\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9236",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cheminformatics and its Applications",title:"Cheminformatics and its Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cheminformatics has emerged as an applied branch of Chemistry that involves multidisciplinary knowledge, connecting related fields such as chemistry, computer science, biology, pharmacology, physics, and mathematical statistics.The book is organized in two sections, including multiple aspects related to advances in the development of informatic tools and their specific use in compound structure databases with various applications in life sciences, mainly in medicinal chemistry, for identification and development of new therapeutically active molecules. The book covers aspects related to genomic analysis, semantic similarity, chemometrics, pattern recognition techniques, chemical reactivity prediction, drug-likeness assessment, bioavailability, biological target recognition, machine-based drug discovery and design. Results from various computational tools and methods are discussed in the context of new compound design and development, sharing promising opportunities, and perspectives.",isbn:"978-1-83880-068-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-067-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-518-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83236",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cheminformatics-and-its-applications",numberOfPages:190,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3fed97d1719b8a321190c86985494a34",bookSignature:"Amalia Stefaniu, Azhar Rasul and Ghulam Hussain",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9236.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9010,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:52,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 21st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"213696",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalia",middleName:null,surname:"Stefaniu",slug:"amalia-stefaniu",fullName:"Amalia Stefaniu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213696/images/system/213696.jpg",biography:"Amalia Stefaniu has a background in chemical engineering, acquiring her Bachelor’s degree at Politehnica University of Bucharest, Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages. She followed postgraduate academic studies with Drugs and Cosmetics specialization and she obtained a Masters degree in Biotechnologies and food safety. She completed her PhD in Exact Sciences - Chemistry Domain in 2011 at the University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry. She joined the National Institute for Chemical Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Bucharest in 2001, where she worked first as Chemical Research Engineer in the Pharmaceutical Biotechnologies domain. Her current position is Senior Research Scientist. Her research focuses on properties prediction, mathematical modeling, molecular docking, and therapeutic compounds design.",institutionString:"National Institute for Chemical - Pharmaceutical Research and Development",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",biography:"Dr. Azhar Rasul is an Assistant Professor at the Government College University, Faisalabad. He obtained his PhD fellowship jointly awarded by MoE, Pakistan and CSC, China and completed his Ph.D. in Chemical Cancer Biology from the Northeast Normal University, China. He later received China Postdoctoral Fellowship in 2012, Japanese Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS) Postdoctoral Fellowship in 2013, and subsequently Tokyo Biochemical Research Foundation (TBRF) Fellowship in 2015. He has published over 100 peer-reviewed articles with a cumulative impact factor over 208 and with over 1670 citations. He has presented several invited talks at the national and international level. He has obtained several national and international research grants. His laboratory is actively engaged in interdisciplinary research on novel tumor biomarkers and identification of non-toxic anti-cancer compounds for various hallmarks of cancer from natural sources. He is a reviewer and editorial board member of several well-reputed journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"244522",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"ghulam-hussain",fullName:"Ghulam Hussain",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/244522/images/system/244522.jfif",biography:"Dr. Ghulam Hussain is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Physiology, Government College University, Faisalabad. Dr. Hussain has served as a visiting scientist at Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China. He earned his MPhil and Ph.D. in Neurosciences from the University of Strasbourg, France under the Overseas Scholarship Program of Higher Education Commission of Pakistan. He has published 70 peer-reviewed articles with a cumulative impact factor of 120 and 480 citations. He has presented his work at both the national and international level. He is a recipient of two research grants from HEC Pakistan. He is also working as a reviewer for well-reputed research journals. His laboratory is involved in elucidating the possibilities of promoting peripheral nerve regeneration