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1. Introduction
Soils are considered as a dynamic system that contains varieties of microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi [1]. According to this richness in microorganisms, the eco-biological value of soil is considered. Whereas, maintaining this favorable soil microflora is very important for soil sustainability [2].
In the other hand, arid lands constitute about 35% of world land areas and are characterized by rainfall insufficiency, higher temperatures and evapotranspiration, lower humidity, and a general rareness of vegetation cover [3]. In return, a large mass of world’s population lives in these areas, which it is imperative to nourish them. They practice livestock grazing and irrigated agriculture that they try to modernize in order to obtain the best yield. However, the agricultural techniques used in recent decades (use of large quantities of chemical inputs, soil compaction, etc.) which have caused in addition to soil degradation the decrease or even elimination of certain beneficial microorganisms from most cultivated soils, which has contributed to the loss of productivity of these soils [4]. This destitution requires regular additions in order to revitalize the soil and restore its productivity [2]. But what type of fertility for the soil? In agronomy, the notion of fertilization includes application of various chemicals products such as NPK chemical formulation, pesticides and herbicides, which further degrade the soil and reduce their duration [5]. In fact, modern agriculture are based on heavy usage of chemical fertilizers and harmful pesticides on the crops, with destruction of sustainability of the agricultural systems, cost of cultivation soared at a high rate, income of farmers stagnated and food security and safety became an intimidating challenge with considerable reduction in soil health [6]. In the best of cases where there is an interest in ecological stability, animal and plant waste is applied to fertilize the soils [5]. Recently bio-fertilizers notion begins to emerge. Bio-fertilizers are biological fertilizers based on symbiotic microorganisms. They are mainly divided into two groups: bio-fertilizers based on symbiotic bacteria and bio-fertilizers based on mycorrhizal fungi [7].
Bio-fertilizers are biological fertilizers based on plant symbiotic microorganisms, they are defined as a substance composed of living microorganisms which when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the availability of primary nutrients to the host plant [6]. Usually, the bio-fertilizers are mainly divided into two groups: bio-fertilizers based on symbiotic bacteria and bio-fertilizers based on mycorrhizal fungi. Moreover, the presence in nature of bacteria solubilizing mineral elements is exploited; they are cultivated and used as a bio-fertilizer [4]. Furthermore, mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers are divided on two types depending on the fungus itself; there are bio-fertilizers based on ectomycorrhizal fungi and bio-fertilizers based on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) promote a significant increase of the area of root absorption of plants colonized, maximizing the use of water and nutrients [8, 9]. These symbiotic fungi enhance plant resistance to water stress, to high temperatures, improve resistance to conditions of toxicity and acidity of soil and to divers’ type of pathogens [8]. In addition to soil stabilization in the form of aggregates [9]. AMF are known for their positive effects on phosphorus assimilation by the mineralization of organic phosphorus and solubilization of insoluble phosphorus [10]. In spite of their potential and benefits, the large-scale use of AMFs is still restricted, mainly due to the deficiency of availability of inoculant in high quantities, low cost and high quality, besides the lack of practicality of inoculation in the field [9, 11]. Their efficiency is also questioned by some authors [12, 13], who claim that AMF indigenous community promotes greater root colonization than the addition of commercial inoculants. In this context, the present study, aims to lift the veil on bio-fertilizers based on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to ameliorate agriculture in arid lands, their agro-ecological roles, technic of production and the challenges of possibility of installing a bio-fertilizer production unit in these areas.
2. Importance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers
Arbuscular mycorrhizas are the most common underground mutualistic symbiosis relationship [8]. They are considered as obligate biotrophic organisms that live in the metabolically active roots of terrestrial vascular plants, epiphytes, rhizoids and stems of bryophytes [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 14]. Studies showed that AMF exists 460 million years before first plants originated [2, 15]. They form a mutualistic symbiosis between AMF, belonging to the Glomeromycotina sub-phylum, and 80% of land plant species [8]. AMF are endophytic fungi with intra-radical hyphae that penetrate inside cortical cell and/or the root epidermis [7]. During this fungi and plant interaction, dialogues at molecular level take place, which result in host’s metabolic modifications, protection against environmental stresses, and providing friendly conditions to symbiont (fungi) [2]. Arbuscules are formed by endomycorrhizal hyphae within the plant cortical cells and are highly branched, and mature arbuscules have short life and survive for 4–5 days. Arbuscules are considered as functional site for nutrient exchange [8]. These fungi benefit their hosts by increasing the uptake of nutrient elements (especially P) and enhancing the resistance to biotic or abiotic stresses [1, 7]. So far, a large number of publications demonstrated that AMF are an important regulator of the plants performance in different stressed environment (Table 1) such as heavy metal contained soils [20, 22], saline soils [13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 23], soil subjected to drought stress [24]. AMF are also identified as regulator of biotic stress [21]. AMF association with plants not only improves plant growth but also improves soil texture by changing soil particles into stable aggregates that ultimately resists against wind and water erosion [15]. Mycorrhizal association is also helpful to introduce new plant species in new areas, occurring them ability to survive in a new environmental conditions [23]. Moreover, colonization of root by AMF can arise three sources of inoculum: spores, infected root and hyphae, collectively termed propagules [8].
