List of potential indirect effects of pesticides (insecticides, miticides, and fungicides) on the physiology and behavioral parameters of natural enemies (parasitoids and predators).
1. Introduction
Pesticides including insecticides and miticides are primarily used to regulate arthropod (insect and mite) pest populations in agricultural and horticultural crop production systems. However, continual reliance on pesticides may eventually result in a number of potential ecological problems including resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, and/or target pest resurgence [1,2]. Therefore, implementation of alternative management strategies is justified in order to preserve existing pesticides and produce crops with minimal damage from arthropod pests. One option that has gained interest by producers is integrating pesticides with biological control agents or natural enemies including parasitoids and predators [3]. This is often referred to as ‘compatibility,’ which is the ability to integrate or combine natural enemies with pesticides so as to regulate arthropod pest populations without directly or indirectly affecting the life history parameters or population dynamics of natural enemies [2,4]. This may also refer to pesticides being effective against targeted arthropod pests but relatively non-harmful to natural enemies [5,6].
Pesticides vary in their activity, which not only impacts how they kill arthropod pests but also how they may indirectly influence natural enemy populations. Pesticides may be classified as contact, stomach poison, systemic, and/or translaminar [7,8]. In addition, the application method—foliar vs. drench or granular—may determine the extent of any indirect effects on natural enemies [9] as well as the pesticide mode of action. The type of natural enemy—parasitoid or predator—may be influenced differently based on the factors mentioned above. Furthermore, the type of pesticide may substantially contribute to any indirect effects on natural enemies. For example, broad-spectrum, nerve toxin pesticides such as most of the older pesticides in the chemical classes, organophosphate (acephate and chlorpyrifos), carbamate (carbaryl and methiocarb), and pyrethroid (bifenthrin and cyfluthrin) may be both directly and indirectly more harmful to natural enemies than non-nerve toxin type pesticides (often referred to a “selective pesticides”) including insect growth regulators (kinoprene and pyriproxyfen), insecticidal soaps (potassium salts of fatty acids), horticultural oils (petroleum or neem-based), selective feeding blockers (flonicamid and pymetrozine), and microbials (entomopathogenic fungi and bacteria, and other micro-organisms) [10]. The non-nerve toxin pesticides are generally more specific or selective in regards to arthropod pest activity with broader modes of action than nerve toxin pesticides [3].
The effects of pesticides on natural enemies are typically associated with determining direct effects such as mortality or survival over a given time period (24 to 96 hours) [11]. While evaluations associated with the direct effects of pesticides on natural enemies are important, what are actually more relevant are the indirect or delayed effects of pesticides because this provides information on the long-term stability and overall success of a biological control program when attempting to integrate the use of pesticides with natural enemies [12-16].
Any indirect effects, which are sometimes referred to as sub-lethal, latent, or cumulative adverse effects may be associated with interfering with the physiology and behavior of natural enemies by inhibiting longevity, fecundity, reproduction (based on the number of progeny produced or eggs laid by females), development time, mobility, searching (foraging) and feeding behavior, predation and/or parasitism, prey consumption, emergence rates, and/or sex ratio [2,13,16,17-22].
2. Indirect effects of pesticides on natural enemies
In this book chapter, the term ‘indirect’ will be used for consistency. The indirect effects of pesticides on natural enemies (Table 1) have not been studied as extensively compared to direct effects, and those studies associated with indirect effects of pesticides have primarily involved evaluating fecundity and longevity [23-27].
* Longevity | * Reproduction |
* Fecundity and/or fertility | * Development time (egg to adult or specific instars) |
* Mobility | * Prey searching efficiency and feeding behavior |
* Predation and/or parasitism | * Sex ratio |
* Emergence rates | * Prey consumption |
* Population growth/reduction | * Repellency |
* Orientation behavior | * Prey acceptance (for oviposition by female parasitoids) |
Although indirect effects may be more subtle or chronic compared to direct effects [14, 28-29] any indirect effects may inhibit the ability of natural enemies to establish populations; suppress the capacity of natural enemies to utilize prey; impact parasitism (for parasitoids) or consumption (for predators) rates; decrease female reproduction; reduce prey availability; inhibit ability of natural enemies to recognize prey; influence the sex ratio (females: males); and reduce mobility, which could impact prey-finding [3, 27, 30-31]. In addition, more than one physiological and/or behavioral parameter may be indirectly affected after exposure to a pesticide. Furthermore, understanding the indirect effects of different concentrations of pesticides on fecundity, fertility, reproduction, adult and larva longevity, and prey consumption is important in successfully integrating natural enemies with pesticides and avoiding any indirect consequences on population dynamics [16,32].
The important physiological and behavioral parameters presented above are responsible for allowing natural enemies to regulate arthropod pest populations. Some factors affiliated with natural enemies that may influence the indirect effects of pesticides include natural enemy age, type of natural enemy (parasitoid vs. predator), life stages (immature vs. adult) exposed to pesticides, and sex (male vs. female) [9,33]. In addition, the type of pesticide (nerve toxin vs. non-nerve toxin) as well as the pesticide application method (foliar vs. systemic) may have significant consequences and thus impact the extent of any indirect effects on natural enemies based on exposure (immediate vs. chronic). For example, foliar applications of pesticides, which in most cases, represents immediate exposure, that do not directly harm natural enemies may have indirect effects. Another indirect affect may be related to residues remaining after a foliar application, which could inhibit the emission of volatile cues from plants that are utilized by certain natural enemies to detect prey location (prey patches) from long distances within plant communities, thus impacting foraging behavior and searching efficiency [34-37]. Moreover, any residues remaining after application may indirectly affect parasitoids by inhibiting adult emergence [38].
Furthermore, natural enemies, particularly parasitoids, may be indirectly affected by feeding on contaminated honeydew excreted by phloem-feeding insect prey [39,40], which could significantly affect their performance. Certain pesticides (insecticides and fungicides) may also exhibit repellent activity [16,41-46] or alter host plant physiology [13,47] thus indirectly affecting the ability of natural enemies to regulate existing arthropod pest populations [48].
This book chapter will now focus specifically on the indirect effects on natural enemies associated with different categories of pesticides including systemic insecticides, insect growth regulators, selective feeding blockers, microbials, miticides, and fungicides.
