Difference between chemical fertilizer and vermicompost.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7868",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Redirecting Alzheimer Strategy - Tracing Memory Loss to Self Pathology",title:"Redirecting Alzheimer Strategy",subtitle:"Tracing Memory Loss to Self Pathology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"It is fair to say that no brain disease occupies more research study today than Alzheimer's disease (AD). Among the many excellent reasons for this circumstance are the bleak prognosis and relentless progression; large cohorts of baby boomers entering an age of greatly increased cognitive risk; and spectacular advances in medical care that have prolonged lifespan. Often unattributed is the success of the research enterprise that has instilled confidence in AD's ultimate defeat. Yet, despite decades of intense research, AD remains poorly understood, an enigma amid a tide of neuroscientific advance. What these inconclusive results apparently call into question is an understanding of cognition that views it from the bottom up - the study of which is eminently suited by the scientific method - and that dispenses with a philosophy of biology concerned with how organismal properties operate, for which cognition is the medium. Culled from AD's new and old research archives, the chapters in this text accordingly lay out an argument for strategically new pathways that wander through cognition's global terrain and that may ultimately offer surer ground for AD treatment.",isbn:"978-1-78984-010-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-009-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-210-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77687",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"redirecting-alzheimer-strategy-tracing-memory-loss-to-self-pathology",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"57b9b4f3a8d378e6ce3b7444d134fbd1",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7868.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6230,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 23rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 22nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206412/images/system/206412.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Denis Larrivee is a visiting scholar at the Mind and Brain Institute, Las Vegas; University of Navarra Medical School, Spain; and Loyola University Chicago. He has held professorships at Weill Cornell University Medical College, NYC, and Purdue University, Indiana. A former fellow at Yale University\\'s Medical School Dr. Larrivee received the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology\\'s first-place award for studies on photoreceptor degenerative and developmental mechanisms. He is the chief editor of several medical and scientific texts, including topics on brain- computer interfacing, Alzheimer’s disease, neuromodulation and neurostimulation procedures, neuroethics, and sleep pharmacotherapies. He is an editorial board member of the journals Annals of Neurology and Neurological Sciences and EC Neurology. An International Neuroethics Society Expert he is the author of more than ninety papers and book chapters in such varied journals/venues as Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Religion and Mental Health, and IEEE Explore. In 2018 he was a finalist in the international Joseph Ratzinger Expanded Reason Award sponsored by the Francis Vittorio University of Madrid.",institutionString:"Loyola University Chicago",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Loyola University Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1057",title:"Neuropsychiatry",slug:"neuropsychiatry"}],chapters:[{id:"66476",title:"Introductory Chapter: Beyond Risk Alleles - Invoking Cognitive Lesions in Top-Down Strategic Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85415",slug:"introductory-chapter-beyond-risk-alleles-invoking-cognitive-lesions-in-top-down-strategic-analysis",totalDownloads:699,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Denis Larrivee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66476",authors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],corrections:null},{id:"66404",title:"Fact, Fiction, or Evolution: Mechanism Hypothesis of Alzheimer’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83824",slug:"fact-fiction-or-evolution-mechanism-hypothesis-of-alzheimer-s-disease",totalDownloads:905,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The metabolism hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) was first proposed in 1975. In normal aging and very mild AD, the cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen (CMRO2) and cerebral blood flow (CBF) remained approximately constant, but the metabolism of glucose (CMRglu) declined markedly. This decline in CMRglu identified a specific and primary metabolic defect that triggered downstream cellular cascades evolving into AD and its characteristic neuropathological lesions. These findings led research about AD into the role of insulin resistance that foresaw modern trials of insulin for AD treatment. The metabolism hypothesis evolved over subsequent decades with improved in-vivo measurement of metabolic parameters and AD biomarkers in humans. A more recent model highlights the interrelationships between the default mode network (DMN) and biomarkers such as CMRglu, amyloid, and tau. In other words, metabolic conditions related to sustained cortical activity during aging throughout the lifetime are conducive to the deposition of amyloid. This activity is thought to underlie the “autobiographical self.” These ideas and findings motivate aging and AD-research focus on the biochemistry and cell biology of cerebral metabolism.",signatures:"José V. Pardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66404",authors:[{id:"278007",title:"Prof.",name:"José V.",surname:"Pardo",slug:"jose-v.