Impact of AMF bio-fertilizers to alleviate biotic and abiotic stress.
As well as, with the emergence of sustainable development context the application of AMF bio-fertilizers starts to widen. It is assumed therefore, that the judicious use of these natural inoculants can reduce the need to amend soil with chemical fertilizers, thus increasing the viability of sustainable agriculture [15, 18]. Figure 1 illustrates the role played by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in plant life cycle.
Figure 1.
Role and importance of AMF symbiosis in plant life.
Thus selection of inoculum source constitutes an important parameter for the plantation successful. In fact, the response of AMF to abiotic stresses divers on the level of fungal species or ecotype; it was proven that indigenous strain occurs more beneficial effect into mitigates divers abiotic stress such as water deficiency, saline stress and heavy metals conditions by enhancing the active absorptive surface area which ultimately stimulates the uptake of water and nutrients [13, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23].
3. Production of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers
The commercial history of bio-fertilizers began with the launch of ‘Nitragin’ by Nobbe and Hiltner, a laboratory culture of Rhizobia in 1895, followed by the discovery of Azotobacter and then the blue green algae (BGA) and a host of other micro-organisms. Azospirillum and Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are fairly new discoveries [6]. Industrial manufacturing of AMF as crop inoculants is relatively new and, despite the practical demonstrations of their efficiency, their adoption by crop producers has been slow, most likely due to the quality and efficiency of marketed products [11]. In fact, production of previously selected AMF for their use as bio-fertilizers began in the decade of 1990 in a large part of the world [25]. Few companies throughout the world have manufactured and commercialized AMF inoculant using either a single AMF species or mixtures of AMF species that may include plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) or other symbiotic and/or biocontrol fungi [11].
The production of inoculum differs from fungi family to another. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are strict obligatory symbionts, they dependent on the presence of a host plant to accomplish their development and their multiplication. The inoculum producer is then required to co-cultivate the “fungus-host plant” complex. Without the use of host plants it would be impossible to complete the mycorrhizal life cycle until the production of new propagules/spores [7]. In addition to this monosporic inoculant, it is possible to produce inoculant with different native species with greater ease and speed [7]. In comparison with the commercial inoculant, it has a low cost, higher taxonomic diversity, and the use of locally adapted species [25, 26], which increases the chances of positive effects on the plant and avoid the introduction of exotic species [27]. The use of AMF inoculant produced from the forest soil is the most reliable and recommended method because of its high species diversity, the potential to accelerate the ecological restoration of the soil environment and to promote the germination and growth of the plants [9, 25, 26, 27].
3.1 Conventional method of AMF bio-fertilizers production
This method consists on AMF multiplication on pot culture with selective host plant under controlled conditions in a greenhouse or in a grow room [7].
3.1.1 Mixture of AMF species bio-fertilizers production
Native soil sampled from different plots of same natural sites must be mixed together to create one composite sample. The obtained mixture was distributed into pots (500 mL disposable cups) which were sown with trapping plant aiming to multiply and restore infective structures of the AMF species present in the trap cultures [27], and then kept in a greenhouse for four month. Two plant species are commonly used for trapping culture: cover “Trifolum repens” and leek “Allium porrum” [7, 27], But use of other legumes is also permitted such as Alfalfa “Medicago sativa [13] Brachiaria sp. [27]. Once the four month over, the areal part of plants is catted and the soils are mixed with roots for preparing a new plantation for other four months. Simultaneously, at each month, one pot of each plot was taken for analysis, using 50 g of soil for AMF spore isolation and identification and the roots for evaluation of the mycorrhizal colonization rate [26, 27]. A minimum of 12 months is required to obtain a good product, but the ideal is 24 months [13, 20]. Therefore, the obtained inoculums consist of different types of propagules: spores, fungal mycelium and fragments of mycorrhizal roots [7]. Multi-species products are closer to natural conditions because in ecosystems it is rare to encounter only one species of mycorrhizal fungus. The presence of several fungal species allows the inoculum to respond to a greater diversity of culture conditions.