3. Systemic insecticides
Systemic insecticides, when applied as drenches or granules to the soil/growing medium, have been promoted to be relatively non-toxic to natural enemies due to lack of any direct exposure [49-51]. However, this may not be the case as systemic insecticides may exhibit indirect effects on natural enemies via several mechanisms including elimination of prey, contamination of floral parts by the active ingredient, consumption of the active ingredient while ingesting plant fluids, and contamination of prey ingesting either lethal or sub-lethal concentrations of the active ingredient [52-54]. Systemic insecticides, when applied to the soil or growing medium, may have minimal direct effects on aboveground natural enemies (both parasitoids and predators); however, they may indirectly influence natural enemies if mortality of prey populations is high (>90%). This results in a reduction or potential elimination of available prey that serve as a food source for natural enemies [55-57], making it difficult for natural enemies to locate any remaining individuals. This would then lead to a decline in natural enemy populations either through starvation or dispersal thus suppressing establishment [1,55,58-59]. However, this effect is dependent on the foraging efficiency of the specific natural enemy. Furthermore, this may reduce the quantity or density of available prey or reduce their quality such that they are unacceptable as a food source for predators (both larvae and adults) or female parasitoids may not lay eggs. As such, reproduction, foraging behavior, fecundity, and longevity may all be indirectly affected [3].
The distribution of the systemic insecticide active ingredient into flower parts (petals and sepals) may indirectly impact natural enemies that feed on plant pollen or nectar as a nutritional food source including several species of predators such as minute pirate bug,
In addition, the metabolites of certain systemic insecticides, which in general, may be more water soluble and toxic to arthropod pests, could be more concentrated in pollen and nectar than the actual active ingredient [66]. This might have a significant indirect effect on natural enemies. In fact, the metabolites associated with certain systemic insecticides have been implicated to indirectly affect natural enemies, primarily by contaminating flower pollen or extrafloral nectories as the active ingredient is translocated and distributed throughout plant parts [9]. Furthermore, any natural enemies feeding on prey that have fed upon plants and have ingested concentrations of the systemic insecticide active ingredient may be indirectly affected [67-68]. This is associated with prey contamination, which can lead to subtle and long-term indirect effects on parasitoids and/or predators [5,69].
Any indirect effects of systemic insecticides may also be associated with alterations in prey quality or induced changes in host plants [1,70-71], which may reduce the attractiveness of plants to parasitoids [13]; thus impacting the foraging behavior and searching efficiency of natural enemies [13,72]. The indirect effects of systemic insecticides, particularly on predators, may vary depending on feeding habits. For example, hemipteran predators, which may feed on plants as a supplemental food source, would likely be more indirectly affected than coccinellid predators that only feed on prey [2,5,73-76]. Furthermore, any odors associated with treated plants, may result in an avoidance response, which could inhibit the performance and thus effectiveness of natural enemies [11].
Exposure via both contact and oral-ingestion to systemic insecticides at variable concentrations indirectly affected both foraging ability and parasitization (parasitizing ability) of the parasitoid,
4. Insect growth regulators
Insect growth regulators are compounds that are active directly on the immature stages (larvae or nymphs) of certain insect pests, and there are three distinct categories of insect growth regulators: juvenile hormone mimics, chitin synthesis inhibitors, and ecdysone antagonists [78-79]. Insect growth regulators have been presumed to be compatible, with minimal indirect affects on natural enemies [80-83], and numerous studies have evaluated the indirect effects of insect growth regulators on natural enemies, both parasitoids and predators, under laboratory and field conditions. However, there is distinct variability regarding the indirect effects of insect growth regulators on natural enemies, which is primarily associated with natural enemy type (parasitoid or predator), kind of insect growth regulator, life stage evaluated, and timing of application (spatially and temporally).
4.1. Pyriproxyfen
The insect growth regulator pyriproxyfen, a juvenile hormone mimic [84-85] was demonstrated to have no indirect harmful effects on adult female oviposition and egg viability of the green lacewing,
4.2. Kinoprene
Another juvenile hormone mimic insect growth regulator, kinoprene [7], has been shown to be indirectly harmful to natural enemies by inhibiting adult emergence of the leafminer parasitoid,
4.3. Fenoxycarb
Fenoxycarb is a juvenile hormone analog [79,94-95] that has shown to be indirectly harmful to certain natural enemies. For example, different concentrations of fenoxycarb delayed the development time from pupae to adult of
4.4. Cyromazine
Cyromazine is an insect growth regulator that disrupts molting by affecting cuticle sclerotization through increasing cuticle stiffness in insects [79], and has been shown to exhibit indirect effects on the reproduction of
4.5. Diflubenzuron
Another insect growth regulator, diflubenzuron, which is a chitin synthesis inhibitor [79], has been shown, in general, to have minimal indirect impact on natural enemies—both parasitoids and predators—under laboratory and field conditions [10,102]. However, exposure to diflubenzuron decreased female longevity and reduced the parasitization rate of the endoparasitoid,
4.6. Buprofezin
Buprofezin, a chitin synthesis inhibitor [79,105], has been shown to sterilize certain natural enemies [106], and reduce the number of progeny produced per female and alter sex ratios [87]. In addition, feeding on buprofezin-treated sweet potato whitefly (
4.7. Azadirachtin
Azadirachtin is an ecdysone antagonist [78,113-114], which may exhibit variability regarding any indirect effects on natural enemies [115]. It was reported by [116], for example, that azadirachtin inhibits oviposition of the green lacewing,
Similar to buprofezin, this demonstrates that any indirect effects of insect growth regulators such as azadirachtin may be more prevalent on the early instars than the later instars of certain natural enemies [123]. Likewise, as also demonstrated by [124], development time of
5. Selective feeding blockers
Selective feeding blockers, which include flonicamid and pymetrozine, inhibit the feeding activity of piercing-sucking insects (aphids and whiteflies) after initial insertion of their stylets into plant tissues and interfere with neural regulation of fluid intake through the mouthparts resulting in starvation [125-130]. It was reported by [130] that both flonicamid and pymetrozine, did not negatively affect the development time, fertility, and parasitism of a variety of natural enemies including the hoverfly,
6. Microbials
Although entomopathogenic fungi and bacteria (
Natural enemies may ingest fungal conidia when grooming (cleaning themselves) or when feeding on contaminated hosts [10,104]; however, the extent of any indirect effects primarily depends on the concentration of spores present [136]. In addition, entomopathogenic fungi may indirectly affect certain natural enemies when feeding on prey that have been sprayed (contaminated prey). For example, larvae of the mealybug destroyer,
The micro-organism spinosad has been demonstrated to be indirectly harmful to a variety of predatory insects including the green lacewing,
7. Miticides
Miticides, similar to other pesticides, may demonstrate variability in regards to any indirect effects on natural enemies depending on the type of miticide and predatory mite species [145]. It was reported by [145] that the miticide fenpyroximate did not negatively affect prey consumption of
The miticides bifenazate, etoxazole, acequinocyl, chlorfenapyr, and fenbutatin oxide were shown to exhibit no indirect effects on the reproduction of
8. Fungicides
Although, in general, fungicides may be considered less harmful to natural enemies than insecticides and miticides [18] it is still critical to determine any indirect effects and thus compatibility with natural enemies since fungicides are extensively used in agricultural and horticultural production systems and as such it is justifiable to evaluate their indirect effects on natural enemies. It may be that the fungicide type will determine compatibility with natural enemies as ‘older’ fungicides could be more indirectly harmful to natural enemies than ‘newer’ fungicides, which may be associated with the mode of action or any metabolites. Although similar to other pesticides, this may depend on the natural enemy type and species, timing of application (spatially and temporally), and life stage exposed. For example, mancozeb was shown to negatively affect fecundity and reproduction of the predatory mites,
It was determined that the ‘newer’ fungicides, azoxystrobin and fosetyl-aluminum did not inhibit prey consumption (fungus gnat larvae) of rove beetle,
9. Additional factors associated with indirect effects of pesticides on natural enemies
It is important to exercise caution when attempting to translate laboratory evaluations associated with indirect effects into predictions related to field performance of natural enemies [156-159]. Laboratory assays, for example, may fail to take into account the indirect effects of pesticides, which could underestimate their overall impact [18]. In addition, long-term evaluations conducted under field conditions provide more applicable information regarding pesticide-pest-natural enemy interactions [159] including how pesticides indirectly interfere with the synchrony between natural enemies and their prey [99]. Furthermore, field exposure is assumed to be less severe and more variable than laboratory exposure because of factors such as plant architecture (arrangement of leaves and branches), spray application coverage, pesticide degradation, and potential for recolonization [45]. In addition, the methodology used to evaluate indirect effects of pesticides on natural enemies may influence the results obtained [87].