-pardo",fullName:"José V. Pardo"}],corrections:null},{id:"67355",title:"Mitochondria and Alzheimer’s Disease: An Electron Microscopy Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84881",slug:"mitochondria-and-alzheimer-s-disease-an-electron-microscopy-study",totalDownloads:1058,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive, irreversible presenile or senile neurodegenerative disorder, implicating mainly the mental faculties, characterized by decline of memory and judgment, learning impairment, loss of professional skills and verbal capacities, alterations of social behavior, decline of motor skills and eventual disarrangement of the autonomic equilibrium. Among the pathogenetic factors, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction may play an essential role. Alterations of mitochondria may enhance amyloid toxicity, which in turn may aggravate mitochondrial dysfunction. We describe ultrastructural alterations of mitochondria in the soma of neurons, in axons, dendritic profiles and synaptic terminals, in astrocytes in early cases of Alzheimer’s disease on various areas of the cerebral and the cerebellar cortex, the hippocampus, the hypothalamus, the mammillary bodies and the medial geniculate body. The morphological and morphometric study of the mitochondria revealed an impressive polymorphism at any area of the brain. The mitochondria demonstrated variation of size and shape, fragmentation of the cristae and marked changes of their structure. The most dramatic mitochondrial alterations were observed in dendritic profiles, spines and synaptic terminals. A substantial number of astrocytes demonstrated mitochondrial alterations, which coexisted with fragmentation of Golgi apparatus and dilatation of the cisternae of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. On the basis of our observations, we feel that therapeutic strategies aiming at protecting the mitochondria might be beneficial in the treatment of early cases of AD.",signatures:"Stavros J. Baloyannis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67355",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67355",authors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis"}],corrections:null},{id:"66287",title:"Putative Involvement of Thiol Protease Inhibitor in the Function of Alzheimer Drug",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83578",slug:"putative-involvement-of-thiol-protease-inhibitor-in-the-function-of-alzheimer-drug",totalDownloads:894,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The intermolecular structure gets altered when drug-protein interaction takes place. It brings about alterations in the conformation of protein. An acetyl cholinesterase inhibitor (AChE) is the most used drug for patients who are suffering from Alzheimer’s disease to curb its instigated symptoms. So, it is used as first-line defense in the insightful symptoms. This study is of concern with the interaction of cystatin purified from buffalo brain with its simple tri-step procedure including alkaline action, ammonium sulfate fractionation, and gel filtration chromatography on Sephadex G-75 with % yield of 64.13 and fold purification of 384.7. The inhibitor (brain cystatin (BC)) showed a single papain inhibitory peak drifted as single band on native PAGE; this purified inhibitor was interacted with donepezil to analyze the side effect of this drug since cystatin is an important regulatory protein that maintains the protease antiprotease balance. The conformational change was predicted when the UV spectra of cystatin was analyzed in the presence of donepezil contextual with the fluorescence spectra, but the fluorescence spectra showed 40 nm of red shift suggesting the change on interaction leading to a conclusion that donepezil is pertinent to imbalance to protease and antiprotease inhibitor perhaps the side effect of drug.",signatures:"Fakhra Amin and Bilqees Bano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66287",authors:[{id:"277041",title:"Prof.",name:"Bilqees",surname:"Bano",slug:"bilqees-bano",fullName:"Bilqees Bano"},{id:"277494",title:"Dr.",name:"Fakhra",surname:"Amin",slug:"fakhra-amin",fullName:"Fakhra Amin"}],corrections:null},{id:"65852",title:"Non-pharmacological Treatment of Alzheimer’s",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84893",slug:"non-pharmacological-treatment-of-alzheimer-s",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Caring for a patient with dementia is challenging, as we cannot cure Alzheimer’s disease but only slow its progress. In the presented chapter, we offer non-pharmacological approaches for influencing the patient’s behaviour, actions and emotions, and to arouse their interest and motivation, while preserving the highest quality of life. In the past, many experts have looked at specific approaches to dementia patients and devoted their entire professional lives to senior citizens. Our aim is to offer an overview of the most frequently used therapeutic approaches with dementia patients and use practical demonstrations to reinvigorate the theoretical basis. At the end of the chapter we deal with the burden on the carer in the family environment.",signatures:"Terezia Fertalova and Iveta Ondriova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65852",authors:[{id:"279163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Terezia",surname:"Fertalova",slug:"terezia-fertalova",fullName:"Terezia Fertalova"},{id:"279171",title:"Dr.",name:"Iveta",surname:"Ondriova",slug:"iveta-ondriova",fullName:"Iveta