3.1.2 Monospecific AMF species bio-fertilizers production
Production of monospecific AMF bio-fertilizer is based on the use of one selective AMF spore species isolated from natural soil using wet saving method [28], and cultivated on trapping culture with appropriate plant species on pot culture of 15 cm. Three months are needs to obtain AMF multiplication. Verification of AMF sporulation must be done each 20 days to one month. At same sanitary tests can also be performed to ensure that no contamination by parasitic fungi or sporulation of other AMF species has occurred. After four months, monospecific spores are ready for inoculation on seedlings of desired crops. In fact, [29] reported that Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) is the best host for mass multiplication of Glomus fasciculatum. Bahia grass (Paspalum notatum) was used for multiplication of Glomus deserticola [27].
3.2 In vitro technic of AMF bio-fertilizers production
In vitro technic is an aseptic multiplication of AMF on roots cultivated on synthetic medium under sterile conditions. However, this technic started with the early work of [30], and subsequent development by [31, 32] and just after by [33], these authors developed the monoxenic cultivation system to produce contaminant-free AMF, allowing the realization of large-scale production under strictly controlled conditions [34]. The In vitro production of AMF bio-fertilizers consist on the extraction of potential viable propagules from soils with surface sterilization before optimization of growth conditions for germination under aseptic conditions. This aseptic technic consists on cultivation of number of AMF species in association with transformed host roots on synthetic growth medium [33]. Chabot et al. [35] established cultures from surface sterilized spores as starter material and produced 750 spores in 30 ml medium after a period of 4 months of growth in a mono-compartmental petri plate system. This is followed by the association of the propagules with a suitable excised host root for propagule production and recovery. Another system of in vitro AMF multiplication was developed by St Arnaud et al. [36], they used a bi-compartmental Petri plate system and obtained 15,000 spores in 3–4 months. Douds [37] improved this bi-compartmental system by replacing the medium in the distal compartment by fresh medium at regular intervals and obtained 65,000 spores in the distal side of the bi-compartment in a period of 7 months [34]. This technic of bi-compartment petri plate permitted to produce more than 250,000 propagules in 10 ml of medium, which made this technology attractive for industry. However, many process controls must be done to reduce the level of contamination, what should not exceed 3–5% [7, 34]. Once the AMF product is obtained; mass-produced propagules are then formulated in an utilizable form and stored before application to the target plant [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37]. This technic facilitates the efficient utilization of space and energy in the production system, using solid-state fermentation. Since the technology is more dependent on personnel, it lowers the number of man-days and achieves higher productivity [34].
The use of this technology remains useful for in vitro laboratory tests, but the mycorrhizal inoculum thus obtained (artificial environment on genetically modified roots) is not suited to applications in the agricultural field, providing overall unsatisfactory results [4].
3.3 Production of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers in arid lands
Both conventional method and in vitro methods are practiced in arid areas to produce AMF bio-fertilizers. Several researches was focused on the increasing of plant production in arid land using AMF inoculum (Table 2), conventional method with AMF mixture was the most important technic of production adopted. Nevertheless, in vitro technic was also practiced such as by the energy and resource institute of India (TERI) [34]. They based on the faculty of Glomus genus to provide the possibility of using colonized roots as inoculum material with up to 80% of root colonization attained at 4 and 12 weeks [34, 39]. Despite, arid lands are often localized in underdeveloped country with low economical budget who cannot afford to allot enormous amounts in order to produce bio-fertilizers, so the conventional method remains the most appropriate technique under these conditions. In addition ecological conditions of arid lands give them specific characteristics that are not accommodating with all AMF strain. For that production of native AMF bio-fertilizers adapted to local conditions and to specific abiotic stress is essential [13]. Labidi et al. [39] developed a native AMF bio-fertilizer adapted to calcareous arid Tunisians soils. Abdelsalam et al. [38] produced AMF inoculum of desert saoudian areas using Sorghum halepense as trapping plant. Bencherif et al. [13] developed a specific AMF bio-fertilizer for arid saline soils. It is noted that in all case, efficiency of AMF bio-fertilizers is related to the better combination AMF genotype/host plant genotype/adaptation to specific abiotic stress [13, 27].