following traumatic injury.",institutionString:"Government College University Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"685",title:"Bioinformatics",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-bioinformatics"}],chapters:[{id:"71594",title:"Prologue: Deep Insights of Chemical Structures by Chemoinformatics Tools, Let’s Think Forward!",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91858",slug:"prologue-deep-insights-of-chemical-structures-by-chemoinformatics-tools-let-s-think-forward-",totalDownloads:577,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Amalia Stefaniu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71594",authors:[{id:"213696",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalia",surname:"Stefaniu",slug:"amalia-stefaniu",fullName:"Amalia Stefaniu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71035",title:"Visible Evolution from Primitive Organisms to Homo sapiens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91170",slug:"visible-evolution-from-primitive-organisms-to-em-homo-sapiens-em-",totalDownloads:533,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ratios of amino acids to the total amino acids deduced from the complete genome and those of nucleotides to the total nucleotides in the genome are useful indexes to characterize various large genomes among different species from bacteria to Homo sapiens. These indexes are not only independent of species but also of genome size. Using these indexes, the following results were obtained: (1) primitive life forms appeared to have similar amino acid compositions to present day organisms; (2) cellular amino acid compositions that are similar among various species and between whole cells and complete genomes; (3) genome structure that is homogeneously constructed from putative small units encoding proteins of similar amino acid compositions, followed by synchronous mutations over the genome; (4) all organisms can be classified into two groups, “GC-rich” and “AT-rich,” based on their nucleotide contents, or “terrestrial” and “aquatic vertebrates” based on natural selection by cluster analyses using amino acid contents as the traits; and (5) evolution based on nucleotide content alterations can be expressed by definitive equations. Thus, the ratios of amino acids or nucleotides to their total contents are useful indexes for characterizing genomes, regardless of species differences and genome sizes. The two normalized nucleotide contents are universally expressed regression line.",signatures:"Kenji Sorimachi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71035",authors:[{id:"299431",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Sorimachi",slug:"kenji-sorimachi",fullName:"Kenji Sorimachi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68930",title:"Semantic Similarity in Cheminformatics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89032",slug:"semantic-similarity-in-cheminformatics",totalDownloads:703,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Similarity in chemistry has been applied to a variety of problems: to predict biochemical properties of molecules, to disambiguate chemical compound references in natural language, to understand the evolution of metabolic pathways, to predict drug-drug interactions, to predict therapeutic substitution of antibiotics, to estimate whether a compound is harmful, etc. While measures of similarity have been created that make use of the structural properties of the molecules, some ontologies (the Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) being one of the most relevant) capture chemistry knowledge in machine-readable formats and can be used to improve our notions of molecular similarity. Ontologies in the biomedical domain have been extensively used to compare entities of biological interest, a technique known as ontology-based semantic similarity. This has been applied to various biologically relevant entities, such as genes, proteins, diseases, and anatomical structures, as well as in the chemical domain. This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of ontology-based semantic similarity, its application in cheminformatics, its relevance in previous studies, and future potential. It also discusses the existing challenges in this area, tracing a parallel with other domains, particularly genomics, where this technique has been used more often and for longer.",signatures:"João D. Ferreira and Francisco M. Couto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68930",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68930",authors:[{id:"301438",title:"Dr.",name:"João",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"joao-ferreira",fullName:"João Ferreira"},{id:"301562",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco M",surname:"Couto",slug:"francisco-m-couto",fullName:"Francisco M Couto"}],corrections:null},{id:"69114",title:"Molecular Electrostatic Potential and Chemometric Techniques as Tools to Design Bioactive Compounds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89113",slug:"molecular-electrostatic-potential-and-chemometric-techniques-as-tools-to-design-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:784,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, firstly, we briefly review aspects of the approximation of quantum