Ondriova"}],corrections:null},{id:"65809",title:"Healthcare Models in Alzheimer’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84630",slug:"healthcare-models-in-alzheimer-s-disease",totalDownloads:776,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease is currently a health care problem and in the future, when we have effective treatments, it will become a public health priority. Health systems should adapt to this situation. New technologies are tools that can improve healthcare and lower costs. The mobile phone with call o video call conference is going to suppose a radical change in the control of these patients. The telephone assistance to patient or relatives is very satisfactory for both due to the rapidity in the response to their problem and the comfort with which they are attended to. Also the health system reduces the costs of face-to-face consultation. In addition, this telemedicine could be applied for cognitive stimulation, with specific programs for each patient and for the follow-up of patients in their homes, delaying their entry into residences. The objective is to turn the patients and their caregiver into cotherapists together with the nurse and the physician, in the follow-up of Alzheimer’s disease.",signatures:"Francisco Javier Garzón-Maldonado and María Dolores Martinez-Valle Torres",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65809",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65809",authors:[{id:"279477",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Garzón-Maldonado",slug:"francisco-javier-garzon-maldonado",fullName:"Francisco Javier Garzón-Maldonado"},{id:"279486",title:"Ms.",name:"María Dolores",surname:"Martinez-Valle Torres",slug:"maria-dolores-martinez-valle-torres",fullName:"María Dolores Martinez-Valle Torres"}],corrections:null},{id:"65934",title:"An Examination of Factors Influencing Equitable Access to Dementia Care and Support Programs among Migrants and Refugees Living with Dementia: A Literature Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84858",slug:"an-examination-of-factors-influencing-equitable-access-to-dementia-care-and-support-programs-among-m",totalDownloads:861,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Canada is working on improving the diagnosis and treatment of Canadians with cognitive impairment and promoting living well with dementia. Despite the availability of support network, Canadians living with dementia are identified to commonly experience social isolation and exclusion. This issue is particularly significant among migrants and refugees, for whom access to dementia care and support programs are found to be significantly less than the non-migrated Canadians. The purpose of this critical analysis is to examine the existing literature related to the sociocultural factors that contribute to the access of dementia care and support programs by persons with dementia. Specifically, a literature review was conducted to examine the barriers and facilitating factors that influence equitable access to dementia care and support programs among migrants and refugees. A thematic analysis was conducted to identify the following four major themes: (1) stigma, (2) culturally preferred coping strategies, (3) misconceptions regarding aging and dementia, and (4) language barriers.. This review identifies the need for future research to explore the key barriers faced by migrants and refugees with dementia in accessing timely and appropriate dementia care and support programs, as well as developing equitable programs and culturally sensitive services that adequately address their needs.",signatures:"Winnie Sun, Srija Biswas, Michelle Dacanay and Ping Zou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65934",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65934",authors:[{id:"219759",title:"Dr.",name:"Winnie",surname:"Sun",slug:"winnie-sun",fullName:"Winnie Sun"},{id:"284562",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping",surname:"Zou",slug:"ping-zou",fullName:"Ping Zou"},{id:"294312",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Srija",surname:"Biswas",slug:"srija-biswas",fullName:"Srija Biswas"},{id:"294464",title:"Dr.",name:"Michelle",surname:"Dacanay",slug:"michelle-dacanay",fullName:"Michelle Dacanay"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11683",leadTitle:null,title:"Emerging Issues in Environmental Epidemiology and Its Reflection",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tEnvironmental epidemiology has emerged as a critical public health problem in the twenty-first century. The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak has been linked to environmental variables, emphasizing the importance of environmental epidemiology. Since the Stockholm conference, there has been a significant increase in both the demand for environmental epidemiology and understanding of the linkages between environmental health and human health. As a result, environmental epidemiology has emerged as the primary scientific discipline responsible for providing data on which environmental/public health activities and choices are based. Thus, a notable public/environmental health innovation of the twenty-first century, for example, is the movement to immunize a greater population of the world against the COVID-19 pandemic. Environmental epidemiology studies led to the adoption of these measures. Thus, this book hopes to increase the public's awareness of public health development, inform government and policymakers, shape government views both nationally and internationally, and avoid wasteful costs. This research will enhance knowledge exchange and learning and will be promoted and disseminated globally.