Another potential issue to be considered is that any indirect effects of pesticides on natural enemies may not necessarily be affiliated with the active ingredient but due to inert ingredients in the commercial formulation [2,160-164]. It is possible that formulations such as emulsifiable concentrates (EC) and soluble powders (SP) may contain additives such as adjuvants, surfactants, solvents and/or carriers that are indirectly harmful to natural enemies [45,165]. Studies associated with how inert ingredients affect natural enemies are necessary in order to better understand the actual indirect impact of pesticides on natural enemies.
10. Summary
This book chapter has demonstrated the feasibility of combining or integrating natural enemies with certain pesticides including systemic insecticides, insect growth regulators, selective feeding blockers, microbials, miticides, and fungicides. The information presented clearly indicates that combining pesticides with natural enemies is not straight-forward [2,18] and that compatibility of natural enemies with pesticides depends on a range of factors including class of pesticide applied, natural enemy type (parasitoid or predator), natural enemy species, pesticide formulation, concentration in which natural enemies are exposed to, exposure time, timing of application (spatially and temporally), and developmental life stage (early vs. later instars) exposed to pesticide. In addition, more than one physiological or behavioral parameter (longevity, reproduction, fecundity, and/or searching efficiency) of a given natural enemy may be indirectly affected by pesticides. As such, there are three primary means by which natural enemies may be integrated with pesticides including pesticide selection (using non-nerve toxin or “selective” pesticides), spatial separation (applying pesticides to localized areas of infestation) of natural enemies and pesticides, and temporal discontinuity (applying pesticides when natural enemies are absent or when tolerable life stages are present) between natural enemies and pesticides [2,132].
As [27] indicated, any indirect effects must be evaluated to determine if pesticides are compatible with natural enemies so as not to compromise long-term success of biological control programs. However, many pesticide manufacturers and suppliers make unsubstantiated claims that pesticides are safe to natural enemies without any references to testing methodology, which fails to take into consideration that results obtained associated with any indirect effects may vary depending on concentration, natural enemy species, pesticide exposure time, developmental life stage(s) evaluated, and the influence of residues and repellency [45]. Therefore, compatibility of natural enemies with pesticides is important if both these management strategies are to be integrated into programs designed to regulate arthropod pest populations and minimize plant damage.
References
- 1.
Hardin MR, Benrey B, Coll M, Lamp WO, Roderick GK, Barbosa P. Arthropod pest Resurgence: an Overview of Potential Mechanisms. Crop Protection 1995;14 3-18. - 2.
Pesticides and Conservation of Natural Enemies in Pest Management. In: Barbosa P. (ed.) Conservation Biological Control. Academic Press, San Diego, CA;Ruberson J. R. Nemoto H. Hirose Y. 1998 207 220 - 3.
Croft BA. Arthropod Biological Control Agents and Pesticides. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY;1990 - 4.
Cloyd R. Compatibility conflict: is the use of biological control agents with pesticides a viable management strategy? In: second international symposium on biological control of arthropods; Davos, Switzerland, 12-16 September 2005. USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET-2005-08 Vol. II; 2005. - 5.
Toxicity of Diflubezuron and Pyriproxyfen to the Predatory Bug Podisus maculiventris. Entomologia Experimentalis et ApplicataDe Clercq P. De Cock A. Tirry L. Viñuela E. Degheele D. 1995 74 17 - 6.
Impact of Botanical Pesticides Derived from Melia azedarach and Azadirachta indica on the Biology of Two Parasitoid Species of the Diamondback Moth. Biological ControlDS Charleston Kfir. R. Dicke M. Vet L. E. M. 2005 33 131 - 7.
Ware GW, Whitacre DM. The Pesticide Book. MeisterPro Information Resources, Willoughby, OH;2005 - 8.
Cloyd RA. Managing Insect and Mite Pests. In: Nau J. (ed.) Ball RedBook2 th Edition). Ball Publishing, West Chicago, IL;2011 107 119 - 9.
Impact of Neonicotinoid Insecticides on Natural Enemies in Greenhouse and Interiorscape Environments. Pest Management ScienceCloyd R. A. Bethke J. A. 2011 67 3 - 10.
Cloyd RA. Compatibility of Insecticides with Natural Enemies to Control Pests of Greenhouses and Conservatories. Journal of Entomological Science2006 41 189 - 11.
Stapel JO, Cortesero AM, Lewis WJ. Disruptive Sublethal Effects of Insecticides on Biological Control: Altered Foraging Ability and Life Span of a Parasitoid after Feeding on Extrafloral Nectar of Cotton Treated with Systemic Insecticides. Biological Control2000 17 243 - 12.
Jacobs RJ., Kouskolekas CA, Gross HR Jr. Responses of Trichogramma pretiosum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) to Residues of Permethrin and Endosulfan. Environmental Entomology1984 13 355 - 13.
Toxic and Behavioral Effects of Selected Insecticides on the Heliothis Parasitoid Microplitis croceipes. EntomophagaElzen G. W. O’Brien P. J. Powell J. E. 1989 34 87 - 14.