Inoculum production technic
Specific abiotic stress/zone
Propagule richness
Infection level
References
Conventional method
Drought stress/Saoudian areas
20 g of Sudan grass rhizosphere with 950mycorrhizal spores and 0.5 g of colonized roots
To have AMF bio-fertilizer produced at a large scale with low cost, studies has been developed to test the multiplication of AMF spores under field conditions, called the “on-farm method”. These studies explore AMF colonization with strains isolates that are environmentally adapted to native environmental conditions, which potentially representing a low-cost alternative for farmers [26, 37]. This technic is based on sowing plants seeds or seedlings in intact soil cores or mixed soil samples for sufficient time to allow development of AMF symbiosis and then roots were sampled, processed and assessed to measure mycorrhiza formation [26]. Indeed, [41] showed that multiplication on-farm with Rhizophagus clarus and Claroideoglomus etunicatum grown in agro-industrial residues, such as sugarcane bagasse, is a good strategy for the multiplication of AMF, leading to excellent inoculum potential and large numbers of spores. As well as, the on-farm technic allows farmers and nursery workers to access inoculums with the most effective AMF strains for their culture and their soil and climate conditions; furthermore, they can produce seedlings already inoculated with adapted AMF strains, which enhancing their establishment of s in the field conditions. In addition Moreira et al. [26] produced AMF inoculum with Rhizophagus clarus, Claroideoglomus etunicatum species, and native AMF from pineapple and coffee plantations, using spores multiplied by the on-farm method to enhance the growth of pineapple and coffee plantlets. These authors concluded that AMF inoculum favorite growth of the commercial tested crops with a high viability of AMF spores. This method is recommended for arid land due to their specific AMF strain and low coast, it could be applied and generalized in order to developing agricultural practices in these areas. Furthermore, because fungi carry different amounts of nutrients for plants, they may affect the growth of plants differently [37], it is preferable to use mixed AMF strains adapted to native conditions which could maximize the absorption of limiting nutrients [26]. This phenomenon could provide more benefits compared to colonization with exotic AMF strains or with single AMF species. Moreover, the mixed inoculation of AMF might have the characteristic of complementarity, exploiting the best of each species that colonizes the plant [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41].
3.4 Formulation of AMF bio-fertilizers
Formulation technologies largely take care of possible adverse environmental effects and factors that may render the inoculum ineffective [34]. In fact, bio-fertilizers are generally prepared as liquid suspension or more generally solid support containing different types of propagules: spores, fungal mycelium, mycorrhizal root fragments [7]. Generally AMF bio-fertilizers are presented with multi AMF species, which are closer to natural conditions; because in natural ecosystems it is rare to encounter only one species of mycorrhizal fungus. The presence of several fungal species allows the inoculum to respond to a greater diversity of culture conditions [13, 39]. Bio-fertilizer support can be composed of peat, vermiculite, lignite powder, clay, talc, rice bran, granulated rock phosphate, charcoal, soil, straw compost of rice or wheat otherwise a mixture of these materials. In current practice, for better framework life of the bio-fertilizer formulation, the support is selected on the basis of the viability of the microorganisms mixed with them. Likewise, the pre-sterilization of the support and its nutrient enrichment is the other strategy to improve framework, allowing AMF to be maintained in a non-competitive microenvironment. Sucrose, maltose, trehalose, molasses, glucose, and glycerol are additional nutrients and cell-protecting agents commonly used along with a support to ensure maximum cell viability and extended shelf life [4, 39]. After production, AMF bio-fertilizer may be in the form of granules, powder, tablets, pralins, or liquid suspension:
The micro granules, between 1 and 4 mm, are easily mixed with support of mycorrhizal plants or brought into the planting surface as close as possible to the roots;
Very fine powders (particles <250 μm) make it possible to prepare a suspension which can be sprayed on growing media or injected into the soil at the base of plants already installed. This type of inoculum can also be used as a seed coating.
The tablets allow easy dosing of the inoculum to be placed in the plantation area. The inoculum provided is localized in one place and not distributed evenly over the roots.
Associated with a praline, the inoculum is particularly suitable for plants with bare roots. In a single operation, the plant is inoculated and its roots protected.
Liquid suspensions are suitable for coating seeds. These inocula can also be sprayed on growing media or injected into the soil at the base of plants [4, 5, 6, 7, 39].
The formulated AMF bio-fertilizers should be positioned near the roots, with avoiding the spreading products and favor the injection or burying method. Finally, it is also possible to produce “2 in 1” products:
Inoculated planting support, ready to use and particularly suitable for soil-less culture,
Pre-inoculated plants (vine, chestnut, etc.) ready for planting and whose mycorrhization has been checked before marketing,
Seeds coated with AMF propagules (mainly spores) which make it possible to spread and inoculate a plot in a single pass,
Organic fertilizers and amendments containing AMF propagules [7].