\r\n\t
Increasing population and food demand has forced the farming community to apply excess amount of chemical fertilizer that leads to degradation of soil health and causing environmental pollution. Factor productivity of the soil is also decreasing due to injudicious fertilization. The technology advancement and industrialization has created many challenges associated with sustainability. Sustainability is a concept of utilizing the natural resources without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Rapid urbanization and industrial growth is worrisome with respect to huge amount of waste generation. Unscientific management of these wastes causing social, economic, and environmental problems. After consuming so much chemicals during the green revolution era, the soil eventually became unproductive due to a lack of sufficient organic matter amendments. Vermicomposting is one of the many potential approaches that have gained significant attention over decades. It is an eco-friendly concept of waste management where decomposition process is aided by microorganisms [1, 2, 3]. Earthworms are the biological engineers since the beginning of humankind. The technique of culturing earthworm for managing wastes and preparing compost is known as vermicomposting. Vermicomposting is defined as a bio-oxidative process where earthworms and decomposer microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes) act synergistically to manage organic waste in a scientific way that also aids in improvement of soil physical, chemical, and biological properties [4]. A wide range of raw materials (Figure 1) such as agricultural waste [5], animal waste [6], and municipality [7] waste are decomposed by earthworms and microorganisms for preparing vermicompost. This bio-technique increases mineralization of waste material led to enhancement in bioavailability of essential plant nutrients. Vermicompost not only supplies plant nutrients and growth promoting hormones but also improves soil physical property through soil aggregation [8]. Hence it is used as a component of organic farming. Vermicompost has also been proven to be a miraculous plant growth stimulator [9]. Vermicast, the end product is also rich in hormones and enzymes which make the soil environment favorable for soil biota. Residue burning is a common issue nowadays that causing severe environmental hazards. This issue can also be overcome by adopting vermicomposting technique.
Vermicompost and its role in agriculture.
In spite of having so many benefits, use of vermicompost is still not accepted widely due to lack of awareness and technology barriers. There is a need for proper extension to explore the potentialities of vermicompost. So, this study was conducted with the objectives for getting a precise idea about general properties, preparation methods, benefits and its limitations, and most importantly understanding the significance of vermicompost in crop production.
Among the soil biota, earth worm is one of the major kinds and a key component of tropical and subtropical ecosystems [10, 11]. It helps is soil aggregation, nutrient recycling, litter decomposition, etc. Earthworm improves the soil environment by producing cast, pellets, and galleries. Mucus secretion from the gut of earth worm enhances microbial activity. Around 3000 species of earthworms documented so far [12]. The earthworms are of three types that have been described in Figure 2.
Earth warm classification.
The most common earthworms [13] have successfully used in India for vermicompost preparation are:
Apart from being ecological engineer, earth worm is a rich source of protein thus it can be used as high quality feed to farm animals. Das et al. [13] reported that earthworm cast increases mushroom production. The brief difference between chemical fertilizer and vermicompost is given in Table 1.
Indices | Chemical fertilizers | Vermicompost |
---|---|---|
Synthesis process | They are synthesized and manufactured in factories. | They are the product of natural decomposition of organic matter with the help of earth worms. |
Macronutrients | Major chemical fertilizer contains only one macronutrient (either nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium). | Vermicompost contains almost all the primary minerals along with some quantities of secondary minerals (Ca, Mg, and S) [14]. |
Micronutrients | Not present. | Significant amount of micronutrients: Zn, B, Mn, Fe, Cu, etc. also present [15]. |
Soil structure | Over use of chemical fertilizer degrades soil structure. | It improves soil aggregation, water holding capacity, soil aeration, etc. |
Biological activity of soil | It reduces biological activity of soil. | It improves activity of soil microbes thus enhances soil fertility [16]. |
Environmental impact | Excessive use of chemical fertilizers causes environmental pollution. | Vermicompost is an eco-friendly approach [17]. |
Saving cost of cultivation | Use of chemical fertilizers increases the cost of cultivation. | The farmer/consumer can expect approximately $110–$350 in additional income from applying one ton of vermicompost due to offset costs of traditional fertilizer and pesticides [18]. |
Difference between chemical fertilizer and vermicompost.