Elzen GW. Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Beneficial Parasitoids. In: Jepson PC. (ed.) Pesticides and Non-Target Invertebrates. Intercept, Wimborne, UK;1990 129 150 - 15.
Mortality and Predation Efficiency of Coleomegilla lengi Timb. (Col., Coccinellidae) Following Application of Neem Extracts (Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Meliaceae). Journal of Applied EntomologyRoger C. Vincent C. Coderre D. 1995 119 439 - 16.
The Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Beneficial Arthropods. Annual Review of EntomologyDesneux N. Decourtye A. Delpuech-M J. 2007 52 81 - 17.
The Sublethal Effects of Synthetic Insecticides on Insects. Biological ReviewsMoriarty F. 1969 44 321 - 18.
Wright DJ, Verkerk RHJ. Integration of Chemical and Biological Control Systems for Arthropods: Evaluation in a Multitrophic Context. Pesticide Science1995 44 207 - 19.
Jones WA, Ciomperlik MA, Wolfenbarger DA. Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Insecticides on two Parasitoids Attacking Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Biological Control1998 11 70 - 20.
Stark JD, Banks JE. Population-Level Effects of Pesticides and Other Toxicants on Arthropods. Annual Review of Entomology2003 48 505 - 21.
Croft BA, Brown AWA. Responses of Arthropod Natural Enemies to Insecticides. Annual Review of Entomology1975 20 285 - 22.
Toxicity of Bifenazate and its Principal Active Metabolite, Diazene, to Tetranychus urticae and Panonychus citri and Their Relative Toxicity to the Predaceous Mites, Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus californicus. Experimental and Applied AcarologyOchiai N. Mizuno M. Mimori N. Miyake T. Dekeyser M. Canlas L. J. Takeda M. 2007 43 181 - 23.
Grosch DS. Reproductive Performance of a Braconid After Heptachlor Poisoning. Journal of Economic Entomology1970 63 1348 - 24.
Grosch DS. Reproductive Performance of Bracon hebetor After Sublethal Doses of Carbaryl. Journal of Economic Entomology1975 68 659 - 25.
Toxicity of Azinophos Methyl and Chlordimeform to Parasitoid Bracon mellitor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae): Lethal and Sublethal Effects. Environmental EntomologyO’ Brien. P. J. Elzen G. W. Vinson S. B. 1985 14 891 - 26.
Hsieh CY, Allen WW. Effects of Insecticides on Emergence, Survival, Longevity, and Fecundity of the Parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae (Hymenoptera: Aphididae) from Mummified Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae). Journal of Economic Entomology1986 79 1599 - 27.
Rosenheim JA, Hoy MA. Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on the Parasitoid Aphytis melinus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Journal of Economic Entomology1988 81 476 - 28.
Effects of Insecticides on Life-History Parameters of the Aphid Parasitoid Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Hym, Aphidiidae). EntomophagaBorgemeister C. Poehling H. M. Dinter A. Holler C. 1993 38 245 - 29.
Effects of Selected Insecticides on Cotesia plutellae, Endoparasitoid of Plutella xylostella. BioControlHaseeb M. Liu T. X. Jones W. A. 2004 49 33 - 30.
Side Effects of Pesticides on Four Species of Beneficials Used in IPM in Glasshouse Vegetable Crops: ‘Worst Case’ Laboratory Tests. Bulletin of the Organization of International Biological Controlvan de Veire M. Tirry L. 2003 26 41 - 31.
Grafton-Cardwell EE, Lee JE, Stewart JR Olsen KD. Role of Two Insect Growth Regulators in Integrated Pest Management of Citrus Scales. Journal of Economic Entomology2006 99 733 - 32.
Sáenz-de-Cabzón Irigaray FJ, Zalom FG, Thompson PB. Residual Toxicity of Acaricides to Galendromus occidentalis and Phytoseiulus persimilis Reproductive Potential. Biological Control2007 40 153 - 33.
Bartlett BR. Integration of Chemical and Biological Control. In: DeBach P. (ed.) Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Chapman and Hall, New York, NY;1964 489 511 - 34.
Dicke M, Vet LEM. Plant-Carnivore Interactions: Evolutionary and Ecological Consequences for Plant, Herbivore and Carnivore. In: Oliff H, Brown VK, Drent RH.(eds.) Herbivores: Between Plant and Predators. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK; 1999. p483-520. - 35.
Morgan DJW, Hare JD. Volatile Cues Used by the Parasitoid, Aphytis melinus, for Host Location: California Red Scale Revisited. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata2003 88 235 - 36.
Gohole LS, Overholt WA, Khan ZR, Vet LEM. Role of Volatiles Emitted by Host and Non-Host plants in the Foraging Behaviour of Dentichasmias busseolae, a Pupal Parasitoid of the Spotted Stemborer Chilo partellus. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata2003 107 1 - 37.
Sub-Lethal Effects of Fenbutatin Oxide on Prey Location by the Predatory Mite Iphiseiodes zuluagai (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Experimental and Applied AcarologyTeodoro A. V. Pallini A. Oliveira C. Sub 2009 47 293 - 38.
Rill SM, Grafton-Cardwell EE, Morse JG. Effects of Two Insect Growth Regulators and a Neonicotinoid on Various Life Stages of Aphytis melinus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). BioControl2008 53 579 - 39.
Effects of Honeydew and Insecticide Residues on the Distribution of Foraging Aphid Parasitoids Under Glasshouse and Field Conditions. Entomologia Experimentalis et ApplicataLongley M. Jepson P. C. 1996 81 189 - 40.
Assessment of the Impact of Insecticides on Anagrus nilaparvatae (Pang et Wang) (Hymenoptera: Mymanidae), an Egg Parasitoid of the Rice Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). Crop ProtectionWang H. Y. Yang Y. Su J. Y. Shen J. L. Gao C. F. Zhu Y. C. 2008 27 514 - 41.
Bartlett BR. The Repellent Effects of Some Pesticides to Hymenopterous Parasites and Coccinellid Predators. Journal of Economic Entomology1965 58 294 - 42.
Effects of the Fungicides Mancozeb and Dithianon on Mortality and Reproduction of the Predatory Mite Amblyseius andersoni. Experimental and Applied AcarologyIoriatti C. Pasqualini E. Toniolli A. 1992 15 109 - 43.
Comparative Trials on the Effects of Two Fungicides on a Predatory Mite in the Laboratory and in the Field. Entomologia Experimentalis et ApplicataBlümel S. Pertl C. Bakker F. M. 2000 97 321 - 44.
Hoddle MS, Van Driesche RG, Lyon SM, Sanderson JP. Compatibility of Insect Growth Regulators with Eretmocerus eremicus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) for Whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Control on Poinsettias. Biological Control2001 20 122 - 45.