4. Design of AMF bio-fertilizer production unit
The aim of our present study is to set up a production unit for AMF bio-fertilizers, which has the advantage of covering the biological deficit of arid soils, a problem which continues to degenerate more and more. Indeed, the installation of a bio-fertilizer unit must follow some criteria such as: appropriate production, location, construction space, equipment, machinery, other laboratory equipment and working capital. The bio-fertilizer production unit should be founded in a homogeneous area based on the interaction of soil characteristics, geomorphology and climate. This place should be qualified as a buffer to reduce the risk of contamination during the process of production and quality control. The overall architecture of the unit is the key element for the success of any economic project. In our case, the bio-fertilizer production unit must be organized in an H-shaped architecture (Figure 2). This comes, according to Alamari [4], This author explained that this structure is based on the fact of its economical aspect and its ability to adapt to the sterilization process with forward walking, in other words from the “soiled”, to go towards the “clean” and then towards the “sterile”, without possibility of going back and without crossing of flows of “soiled” and “clean”. The unit must contain administration, laboratories, storage and packing space.
Figure 2.
Conventional method for production of mixed AMF bio-fertilizers.
4.1 Administration
The administrative team must ensure the respect of directives and guidelines in addition to external relations allowing the best conditions for the scientific team to carry out their work. To achieve these objectives, different tasks must be implemented: (i) Preparation, application and management of the budget and control of its execution; (ii) Establishment of contracts and agreements with different organizations in the same field, while taking care of calls for submissions and the various procedures for procuring equipment; (iii) Physical and telephonic reception is provided; in addition to management of the staff and personnel of the unity by application and monitoring of health and safety guidelines.
4.2 Laboratories
The setting up of a laboratory should meet the criteria approved by the World Health Organization (WHO). A laboratory should be built with walls, ceilings and horizontal surfaces, non-polished, easy to clean, impermeable to liquids and resistant to disinfectants and to antiseptics. Then, to ensure the best work conditions, the laboratory areas must be spacious [42]. In addition, the laboratory must contain:
Mechanical ventilation system ensuring interior air movement without recycling;
Electricity must be sufficiently powerful with an emergency restart system in the event of blackouts;
The town gas supply must be appropriate and protected.
Presence of the cleaning tank with emergency shower next to each laboratory door, with installation of physical protection and fire safety systems.
Finally, providing enough materiel resources and space for treatment and safe storage of solvents, radioactive substances as well as compressed and liquefied gases.
The production unit laboratory of AMF bio-fertilizer must contain three compartments: (i) Greenhouse for AMF inoculum multiplication; (ii) In vitro multiplication and strains isolation rooms; and (iii) compartment of control, conditioning and storage.
4.2.1 Greenhouse AMF multiplication
The greenhouse for AMF multiplication must be positioned behind the unit occupying a clear space with 204 m2 of approximately area. The greenhouse is used to care for young host plants and to maximize crop productivity by improving the relationship between their growth and AMF biomass. Greenhouse is the most important compartment of the unit, so the geographical location may have to be considered. The attractive location must be related to the adaptability and value of the land, cost of fuel delivered, ample and inexpensive water, in response of number of question: (i) What is the yearly available solar energy? (ii) How much moisture falls, summer and winter? (iii) What are the maximum and minimum temperatures and their duration? (vi) What are the hail and wind belts?(v) Is air pollution a potential problem? (vi) Information on all of the foregoing questions allows the greenhouse operator to determine the degree to which he can maintain near optimum environmental conditions for plant growth and AMF multiplication [43]. Wind is important climatic problem in arid lands, so the wind direction plays an important role in the choice of unit implantation site. So, orientation of the greenhouse is a compromise for wind direction, latitude of location and type of temperature control [44]. After site choice, the greenhouse must follow some recommendations. The greenhouse must be constructed in glass farmed structure on double-sloped with a naturally exposition of natural light for much of the day. In addition, heat is partly assured by sun rays paired with artificial means, such as circulating steam, hot water, or hot air. Ventilating system is also needed [43, 44]. For low coast, the ventilation must be assured by roof openings and large windows on the side, which can functioned mechanically or automatically. In some conditions, if a financial condition allows automatic ventilation system is installed. For the AMF multiplication, trapping culture must be done in pots or in specialized containers. In this setting, trapping cultures are grown for 3 to 4 months to minimize the accumulation of saprophytes in the medium for excessive growth and senescence of the roots. However, culture maintained for more than 5 months and regulated watering is recommended before areal part cutting and replantation of new seeds as explained above (3.1.1).