Most commonly used earthworm species are: African earthworm (
African earthworm (
Tiger worm (
Asian worms (
In terms of sustainable crop production, the acceptability of vermicompost has been rising rapidly as soon as the human realizes the significance of organic inputs in crop field. The excreta of earthworms, which is considered as the main product, that is, vermicompost has several characteristics. These are:
A good vermicompost is always non-toxic, well-decomposed, ecologically compatible, and environment friendly.
Any type of green waste viz. municipal waste, agricultural waste, sewage sludge, industrial waste, and human feces can be used for the conversion by earthworm.
When turning of soil is occurred in proper manner, it is symptomatic to aerobic decomposition which will produce normal odor after preparation. If there is improper aeration, foul odor can be formed.
The final outcome of vermicomposting would be comprising of fine particulate structure, granular form.
Vermicompost plays the role of a “soil conditioner” by improving the soil porosity, drainage, and water holding capacity [19].
Vermicompost is rich in almost all essential macro and micro plant nutrients. Several experiment states that average nutrient content of vermicompost is greater than other conventional compost, produced from other procedures.
Among all the secondary nutrients, calcium content in vermicompost is higher than other compost.
In contrast with other conventional compost, vermicompost contains worm mucus which facilitates in preventing washing away of nutrients present there [20].
Due to vermi-conversion, heavy metal present in feeding material is found to be reduced in earthworm cast owing to its accumulation in worm tissue. According to the feed used, the rate of removal of heavy metal depends in vermicomposting techniques. This property makes vermicompost lesser contaminant than any other compost. Thus, it becomes more environmentally sustainable [21].
There are certain differences found in chemical properties between simple farm yard compost and vermicompost. Vermicompost ranges higher in macro and micro-nutrients as well as soil organic carbon status that can be observed from the Table 2 [22].
Properties | Compost | Vermicompost |
---|---|---|
pH | 7.16 | 7.72 |
EC (dSm−1) | 3.65 | 6.88 |
OC | 20.5 | 17.3 |
Total N (%) | 2.42 | 3.5 |
Total P (%) | 0.88 | 0.71 |
Total K (mg.kg−1) | 653.5 | 950.5 |
Total Ca (%) | 2.9 | 3.5 |
Total Mg (%) | 1.5 | 2.8 |
Total Fe (mg.kg−1) | 4467 | 6045 |
Total Zn (mg.kg−1) | 115.5 | 189.5 |
Total Cu (mg.kg−1) | 59 | 38 |
Total Mn (mg.kg−1) | 221.45 | 344.15 |
C:N | 8.47 | 5.51 |
Chemical properties of compost and vermicompost.
The by-product of earth casting is an inhabitant of several microorganism, viz. bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. These micro-organisms release several enzyme and phytohormones which helps in improving plant growth. Thus, vermicompost facilitates both microbial and enzymatic activity [22, 23].
The microbial population of nitrogen fixer bacteria and other symbiotic associative bacteria are supposed to be in a good range of numbers in the excreta of earthworm.
In addition, earthworm casts harbor a large number of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) propagules. These propagules survive up to 11 months on the cast, and helps in increasing microbial activity to produce nitrogen and phosphorus in readily available form to the plant (Table 3) [24].
Properties | Impact | References |
---|---|---|
Soil physical properties | Soil aggregation, soil structure, and water holding capacity, infiltration rate improves after vermicompost application. | Edwards and Burrow [19] |
Soil chemical properties | Vermicompost also offers a greater chance for reducing salinity, alkalinity, and reduction of heavy metal contamination. | Nancarrow et al. [20] |
Soil microbial properties | Microbial biomass is also increases with the use of vermicompost. | Blouin et al. [12] |
Effect of vermicompost on different soil properties.