chemistry, molecular electrostatic potential (MEP), and chemometrics techniques, which are accredited as important tools in the development of chemical science and are frequently used in the study and design of bioactive compounds. Ultimately, we use MEP and pattern recognition (PR) techniques as tools to design nitrofuran compounds with biological activity against Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi). PR models (PCA, HCA, KNN, SDA, and SIMCA) were constructed and demonstrated that 23 nitrofurans can be classified into two classes or groups: more active and less active according to their degrees of activity against T. cruzi. Properties such as charge on the N atom of the nitro group (QN1); the difference between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energy and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy (GAP energy); molecular representation of structure based on electron diffraction code of signal 5, unweighted (Mor05u); and Moriguchi water–octanol partition coefficient (MlogP) are responsible for the classification into more active and less active studied nitrofurans. It is interesting to notice that these properties represent three distinct classes of interactions between the nitrofurans and the biological receptor: electronic (QN1 and GAP energy), steric (Mor05u), and hydrophobic (MlogP). The results of the application of PR models on the validation set evidenced two nitrofuran compounds (compounds 25 and 30) as more promising for synthesis and biological assays, which in the future can be used to validate our PR models.",signatures:"Marcos Antônio B. dos Santos, Luã Felipe S. de Oliveira, Antônio Florêncio de Figueiredo, Fábio dos Santos Gil, Márcio de Souza Farias, Heriberto Rodrigues Bitencourt, José Ribamar B. Lobato, Raimundo Dirceu de P. Farreira, Sady Salomão da S. Alves, Edilson Luiz C. de Aquino and José Ciríaco-Pinheiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69114",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69114",authors:[{id:"97271",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Ciriaco-Pinheiro",slug:"jose-ciriaco-pinheiro",fullName:"José Ciriaco-Pinheiro"},{id:"185502",title:"Dr.",name:"Sady",surname:"Alves",slug:"sady-alves",fullName:"Sady Alves"},{id:"185503",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Gil",slug:"fabio-gil",fullName:"Fabio Gil"},{id:"185505",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Lobato",slug:"jose-lobato",fullName:"José Lobato"},{id:"185506",title:"Dr.",name:"Raimundo",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"raimundo-ferreira",fullName:"Raimundo Ferreira"},{id:"305658",title:"Dr.",name:"Heriberto",surname:"Bitencourt",slug:"heriberto-bitencourt",fullName:"Heriberto Bitencourt"},{id:"305659",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Florêncio",surname:"De Figueiredo",slug:"antonio-florencio-de-figueiredo",fullName:"Antonio Florêncio De Figueiredo"},{id:"305660",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Antonio",surname:"Dos Santos",slug:"marcos-antonio-dos-santos",fullName:"Marcos Antonio Dos Santos"},{id:"305662",title:"BSc.",name:"Luã Felipe",surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"lua-felipe-de-oliveira",fullName:"Luã Felipe De Oliveira"},{id:"309689",title:"Dr.",name:"Edilson Luiz",surname:"C De Aquino",slug:"edilson-luiz-c-de-aquino",fullName:"Edilson Luiz C De Aquino"},{id:"309910",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcio",surname:"De Souza Farias",slug:"marcio-de-souza-farias",fullName:"Márcio De Souza Farias"}],corrections:null},{id:"67511",title:"Chemical Reactivity Properties and Bioactivity Scores of the Angiotensin II Vasoconstrictor Octapeptide",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86736",slug:"chemical-reactivity-properties-and-bioactivity-scores-of-the-angiotensin-ii-vasoconstrictor-octapept",totalDownloads:691,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Eight density functionals, CAM-B3LYP, LC-ωPBE, M11, MN12SX, N12SX, ωB97, ωB97X, and ωB97XD, in connection with the Def2TZVP basis set were assessed together with the SMD solvation model for the calculation of the molecular and chemical reactivity properties of the angiotensin II vasoconstrictor octapeptide in the presence of water. All the chemical reactivity descriptors for the systems were calculated via conceptual density functional theory (CDFT). The potential bioavailability and druggability as well as the bioactivity scores for angiotensin II were predicted through different methodologies already reported in the literature which have been previously validated during the study of different peptidic systems.",signatures:"Norma Flores-Holguín, Juan Frau and Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67511",authors:[{id:"154505",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma",surname:"Flores-Holguín",slug:"norma-flores-holguin",fullName:"Norma Flores-Holguín"},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"},{id:"214504",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Frau",slug:"juan-frau",fullName:"Juan Frau"}],corrections:null},{id:"68385",title:"Chemoinformatic Approach: The Case of Natural Products of Panama",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87779",slug:"chemoinformatic-approach-the-case-of-natural-products-of-panama",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Chemoinformatic