Bernard MB, Horne PA, Hoffmann AA. Developing an Ecotoxicological Testing Standard for Predatory Mites in Australia: Acute and Sublethal Effects of Fungicides on Euseius victoriensis and Galendromus occidentalis (Acarina: Phytoseiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology2004 97 3 891 899 - 46.
Sublethal Effects of Pyrethroids on Insect Parasitoids: What We Need Further Know. In: Stoytcheva M. (ed.) Pesticides: Formulations, Effects, Fate. Rijeka: Intech;Garcia P. 2011 477 494 - 47.
Effects of Selective Insecticides on Host Searching and Oviposition Behavior of Neochrysocharis formosa (Westwood) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a Larval Parasitoid of the American Serpentine Leafminer. Applied Entomology and ZoologyTran D. H. Takagi M. Takasu K. 2004 39 435 - 48.
Umoru P. A. Powell W. Clark S. J. 1996 Effect of Pirimicarb on the Foraging Behaviour of Diaeretiella rapae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) on Host-Free and Infested Oilseed Rape Plants. Bulletin of Entomological Research 1996;86 193 - 49.
Ripper WE, Greenslade RM, Hartley GS. Selective Insecticides and Biological Control. Journal of Economic Entomology1951 44 448 - 50.
McClanahan RJ. Food-Chain Toxicity of Systemic Acaricides to Predaceous Mites. Nature1967 - 51.
Mizell RF, Sconyers MC. Toxicity of Imidacloprid to Selected Arthropod Predators in the Laboratory. Florida Entomologist1992 75 277 - 52.
Tillman PG, Mullinix BG. Comparison of Susceptibility of Pest Euschistus servus and Predator Podisus maculiventris (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) to Selected Insecticides. Journal of Economic Entomology2004 97 800 - 53.
Krischik VA, Landmark AL, Heimpel GE. Soil-Applied Imidacloprid is Translocated to Nectar and Kills Nectar-Feeding Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Environmental Entomology2007 36 1238 - 54.
Neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid causes outbreaks of spider mites on elm trees in urban landscapes. PLoS ONE 2011; 6(5): e20018.Szczepaniec A. Creary S. F. Laskowski K. L. Nyrop J. P. MJ Raupp doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020018 accessed 13 February2012 - 55.
Radcliffe EB. Population responses of green peach aphid in Minnesota on potatoes treated with various insecticides. In: Proceedings of the North Central Branch of the Entomological Society of America1972 27 103 - 56.
Pest Management of Rice. Annual Review of EntomologyKiritani K. 1979 24 279 - 57.
Juvenile and Sublethal Effects of Selected Pesticides on the Leafminer Parasitoids Hemiptarsenus varicornis and Diglyphus isaea (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from Australia. Journal of Economic EntomologyBjorksten T. A. Robinson M. 2005 98 1831 - 58.
Flanders SE. Environmental Resistance to the Establishment of Parasitic Hymenoptera. Annals of the Entomological Society of America1940 33 245 - 59.
Ripper WE. Biological Control as a Supplement to Chemical Control of Insects. Nature1944 153 448 - 60.
Kiman ZB, Yeargan KV. Development and Reproduction of the Predator Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) Reared on the Diets of Selected Plant Material and Arthropod Prey. Annals of the Entomological Society of America1985 78 464 - 61.
Hagen KS. Ecosystem Analysis: Plant Cultivars (HPR), Entomophagous Species and Food Supplements. In: Boethel DJ., Eikenbary RD (eds.) Interactions of Plant Resistance and Parasitoids and Predators of Insects. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY;1986 151 197 - 62.
Stapel JO, Cortesero AM, De Moraes CM, Tumlinson JH, Lewis WJ. Effects of Extrafloral Nectar, Honeydew, and Sucrose on Searching Behavior and Efficiency of Microplitis croceipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in Cotton. Environmental Entomology1997 26 617 - 63.
Smith SF, Krischik VA. Effects of Systemic Imidacloprid on Coleomegilla maculata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Environmental Entomology1999 28 1189 - 64.
Rogers MA, Krischik VA, Martin LA. Effects of Soil application of Imidacloprid on Survival of Adult Green Lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), used for Biological Control in Greenhouses. Biological Control2007 42 172 - 65.
Cloyd RA, Sadof CS. Flower Quality, Flower Number, and Western Flower Thrips Density on Transvaal Daisy Treated with Granular Insecticides. HortTechnology1998 8 567 - 66.
Sur R, Stork A. Uptake, Translocation and Metabolism of Imidacloprid in Plants. Bulletin of Insectology 2003;56 35-40. - 67.
Grafton-Cardwell EE, Gu P. Conserving Vedalia Beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), in Citrus a Continuing Challenge as New Insecticides Gain Registration. Journal of Economic Entomology 2003;96 1388-1398. - 68.
Walker MK, Stufkens MAW, Wallace AR. Indirect Non-Target Effects of Insecticides on Tasmanian Brown Lacewing (Micromus tasmaniae) from Feeding on Lettuce Aphid (Nasonovia ribisnigri). Biological Control2007 43 31 - 69.
Consumption Rates of Predatory Activity of Adult and Fourth Instar Larvae of the Seven Spot Ladybird,Singh S. R. Walters K. F. A. Port G. R. Northing P. Coccinella septempunctata (L.), Following Contact with Dimethoate Residue and Contaminated Prey in Laboratory Arenas. Biological Control2004 30 127 - 70.
Smith HS. The utilization of entomophagous insects in the control of citrus pests. In: Transcripts from the 4th International Congress of Entomology II, Ithaca, NY;1929 191 198 - 71.
Hussey NW, Huffaker CB. Spider mites. In: Delucchi VL. (ed.) Studies in Biological Control. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK;1976 - 72.
Effects of Imidacloprid on the Orientation Behavior and Parasitizing Capacity ofLiu F. Bao S. W. Song Y. Lu H. Y. Xu J. X. Anagrus nilaparvatae , an Egg Parasitoid ofNilaparvata lugens . BioControl2010 5 473 - 73.
Ridgway RL, Lindgren PD, Cowan CB Jr, Davis JW. Populations of Arthropod Predators and Heliothis spp. After Applications of Systemic Insecticides to Cotton. Journal of Economic Entomology1967 60 1012 - 74.
Plant Feeding by a Predaceous Insect Geocoris punctipes. Journal of Economic EntomologyStoner A. 1970 63 1911 - 75.
Morrison DE, Bradley JR Jr, van Duyn JW. Populations of Corn Earworm and Associated Predators after Application of Certain Soil-Applied Pesticides to Soybean. Journal of EconomicEntomology1979 72 97 - 76.
Feeding Habits of Orius tristicolor. Annals of the Entomological Society of AmericaSalas-Aguilar J. Ehler L. E. 1977 70 60 - 77.
Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Abamectin, Spinosad, Methoxyfenozide and Acetamiprid on the Predaceous Plant Bug Deraeocoris brevis in the Laboratory. BioControlDS Kim Brooks. D. J. Riedl H. 2006 51 465 - 78.
Stenersen J. Chemical Pesticides: Mode of Action and Toxicology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; 2004. - 79.
Yu SJ. The Toxicology and Biochemistry of Insecticides. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL;2008 - 80.
Staal GB. Insect Growth Regulators with Juvenile Hormone Activity. Annual Review of Entomology1975 20 417 - 81.
Ables JR, Jones SL, Bee MJ. Effect of Diflubenzuron on Beneficial Arthropods Associated with Cotton. Southwestern Entomologist1977 2 66 - 82.
Keever DW, Bradley JR Jr, Ganyard MC. Effects of Diflubenzuron (Dimilin) on Selected Beneficial Arthropods on Cotton Fields. Environmental Entomology1977 6 732 - 83.
Liu T-X, Stansly PA. Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Two Insect Growth Regulators on AdultDelphastus catalinae (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), a Predator of Whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Biological Control2004 30 298 - 84.
Koehler PG, Patterson RJ. Incorporation of Pyriproxyfen in German Cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattelidae) Management Program. Journal of Economic Entomology1991 84 917 - 85.
Insecticides with Novel Modes of Action: Mechanism, Selectivity and Cross-Resistance. Entomological ResearchIshaaya I. Barazani A. Kontsedalov S. Horowitz A. R. 2007 37 148 - 86.
Effects of Juvenile Hormone Mimic Material,Nagai K. 4 phenoxyphenyl (RS )-2-(2-pyridyloxy) Propyl Ether, onThrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and its PredatorOrius sp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Applied Entomology and Zoology1990 - 87.
Lethal and Sub-Lethal Effects of Insecticides on Natural Enemies of Citrus Scale Pests. BioControlSuma P. Zappalá L. Mazzeo G. Siscaro G. 2009 54 651 - 88.
Action of Insect Growth Regulator Insecticides and Spinosad on Life History Parameters and Absorption in Third-Instar Larvae of the EndoparasitoidSchneider M. I. Smagghe G. Pineda S. Viñuela E. Hyposoter didymator . Biological Control2004 31 189 - 89.
Chen TY, Liu TX. Susceptibility of Immature Stages ofChrysoperla rufilabris (Neurop., Chrysopidae) to Pyriproxyfen, a Juvenile Hormone. Journal of Applied Entomology2002 125 125 - 90.
Liu T-X, Stansly PA. Effects of Pyriproxyfen on Three Species ofEncarsia (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), endoparasitoids ofBemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic Entomology1997 90 2 404 411 - 91.
Lemma KM, Poe SL. Juvenile Hormone Analogues: Effects of ZR-777 on Florida EntomologistLiromyza sativae and its Endoparasite.1978 61 67 - 92.
McNeil J. Juvenile Hormone Analogs: Detrimental Effects on the Development of an Endoparasitoid. Science 1975;189 640-642. - 93.
Rothwangl KB, Cloyd RA, Wiedenmann RN. 2004 Effects of Insect Growth Regulators on Citrus Mealybug ParasitoidLeptomastix dactylopii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 2004;97 1239 - 94.
Grenier S, Grenier AM. Fenoxycarb, a Fairly New Insect Growth Regulator: a Review of its Effects on Insects. Annals of Applied Biology 1993;122 369-403. - 95.
Liu T-X, Chen T-Y. Effects of the Insect Growth Regulator Fenoxycarb on ImmatureChrysoperla rufilabris (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Florida Entomologist2001 84 628 - 96.
Effects of the IGR Fenoxycarb on Eggs and Larvae ofCelli G. Bortolotti L. Nanni C. Porrini C. Brenna G. S. Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Laboratory Test. In: Haskell PT, McEwen PK. (eds.) New Studies in Ecotoxicology. The Welsh Pest Management in Forum, Cardiff, UK;1997 15 18 - 97.
Development Modifications of the ParasitoidGrenier S. Plantevin G. Pseudoperichaeta nigrolineata (Dipt., Tachinidae) by Fenoxycarb, an Insect Growth Regulator, Applied onto its HostOstrinia nubilalis (Lep., Pyralidae). Journal of Applied Entomology1990 110 462 - 98.
Action of Fenoxycarb on Metamorphosis and Cocoon Spinning inBortolotti L. Micciarelli Sbrenna. A. Sbrenna G. Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae): Identification of the JHA-Sensitive Period. European Journal of Entomology2005 102 27 - 99.
Effects of Conventional Insecticides and Insect Growth Regulators on Fecundity and Other Life-Table Parameters ofRumpf S. Frampton C. Dietrich D. R. Micromus tasmaniae (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology1998 91 34 - 100.
Blümel S. Stolz M. 1993 Investigations on the Effect of Insect Growth Regulators and Inhibitors on the Predatory MitePhytoseiulus persimilis A. H. with Particular Emphasis on Cyromazine. Journal of Plant Disease and Plant Protection 1993;100 150 - 101.
Parrella MP, Christie GD, Robb KL. Compatibility of Insect Growth Regulators andChrysocharis parksi (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) for the Control ofLiriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae). Journal of Economic Entomology1983 76 949 - 102.
Gordon R. Cornect M. 1986 Toxicity of the Insect Growth Regulator Diflubenzuron to the Rove BeetleAleochara bilineata , a Parasitoid and Predator of the Cabbage MaggotDelia radicum . Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 1986;42 179 - 103.
Benzoylphenyl Ureas Effect on Growth and Development ofButaye L. Degheele D. Eulophus pennicornis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a Larval Ectoparasite of the Cabbage Moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of Economic Entomology1995 88 3 600 605 - 104.
Broadbent AB, Pree DJ. Effects of Diflubenzuron and BAY SIR 8514 on Beneficial Insects Associated with Peach. Environmental Entomology1984 13 133 - 105.
Ishaaya I. Mendelson Z. Melamed-Madjar V. 1988 Effect of Buprofezin on Embryogenesis and Progeny Formation of Sweet Potato Whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 1988;81 781 - 106.
Effects of Field-Weathered Residues of Insect Growth Regulators on some Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) of Economic Importance as Biological Controls. Bulletin of Entomological ResearchHattingh V. Tate B. 1995 85 489 - 107.
James DG. 2004 Effect of Buprofezin on Survival of Immature Stages ofHarmonia axyridis ,Stethorus punctum picipes (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Orius tristicolor (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), andGeocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Geocoridae). Journal of Economic Entomology 2004;97 900 - 108.