Earthworms are often termed as “Bio-engineers” because of their unique ability to convert organic wastes into dark brown nutrient rich compost materials. We use these worms along with some easy-available inputs to produce the vermicompost. In South-Asian countries like India, we often see market price of the vermicompost is very low, which is attributed to the low-cost inputs of this compost. This vermicompost can be prepared in various techniques, among all those two most common methods are: bed and pit methods.
Bed method is easy to prepare and maintain throughout the process as here composting is done on pucca or kachcha floor by making the bed with organic materials like hay, straw, corn silage, etc.
Pit method is comparatively strenuous process where composting is done on cemented pits of approx. The unit is covered with grass or any other organic mixtures (Figures 6–10).
Bed method.
Pit method.
Spraying of water in bed.
Adult worms in compost.
Fully prepared vermicompost.
Addition of vermicompost improves soil physico-chemical properties viz. soil structure, soil water holding capacity, penetration resistance, bulk density, soil organic carbon, aggregation, nutrient content, etc. According to the findings of various long term research addition of vermicompost reduces the bulk density of the soil and increases the water holding capacity of soil [25]. Aksakal et al. [26] found that when vermicompost was added in the soil, the mean bulk density, and mean total porosity were the least. Air permeability rose and penetration resistance reduced dramatically as wet aggregate stability improved and bulk density reduced. Increased microbial population and activity led in the development of aggregates and increased soil porosity, resulting in decreased particle and bulk densities. Physicochemical characteristics such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), porosity, moisture content, water holding capacity, and chemical properties like nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, and magnesium were all found to be significantly improved in vermicompost treated soil, while the corresponding physicochemical values in control soil were minimal in rice crop [27]. Vermicompost has indeed been found to have significant concentration of total and bioavailable nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK), and micronutrients, as well as microbial and enzyme activity and growth regulators [28]. Polysaccharides appeared to be abundant in vermicompost [29]. Polysaccharide worked as a cementing ingredient in the soil, causing aggregate stability, which helped to establish and maintain the soil structure for improved aeration, water retention, drainage, and aerobic conditions. The preservation of soil structure is essential for root elongation and nutrient uptake. The inclusion of mucus secretion and microorganisms from the earthworm’s gut improves the soil’s aggregate stability. The absorbent organic matter in vermicomposts increases the soil’s water retention capacity by holding only the quantity of water required by the plant roots [30]. Vermicomposts have been found to have a higher base exchange capacity and a higher oxidation potential rise [31]. The C/N ratio of vermicompost is usually lower, indicating that it is more suited for use as a soil amendment. By altering the physiochemical parameters of the soil, vermicompost was able to limit the loss of nutrients through leaching [32]. Humic acid and biologically active compounds like plant growth regulators are abundant in vermicompost [33]. Humic acid has been proven to improve nutrient accretion in situations where nutrients are scarce or when additional nutrients are provided. Humic acids may have a hormone-like effect on plant growth and productivity as a result of their involvement in cell respiration, photosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, biogenesis, and a variety of other enzymatic functions.
Biological properties of soil can be enhanced through application of vermicompost. Recent studies founded that soil biological characteristics viz. soil organic carbon as well as soil microbial biomass, enzymatic activity, population of different beneficial microorganism, hormones, etc. significantly enhanced with application of vermicompost [34]. The activity of the dehydrogenase enzyme, which is commonly employed to quantify the respiratory activity of microbial communities, was shown to be higher in vermicompost than in commercial medium [35]. Application of vermicompost improved the nitrogen status of soil by introducing the beneficial microorganism in the rhizosphere of the plant which ultimately enhances the nitrogenase activity in soil, which is the enzyme responsible for nitrogen fixation (Tables 4 and 5).