4.2.2 In vitro multiplication room
It represent an aseptic areas separated from the greenhouse and the AMF isolation room in order to avoid any contamination and to control sterility conditions as much as possible.
4.2.3 Drying and conditioning room
This area is located just before the greenhouse; it is used to dry the contents of the pots and containers for later conditioning. Once the trapping plants are ready to be harvested, they are moved to shelves in this area so that they are not exposed to light. Drying take about 2 to 3 weeks. After this period, the roots of the trapping plants are cut and mixed with a suitable substrate. Conditioning AMF inocula begins by placing the cultures in sealed bags. These bags are provided with codes written both on the surface and on labels affixed to the upper left corner of the crops so that they are easily identified when stacking. In addition, an organization in alphabetical order of cultures is also recommended.
4.2.4 AMF strain isolation room
Isolation room is completely isolated from all plant growing areas and the use of unsterilized soil is strictly prohibited. Isolation is practiced as follows: The contents of the dried pots are installed on grounds. The isolation of the spores from the sample is done by wet sieving method [28]. This technic of isolation is practiced in order to produce bio-fertilizer containing AMF spores. In addition isolated AMF strains are conserved in order to develop further research. During the AMF isolation process, a series of precautions must be observed, especially disinfection of surface area of isolation, tables and shelves with draying after cleaning. Asepsis is main condition for the success of this crucial stage of the AMF bio-fertilizer production.
4.2.5 Control room
This space is used for carrying a series of bio-fertilizer control tests. These tests include AMF spores count with microscopic examination, evaluation of AMF root colonization rate and elaboration of must probable number test. AMF spores number must vary between 10 and 15 pots per day. Once extracted, the spores are transported in glass Petri dishes and stored in the laboratory refrigerator. Indeed, the examination is carried out by a stereo microscope on the day of the extraction. The information thus retrieved is stored in a database and all written notes are archived as a physical backup. Systematically, all the files having processed the culture collection are stored centrally on the unit’s web server, saved on a separate hard drive on the same computer, and stored on another computer in the laboratory.
4.2.6 Storage room
The storage is done at an atmosphere of 4°C at the level of the shelves of metal racks. These are characterized by mesh surfaces to optimize air circulation and facilitating their cleaning. The racks are placed in the center of the room and equipped with wheels to facilitate their movement. The storage period can reach a maximum of 3 years [4]. Bio-fertilizer storage process requires certain recommendations mainly: bag surface and their labels must be cleaned and disinfected before they are placed in this room. Floors and shelves are regularly disinfected. AMF bio-fertilizer product should be stored in a corner of the laboratory where the air temperature is not detrimental to the viability of AMF propagules.
5. AMF bio-fertilizers challenges of production and application on agricultural projects of arid lands
5.1 Why produce native AMF bio-fertilizers for arid lands?
Arid lands constitute the most widespread terrestrial biome in earth, with 35% of the land areas of the world. These areas are subjected to several desertification phenomena [3]. To counteract this problem, applications of new agricultural technics are required including application of bio-fertilizers. Nevertheless, the use of AMF for the restoration of degraded ecosystems has received poor attention, requiring a different approach [25]. In addition, loss of AMF propagules is usually recorded following soil and cover plant degradation, which could further inhibit natural and/or artificial revegetation processes [3, 25]. Taking into account all the previously cited aspects and the necessity of restoration in these areas, the eco-technology proposed by some studies [13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25] represents a good alternative. They propose the restoration of degraded areas by re-introduction of native AMF and plant species [25].
5.2 How produce native AMF bio-fertilizer unit?
Production of native AMF bio-fertilizers unit require appropriate funding with adoption of a good financing strategy, based on various technical-economic parameters including description of the income elements and those of the expenses (Table 3). Indeed, the elements of income include the sale of bio-fertilizers, remunerations, publicity and assurance. Table 4 describes all the expenses and revenues provided by the bio-fertilizer production unit.
Space
Surface (m2)
Realization coast ($)
Reception
35.61
91,873,800
Conferences room
31.91
82,327,800
Manager’s office
17.3
44,634,000
Engineers office
56.02
144,531,600
Storage room
55.13
13,235,400
Isolation room
40.55
104,619,000
Multiplication room
61.88
524,436,600
Conditioning room
64.6
1,666,668,000
Quality Control room
97.99
252,814,200
AMF greenhouse multiplication
203.27
655,545,750
Sales office
41.63
107,405,400
Store checkout
44.34
114,397,200
Changing room and toilets
73.23
188,933,400
Total
823,46
3,991,422,150
Table 3.