Buprofezin Effects on Two Parasitoid Species of Whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic EntomologyGerling D. Sinaip 1994 87 842 - 109.
Liu T-X, Chen T-Y. 2000 Effects of the Chitin Synthesis Inhibitor Buprofezin on Survival and Development of Immatures ofChrysoperla rufilabris (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 2000;93 234 - 110.
Retnakaran A., and Wright JE. Control of Insect Pests with Benzoylphenyl Ureas. In: Wright JE., Retnakaran A. (eds.) Chitin and Benzoylphenyl Ureas. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Netherlands;1987 205 282 - 111.
Darvas B, Polgar LA. Novel Type Insecticides: Specificity and Effects on Non-Target Organisms. In: Ishaaya I., Degheele D. (eds.) Insecticides with Novel Modes of Action. Springer, Berlin, Germany; 1998. p188-259. - 112.
Vapor Toxicity and Concentration Dependent Persistence of Buprofezin Applied to Cotton Foliage for Controlling the Sweet Potato Whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic EntomologyDe Cock A. Ishaaya I. Degheele D. Veierov D. 1990 83 1254 - 113.
Ascher KRS. Non-Conventional Insecticidal Effects of Pesticides Available from the Neem Tree,Azadirachta indica . Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology1993 22 433 - 114.
Mordue AJ, Simmonds MSJ, Ley SV, Blaney WM, Mordue W, Nasiruddin M, and Nisbet AJ. Actions of Azadirachtin, a Plant Allelochemical Against Insects. Pesticide Science 1998;54 277-284. - 115.
Side-Effects of Neem (Schmutterer H. Side Azadirachta indica ) Products on Insect Pathogens and Natural Enemies of Spider Mites and Insects. Journal of Applied Entomology 197;121 121 - 116.
Toxicity and Absorption of Azadirachtin, Diflubenzuron, Pyriproxyfen, and Tebufenozide after Topical Application in Predatory Larvae ofMedina P. Smagghe G. Budia F. Tirry L. Vinuela E. Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Environmental Entomology2003 32 196 - 117.
Medina P, Budia F, Del Estal P, Viñela E. Influence of Azadirachtin, a Botanical Insecticide, on Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) Reproduction: Toxicity and Ultrastructural Approach. Journal of Economic Entomology 2004;97 43-50. - 118.
Side-Effects of Three Neem (Tedeschi R. Alma A. Tavella L. Side Azadirachta indica A. Juss) Products on the PredatorMacrolophus caliginosus Wagner (Het., Miridae). Journal of Applied Entomology2001 125 397 - 119.
Spollen KM, Isman MB. Acute and Sublethal Effects of a Neem Insecticide on the Commercial Biological Control AgentsPhytoseiulus persimilis andAmblyseius cucumeris (Acari: Phytoseiidae) andAphidoletes aphidimyza (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology1996 89 1379 - 120.
Laboratory Evaluation of the Side Effects of Insecticides onStara J. Ourednickova J. Kocourek F. Aphidius colemani (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae),Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), andNeoseiulus cucumeris (Acari: Phytoseidae). Journal of Pesticide Science2011 84 25 - 121.
Toxicity of some Insecticides toCastagnoli M. Liguori M. Simoni S. Duso C. Tetranychus urticae ,Neoseiulus californicus andTydeus californicus . BioControl2005 50 611 - 122.
Cloyd RA, Timmons NR, Goebel JM, Kemp KE. Effect of Pesticides on Adult Rove BeetleAtheta coriaria (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) Survival in Growing Medium. Journal of Economic Entomology2009 102 1750 - 123.
Insect Growth Regulator Effects of Azadirachtin and Neem Oil on Survivorship, Development and Fecundity ofKraiss H. Cullen E. M. Aphis glycines (Homoptera: Aphididae) and its Predator,Harmonia axyrides (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Pest Management Science2008 64 660 - 124.
Banken JA, Stark JD. 1997 Stage and Age Influence on the Susceptibility ofCoccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) after Direct Exposure to Neemix, a Neem Insecticide. Journal of Economic Entomology 1997;90 1102 - 125.
Kayser H, Kaufmann L, Schurmann F, Harrewijn P. Pymetrozine (CGA 215’944): A Novel Compound for Aphid and Whitefly Control. An Overview of its Mode of Action. In: Proceedings of the 1994 Brighton Crop Protection Conference—Pests and Diseases 1994;2 737-742. - 126.
Harrewijn P. Kayser H. 1997 Pymetrozine, a Fast-Acting and Selective Inhibitor of Aphid Feeding.In-Situ Studies with Electronic Monitoring of Feeding Behavior. Pesticide Science 1997;49 130 - 127.
Fuog D, Fergusson SJ, Fluckiger C. Pymetrozine: A Novel Insecticide Affecting Aphids and Whiteflies. In: Ishaaya I., and Degheele D (eds.) Insecticides with Novel Modes of Action. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY; 1998. p40-49. - 128.
Hollingworth RM, Treacy MF. 2006 Classification and Properties of Commercial Insecticides and Acaricides. In: All JN., Treacy MF. (eds.) Use and Management of Insecticides, Acaricides, and Transgenic Crops. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN; 2006.36 67 - 129.
Morita M, Ueda T, Yoneda T, Koyanagi T, Haga T. Flonicamid, a Novel Insecticide with a Rapid Inhibitory Effect on Aphid Feeding. Pest Management Science 2007;63 969-973. - 130.
Side Effects of Flonicamid and Pymetrozine on Five Aphid Natural Enemy Species. BioControlJansen J. P. Defrance T. Warnier A. M. 2011 56 759 - 131.
Effect of Insecticides on Mealybug Destroyer (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and ParasitoidCloyd R. A. Dickinson A. Leptomastix dactylopii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), Natural Enemies of Citrus Mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Economic Entomology2006 99 1596 - 132.
Acute and Sublethal Activity of the Entomopathogenic FungusLacey L. A. Mesquita A. L. M. Mercadier G. Debire R. Kazmer D. J. Lecant F. Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) on AdultAphelinus asychis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Environmental Entomology1977 26 1452 - 133.
Kiselek EV. 1975 The Effect of Biopreparations on Insect Enemies. Zashchita Rastenii Moskva 175;12 23. - 134.
Marchal-Segault D. 1975 Susceptibility of the Hymenopterous BraconidsApanteles glomeratus andPhanerotoma glavitestacea to the Spore-Crystal Complex ofBacillus thuringiensis Berliner. Annales de Zoologic Ecologie Animale 1975;6 521 - 135.
Thoms EM, Watson TF. Effect of Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis ) on the Survival of Immature and AdultHyposoter exiguae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology1986 47 178 - 136.