Crop | Treatments | Physiochemical effects | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | EC (dSm−1) | BD (g cm−3) | Porosity (%) | |||
Rice | Control | 7.4 ± 2.01 | 2.0 ± 1.0 | — | 39 ± 2.0 | Tharmaraj et al. [27] |
Vermicompost | 7.1 ± 0.01 | 1.01 ± 1.0 | — | 41 ± 1.0 | ||
Vermi-wash | 7.2 ± 1.02 | 2.0 ± 1.1 | — | 40 ± 1.1 | ||
Vermicompost+ Vermi-wash | 7.0 + 0.03 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | — | 44 ± 1.0 | ||
Wheat | Soil sample | 8.56 | 25.82 | 1.52 | 25.38 | Mahmoud et al. [36] |
Vermicompost @5 g kg−1 soil | 7.6 | 4.65 | 1.42 | 26.85 |
Effect of vermicompost on physiochemical properties of soil on different crops.
Parameters | Compost (g m−2) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Vermicompost | Conventional compost | |||
100 | 150 | 100 | 150 | |
Nitrogen (%) | 0.61 | 0.72 | 0.54 | 0.62 |
Phosphorus (%) | 0.0057 | 0.0077 | 0.0039 | 0.0047 |
Potassium (%) | 11.11 | 11.17 | 10.41 | 10.48 |
Calcium (%) | 1.443 | 1.683 | 0.561 | 0.641 |
Comparison between the effect of vermicompost and conventional compost on different nutrient content of the
Source: Islam et al. [37].
Vermicompost has a great importance to increase the soil fertility level. In recent years organic amendments are getting more importance for nutrient management and sustainable crop production since the long-term use of inorganic fertilizer lacking organic additives has the ability to ruin soil qualities [34]. Long-term treatment of balanced inorganic fertilizers led to reduced soil bulk density, improved total porosity, and higher water-holding capacity. Inorganic fertilizers also promoted soil aggregation in deeper soil layers and raised maize and wheat grain and straw yields [38]. In their research, using farmyard manure (organic fertilizer) instead of inorganic fertilizer improved soil qualities in a similar way. Furthermore, compost provides substantially higher boosts in soil organic carbon as well as some plant nutrients when compared to mineral fertilizers [39, 40]. Thus, using vermicompost improves overall soil fertility by improving numerous soil physical, chemical, and biological qualities.
Vermicompost promotes the growth and development of a variety of plant species, especially various horticulture crops, that is, sweet corn, tomato, strawberry [41], cereals crop rice [27], wheat, sorghum [32], fruit crops papaya [42], and pineapple [43]. Several growth and yield metrics viz. stem diameter, plant height, marketable yield per plant, mean leaf number, and total plant biomass of tomato plant were recorded significantly higher with the application of vermicompost (Figure 11).
Effect of vermicompost on growth parameters of
The increase in growth and development of plant is due to the improving action of vermicompost application on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties which ultimately improves the overall soil fertility, which enhances the plant growth and development. Vermicompost has been demonstrated to improve plant dry weight [44] and uptake of plant N [45] serve as a naturally available, slow released sources of plant nutrients.
Various studies had showed that vermicompost is useful for remedies of different plant diseases. Many plant diseases caused by soil-borne, foliar plant pathogens, and pests have been suppressed by vermicompost products, which have been proven to be effective as organic fertilizers and biological control agents. In conventional agriculture, excessive and repeated use of chemical pesticides resulted in “biological resistance” in crop diseases and pests. As a result, significantly higher doses are now needed to inhibit them for the growth of high-yielding crops that are more sensitive to pests and diseases [46]. A study was conducted to compared the inhibition performance of two different methods, in which two nonconventional chemicals ZnSO4 and oxalic acid, as well as the bio-control agent
Vermicompost has a greater importance in bioremediation and detoxification of industrial waste. Because of their robust metabolic system and the participation of earthworm gut bacteria and chloragocyte cells, earthworms have the potential to valorize and detoxification of heavy metals in industrial by-products. The majority of research found that vermicompost made from organic waste comprises greater concentrations of humic chemicals, which are important for plant growth [49]. Earthworm has a vast role in bioconversion of waste materials. Because of their robust metabolic system and participation of varied intestinal micro biota, enzymes, and chloragocyte cells that decrease hazardous forms to benign forms, earthworms have the ability to bio-convert and detoxify most heavy metals in industrial sludges (Table 6) [51].
