers mode such as lane-keeping and lane-changing automatically. We utilized two different artificial potential field functions for the road boundary, obstacles, and lane center to ensure safety. On the four scenarios, we examined the proposed path planning controller. 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The presented in this paper power line autonomous inspection allows detecting power line defects caused by thunderstorms, corrosion, insulator malfunctions, and same time monitoring of vegetation under the power line corridor. Traditional inspection is performed by helicopters equipped with high-resolution cameras or by direct visual examination carried out by highly skilled staff climbing over de-energized power lines. However, the visual inspection is time-expensive and costly. Moreover, due to regulatory constraints, the helicopters cannot cover narrow mountainous areas. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are an attractive alternative for power line inspection. In this work, a mathematical model for the quadrotor helicopter used in the autonomous inspection is presented. The model is successfully evaluated through simulations and flight experiments. Next, the construction of a quadrotor helicopter system and its application to power line autonomous inspection is introduced. 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UAVs have the capabilities to reach and execute mission in those areas that are very difficult for humans to even reach such as forest, deserts, and mines. Integration of the latest technologies including reactive controls, sense and avoid, and onboard computations have strengthened their dominance further in various practical missions. Besides the innovative applications, the use of UAVs imposes several challenges, and one of those challenges is computing a low-cost path for aerial mission by avoiding obstacles as well as satisfying certain performance objectives (a.k.a path planning (PP)). To this end, this chapter provides a concise overview of various aspects concerning to PP including basics introduction of the subject matter, categorization of the PP approaches and problems, taxonomy of the essential components of the PP, performance objectives of the PP approaches, recent algorithms that have been proposed for PP in known and unknown environments, and future prospects of research in this area considering the emerging technologies. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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