Susceptibility of the Convergent Lady Beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to Four Entomogenous Fungi. Environmental EntomologyJames R. R. Lighthart B. 1994 23 190 192 - 137.
Bethke JA, Parrella MP. Compatibility of the Aphid FungusCephalosporium lecanii with the Leafminer Parasite,Diglyphus beginii (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist1989 65 385 - 138.
Medina P. Budia F. Tirry L. Smagghe G. Vinuela E. 2001 Compatibility of Spinosad, Tebufenozide and Azadirachtin with Eggs and Pupae of the PredatorChrysoperla carnea (Stephens) Under Laboratory Conditions. Biocontrol Science and Technology 2001;11 597 - 139.
Thompson GD, Dutton R, Sparks TC. Spinosad—a Case Study: an Example from Natural Products Discovery Programme. Pest Management Science 200;56 696-702. - 140.
Copping LG. The Biopesticide Manual. BCPC Publishing, Bracknell, UK;2001 - 141.
Galvan TL, Koch RL, Hutchison WD. Effects of Spinosad and Indoxacarb on Survival, Development, and Reproduction of the Multicolored Asian Lady Beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Biological Control2005 34 108 - 142.
Holt KM, Opit GP, Nechols JR, Margolies DC. Testing for Non-Target Effects of Spinosad on Twospotted Spider Mites and their PredatorPhytoseiulus persimilis under Greenhouse Conditions. Experimental and Applied Acarology2006 38 141 - 143.
Spinosad-a Naturally Derived Insect Control Agent with Potential for Use in Integrated Pest Management Systems in Greenhouses. In: Proceedings of the BCPC Conference-Pests and Diseases, November 13-16,Miles M. Dutton R. 2000 British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, Surrey, UK. Brighton, UK; 2000.339 344 - 144.
Is the Naturally Derived Insecticide Spinosad Compatible with Insect Natural Enemies? Biocontrol Science and TechnolnologyWilliams T. Valle J. Viñuela E. 2003 13 459 - 145.
Sublethal Effects of Fenpyroximate and Pyridaben on Two Predatory Mite Species,Park-J J. Kim M. Lee-H J. Shin-I K. Lee-E S. Kim-G J. Cho K. Neoseiulus womersleyi andPhytoseiulus persimilis (Acari, Phytoseiidae). Experimental and Applied Acarology2011 54 243 - 146.
Kim SS, Paik CH. Comparative Toxicity of Fenpyroximate to the Predatory Mite,Amblyseius womersleyi Schicha and the Kanzawa Spider Mite,Tetranychus kanzawai Kishida (Acarina: Phytoseiidae, Tetranychidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology1996 31 369 - 147.
Sublethal Effects of Fenpyroximate on Life Table Parameters of the Predatory MiteHamedi N. Fathipour Y. Saber M. Phytoseius plumifer . BioControl2010 55 271 - 148.
Effects of Fungicide Residues on the Survival, Fecundity, and Predation of the MitesAlston D. G. Thomson S. V. Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) andGalendromus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology2004 97 950 - 149.
Selective Toxicity of Pesticides to the Predatory Mite,Ahn K. Lee S. Y. Lee K. Y. Lee Y. S. Kim G. H. Phytoseiulus persimilis and Control Effects of the Two-Spotted Spider Mite,Tetranychus urticae by Predatory Mite and Pesticide Mixture on Rose. Korean Journal of Applied Entomology2004 43 71 - 150.
Kim SS, Yoo SS. Comparative Toxicity of some Acaricides to the Predatory Mite,Phytoseiulus persimilis and the Twospotted Spider Mite,Tetranychus urticae . BioControl2002 47 563 - 151.
Kim SS, Seo SG. Relative Toxicity of some Acaricides to the Predatory Mite,Amblyseius womersleyi and the Twospotted Spider Mite,Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Phytoseiidae, Tetranychidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology2001 36 509 - 152.
Susceptibility of Two Strains ofAngeli G. Ioriatti C. Amblyseius andersoni Chant. (Acari: Phytoseiidae) to Dithiocarbamate Fungicides. Experimental and Applied Acarology1994 18 669 - 153.
Nakashima MJ, Croft BA. Toxicity of Benomyl to the Life Stages ofAmblyseius fallacis . Journal of Economic Entomology1974 67 675 - 154.
Toxicity of Six Novel Fungicides and Sulphur toBostanian N. J. Thistlewood H. M. A. Hardman J. M. Racette G. Galendromus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Experimental and Applied Acarology2009 47 63 - 155.
Effects of Five Fungicides used in Quebec Apple Orchards onBostanian N. J. Thistlewood H. Racette G. Amblyseius fallacis (Garman) (Phytoseiidae: Acari). Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology1998 73 527 - 156.
Hoy MA, Cave FE. Laboratory Evaluation of Avermectin as a Selective Acaricide for use withMetaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt) (Acarina: Phytoseiidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology1985 39 401 - 157.
Ecological Theory and Integrated Pest Management Practice. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY;Kogan M. 1986 - 158.
Stark JD, Jeppson PC, Mayer DF. Limitations to use of Topical Toxicity Data for Predictions of Pesticide Side Effects in the Field. Journal of Economic Entomology1995 88 1081 - 159.
Villanuéva-Jimenez JA, Hoy MA. Toxicity of Pesticides to the Citrus Leaf Miner and its ParasitoidAgeniaspis citricola Evaluated to Assess their Suitability for an IPM Program in Citrus Nurseries. BioControl1998 43 357 - 160.
Dahl GH, Lowell JR. Microencapsulated Pesticides and their Effects on Non-Target Insects. In: Scher HB. (ed.) Advances in Pesticide Formulation Technology. American Chemistry Society, Washington, D. C. USA;1984 141 150 - 161.
Stevens PJG. Organosilicone Surfactants as Adjuvants for Agrochemicals. Pesticide Science1993 38 103 - 162.
Aphicidal Effects of Silwet L-77, Organosilicone Nonionic Surfactant. Applied Entomology and ZoologyImai T. Tsuchiya S. Fujimori T. 1995 30 380 - 163.
Control of Pecan Aphids with an Organosilicone Surfactant. HortScienceWood B. W. Tedders W. L. Taylor J. 1997 32 1074 - 164.
Inert” Formulation Ingredients with Activity: Toxicity of Trisilioxane Surfactant Solutions to Twospotted Spider Mites (Acari: Tetranychidae). Journal of Economic EntomologyCowles R. S. Cowles E. A. Mc Dermott A. M. Ramoutar D. “. 2000 93 180 - 165.
Alix A. Cortesero A. M. Nénon J. P. Anger J. P. 2001 Selectivity Assessment of Chlorfenvinphos Reevaluated by including Physiological and Behavioral Effects on an Important Beneficial Insect. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2001;20 2530