Industry sludge type | Earthworm species used | Physico-chemical properties and heavy metals reduction | References |
---|---|---|---|
Sewage sludge derived biochar | Biochar injected before composting lowered | Malińska et al. [50] | |
Municipal sludge mixed with cow dung | Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb all the metal compounds were reduced after vermicomposting. | Srivastava et al. [51] |
Effect of different types of earthworm species on heavy metal reductions of industrial sludge.
Vermicomposting is a time taking process. It requires almost 6-month for decomposing the organic wastes to prepare vermicompost.
In comparison to the traditional composting process, vermicompost requires higher maintenance.
Vermicompost may harbor pest and diseases as the temperature of vermicomposting pit have to be cool enough to support earthworm life.
Since vermicompost is organic in nature, it is not harmful for the environment. Vermicomposting process is also easy to operate and can be successfully prepared by unskilled small and marginal farmers. Amidst the environmental degradation and increasing food demand, vermicompost can be a solution. Although, its use alone in agriculture would not be able to meet the food demand but its use with chemical fertilizer through integrated manner can achieve sustainability in food production. The adoption rate of vermicompost is low and there is tendency of adopting vermicompost by female famers only. The potentiality of vermicompost is still not fully exploited yet. Hence, there is a need to appoint more extension worker to educate the farmers about vermicomposting and its benefits for achieving sustainability.
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\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nFor a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions, go to How Open Access Publishing Works.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com.
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Most previous works focused on only one of the external quality parameters, such as color, size, mass, shape, and defects. In this work, we proposed an integrated machine vision system that can grade, sort, and classify mangoes using multiple features including weight, size, and external defects. We found that weight estimation using our proposed algorithm based on visual information was not statistically different from that of a conventional weight measurement using a static digital load cell; the estimation error is relatively small (4–5%). We also constructed an artificial neural network model to classify mango having multiple types of external defect; the classification error is less than 8% for the worst possible case. The results indicate that our system shows a great potential to be used in a real industrial setting. Future work will aim to investigate other features such as ripeness and bruises to increase the effectiveness and practicality of the system.",book:{id:"7270",slug:"agricultural-robots-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Agricultural Robots",fullTitle:"Agricultural Robots - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Son V.T. Dao",authors:[{id:"252669",title:"Dr.",name:"Vu Truong Son",middleName:null,surname:"Dao",slug:"vu-truong-son-dao",fullName:"Vu Truong Son Dao"}]},{id:"62785",title:"Hybrid-Powered Autonomous Robots for Reducing Both Fuel Consumption and Pollution in Precision Agriculture Tasks",slug:"hybrid-powered-autonomous-robots-for-reducing-both-fuel-consumption-and-pollution-in-precision-agric",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Environmental contamination and the resulting climate change are major concerns worldwide. Agricultural vehicles that use fossil fuels emit significant amounts of atmospheric pollutants. Thus, this study investigates techniques to reduce fuel consumption in robotic vehicles used for agricultural tasks and therefore reduce atmospheric emissions from these automated systems. A hybrid energy system for autonomous robots devoted to weed and pest control in agriculture is modeled and evaluated, and its exhaust emissions are compared with those of an internal combustion engine-powered system. Agricultural implements require power for hydraulic pumps and fans; this energy is conventionally provided by power take-off (PTO) systems, which waste substantial amounts of energy. In this work, we examine a solution by designing and assessing a hybrid energy system that omits the alternators from the original vehicle and modifies the agricultural implements to replace the PTO power with electrical power. The hybrid energy system uses the original combustion engine of the tractor in combination with a new electrical energy system based on a hydrogen fuel cell. 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All three algorithms are tested on a small field robot and used to autonomously drive the robot between the two adjacent rows of maze plants. The first algorithm is the simplest one and just takes distance readings from the left and right side. If robot is not in the center of the mid-row space, it adjusts its course by turning the robot in the right direction accordingly. The second approach groups the left and right readings into two vertical lines by using least-square fit approach. According to the calculated distance and orientation to both lines, it adjusts the course of the robot. The third approach tries to fit an optimal triangle between the robot and the plants, revealing the most optimal one. Based on its shape, the course of the robot is adjusted. All three algorithms are tested in a simulated (ROS stage) and then in an outdoor (maze test field) environment comparing the optimal line with the actual calculated position of the robot. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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