Realization coast of native AMF bio-fertilizers unit.
Expenses ($)
Incomes
Investment costs
Construction field
65,000/m2 in average
24$/kg of Native AMF bio-fertilizer
Construction
4,000,000,000
Technical installation
40,000
Materials
100,000
Tools
100,000
Transport
100,000
Production charge
Raw material production
13,500,000
Packaging
9,030,000
Salaries
Varied between 3,225,000 and 10,320,000/employee
Repair and maintenance
10%
Insurance
10% of the operating budget
Publicity
10%
Supplementary charge
2–3%
Total
850 milliards of dollars of investment
12900 millions of dollars /year
Table 4.
Expenses and revenues of native AMF bio-fertilizers unit.
5.3 Economical challenge of native AMF bio-fertilizer production?
Production of native AMF production is an agro-industrial investment for each arid region, in some case the product may be exported to similar edapho-climatic areas. Designed production and marketing chain must support each unit in order to guarantee the success of the project. In Table 4 we have tried to establish an approximate economic study which will allow the investors to have an idea on the economic situation of the project, but these figures may vary from one country to another. The main thing is to ensuring the success of the plant development, potentiates the in situ conservation of the AMF community and preservation of ecosystem stability and biodiversity (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Representative plan of AMF production unit on H form (Adapted from Alamri [4] description).
In absence of information about the stapes and strategies of native AMF bio-fertilizer unit, these information given in Tables 3 and 4 can help in understanding and progressing of this strategy and its application in degraded arid lands for development of sustainable agriculture.
6. Conclusion
Arid land has specific ecological characteristics that confer them special management strategies. As same the different soil throughout the world, soil of arid land present a diversity of AMF that may be exploited to enhance agriculture in these areas. For that in the present chapter we have exposed the most important technic of AMF bio-fertilizer production based on native AMF strains. Founded on what has been explained, recommending the use of conventional pot culture technic present the adequate method adapted for arid lands. We have also given an approximate economical evaluation for coast of building and installing native AMF production unit in arid lands. The conventional method includes optimization of scale of production while using the adequate trap plant, law-coast and environmentally safe. With this technology, the preservation of environment from chemical fertilizer pollution must be enhanced, which lead to economic development of agro-industry adapted for each country with operative system for sustainable agriculture.
Acknowledgments
Authors thank every person helps to realize this work.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"degraded areas, native inocula, industrial production strategies, agro-economic benefits, conventional method",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73868.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73868.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73868",totalDownloads:340,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"September 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 2nd 2020",datePublished:"July 28th 2021",dateFinished:"November 2nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Bio-fertilizers based on mycorrhizal fungi represent a natural way to enrich the soil in respect of environmental balance. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are the most common symbiotic association between terrestrial plants and microorganisms, which are known to improve plants development and growth, especially under stress conditions. The potential for application of AMF in agricultures is an agro-ecological approach to allow better use of soil nutrient reserves. That receives increasing consideration for their prospective application for sustainable agriculture. The present chapter aims to highlight the agro-industrial strategy of AMF bio-fertilizers production explaining agronomics, ecological and economic approaches and benefits. This study aims to focus on the importance of production of bio-fertilizers based on indigenous AMF strains and their role in improving soils enrichment, which will subsequently lead to improved production and agricultural yields on degraded arid soils.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73868",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73868",signatures:"Bencherif Karima and Therrafi Samia",book:{id:"10249",type:"book",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi",subtitle:"Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry",fullTitle:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry",slug:"mycorrhizal-fungi-utilization-in-agriculture-and-forestry",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",bookSignature:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10249.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-941-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-940-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-942-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"219072",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramalingam",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"ramalingam-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"106480",title:"Mrs.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Bencherif",fullName:"Karima Bencherif",slug:"karima-bencherif",email:"bencherif_karima@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universitaire Ziane Achour de Djelfa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"330040",title:"Mrs.",name:"Terrafi",middleName:null,surname:"Samia",fullName:"Terrafi Samia",slug:"terrafi-samia",email:"samaislamth94@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Importance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Production of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Conventional method of AMF bio-fertilizers production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Mixture of AMF species bio-fertilizers production",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Monospecific AMF species bio-fertilizers production",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 In vitro technic of AMF bio-fertilizers production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Production of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi bio-fertilizers in arid lands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.3.1 On-farm method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Formulation of AMF bio-fertilizers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Design of AMF bio-fertilizer production unit",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 Administration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2 Laboratories",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.2.1 Greenhouse AMF multiplication",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.2 In vitro multiplication room",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.3 Drying and conditioning room",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.2.4 AMF strain isolation room",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.2.5 Control room",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.2.6 Storage room",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. AMF bio-fertilizers challenges of production and application on agricultural projects of arid lands",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.1 Why produce native AMF bio-fertilizers for arid lands?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.2 How produce native AMF bio-fertilizer unit?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.3 Economical challenge of native AMF bio-fertilizer production?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sellosse MA. La symbiose: structure et fonction, Rôle écologique et évolutif. Ed Vuibert. 2000:138'},{id:"B2",body:'Sellosse MA. Jamais seul: ces microbes qui construisent les plantes, les animaux et les civilisations. Ed Actes Sud. 2017:357'},{id:"B3",body:'Tchakerian VP, Deserts PP, In D. Developments in Earth Surface Processes. Elsevier (eds). 2015;19:449-472 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63369-9.00014-8'},{id:"B4",body:'Alamari R. Installation d\'une unité de production de biofertilisants. Mémoire d’ingéniorat en agronomie. Institut national agronomique de Tunisie. 2016:74'},{id:"B5",body:'Meddich A, Oufdou K, Boutasknit A, Raklami A, Tahiri A, Ben-Laouane R, et al. Baslam M. Use of Organic and Biological Fertilizers as Strategies to Improve Crop Biomass, Yields and Physicochemical Parameters of Soil. 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Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal infections in root organ cultures. Physiological Plant Pathology. 1975;5:215-223'},{id:"B31",body:'Strullu GD, Romand C. Méthodes d’obtention d’endomycorrhizes à vésicules et arbuscules en conditions axéniques. C R Acad Sci Paris. 1986;303:245-250'},{id:"B32",body:'Strullu GD, Romand C. Culture axénique de vésicules isolées à partir d’endomycorrhizes et réassociation in vitro à des racines de tomate. C R Acad Sci Paris. 1987;305:15-19'},{id:"B33",body:'Bécard G, Fortin JA. Early events of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal formation on Ri T-DNA transformed roots. The New Phytologist. 1988;108:211-218'},{id:"B34",body:'Adholeya A, Tiwari P, Singh R. Large-Scale Inoculum Production of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Root Organs and Inoculation Strategies. In: by S, editor. Soil Biology, Volume 4 In Vitro Culture of Mycorrhizas. Declerck: D.-G. Strullu, and A. Fortin). Springer; 2005. pp. 315-338'},{id:"B35",body:'Chabot S, Becard G, Piche Y. 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Journée Nationale sur la valorisation des résultats de la Recherche dans le domaine des Grandes Cultures Tunis. In: le 17 avril. 2014'},{id:"B40",body:'Sidhoum W, Fortas Z. Growth and mycorrhizal responses to cadmium stress in some halophytic plants. Soil Environ. 2018;37(2):169-177. DOI: 10.25252/SE/18/61564.'},{id:"B41",body:'Schlemper and Stürmer, 2014; Schlemper TR, Stürmer SL. On farm production of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculum using lignocellulosic agrowastes. Mycorrhiza 2014;24:571-580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-014-0576-5'},{id:"B42",body:'WHO. World Health Organisation. In: Ethical conditions to establish aseptic laboratory. 2018'},{id:"B43",body:'Hanan JJ, Holley WD, Goldsbery LK. Greenhouse management. Bommer FR et al., editors.1978.Advenced series in agricultural sciences 5. Springer Eds.'},{id:"B44",body:'Rodríguez F, Berenguel M, Guzmán JL, Ramírez-Arias A. The Greenhouse Dynamical System. In: Modeling and Control of Greenhouse Crop Growth. Advances in Industrial Control. Springer, 2015. Champions. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11134-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bencherif Karima",address:"bencherif_karima@yahoo.fr",affiliation:'
Faculty of Life and Nature Sciences, University of Djelfa, Djelfa, Algeria
Faculty of Life and Nature Sciences, University of Djelfa, Djelfa, Algeria
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How to Apply for a Waiver
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
Feel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
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Note: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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The first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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However, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
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Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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IntechOpen Waivers in Action
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For Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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Our mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
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While providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
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How to Apply for a Waiver
\n\n
The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
Feel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
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Note: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 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He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/37586",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"37586"},fullPath:"/chapters/37586",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()