analysis was used to characterize a compound database of natural products from Panama and other reference collections. Data mining allowed to compare drug-likeness properties with public and commercial software and to achieve a statistical analysis of the physicochemical properties. Visualization of the chemical space in 3D indicates a high structural similarity. Molecular flexibility and complexity were evaluated using 2D descriptors, whereas the molecular scaffold was obtained using the Murcko method, and these showed few differences between the explored data set. In this chapter, we also present and discuss an example of the application of the chemoinformatic approach using the concept of modeling the activity landscape to study the structure-activity relationships (SARs) of compounds with activity against Plasmodium falciparum.",signatures:"Dionisio A. Olmedo and José L. Medina-Franco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68385",authors:[{id:"300137",title:"Dr.",name:"Dionisio Antonio",surname:"Olmedo",slug:"dionisio-antonio-olmedo",fullName:"Dionisio Antonio Olmedo"},{id:"300293",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",surname:"Medina-Franco",slug:"jose-luis-medina-franco",fullName:"José Luis Medina-Franco"}],corrections:null},{id:"72296",title:"Prologue: Cheminformatics and Its Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92650",slug:"prologue-cheminformatics-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:521,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Azhar Rasul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72296",authors:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul"}],corrections:null},{id:"71022",title:"Accelerating Chemical Tool Discovery by Academic Collaborative Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91138",slug:"accelerating-chemical-tool-discovery-by-academic-collaborative-models",totalDownloads:651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The development of chemical tool compounds becomes increasingly important for chemical biology research projects in many disciplines of life sciences. In addition, they form essential parts in both academic and industrial drug discovery efforts. The required expertise and technology platforms for the identification and optimization of these potent and target-selective small molecules often exceed the capabilities of academic groups and smaller companies. Over the years, several initiatives were created all over the world which address this issue by either creating networks or consortia of academic institutes, public-private partnerships with industry, or even dedicated new research infrastructures for chemical biology. Several of these organizations and their different access models will be described. We will focus in particular on the model of EU-OPENSCREEN ERIC, a new European Research Infrastructure which was founded in 2018 and consists of more than 20 partner institutes from eight countries.",signatures:"Bahne Stechmann and Wolfgang Fecke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71022",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71022",authors:[{id:"308101",title:"Dr.",name:"Wolfgang",surname:"Fecke",slug:"wolfgang-fecke",fullName:"Wolfgang Fecke"},{id:"309687",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahne",surname:"Stechmann",slug:"bahne-stechmann",fullName:"Bahne Stechmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"71724",title:"Chemical Biology Toolsets for Drug Discovery and Target Identification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91732",slug:"chemical-biology-toolsets-for-drug-discovery-and-target-identification",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chemical biology is the scientific discipline that deals with the application of chemical techniques and often small molecules produced through synthetic chemistry, to the manipulation and study of biological systems. Its working framework ranges from simple chemical entities to complex drugs by employing the principles of biological origin. This chapter particularly focuses on the principles and working models of chemical biology to discover new drug leads. Drug discovery is an extensive and multifaceted complex process. Chemical biology uses both natural and synthetic compounds with the best therapeutic potential and verifies them by employing the best possible chemical toolsets. Screening of compounds is done by the use of phenotypic as well as the target-based screening to identify and characterize the potent hits. After the identification of target, it is characterized, and validated by extensive testing. The next step is the validation of hits obtained, and lead compounds are tested in clinical trials before introducing them for commercial application.",signatures:"Ammara Riaz, Azhar Rasul, Iqra Sarfraz, Javaria Nawaz, Ayesha Sadiqa, Rabia Zara, Samreen Gul Khan and Zeliha Selamoglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71724",authors:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul"},{id:"261264",title:"Ms.",name:"Iqra",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"iqra-sarfraz",fullName:"Iqra Sarfraz"},{id:"265962",title:"Prof.",name:"Zeliha",surname:"Selamoglu",slug:"zeliha-selamoglu",fullName:"Zeliha Selamoglu"},{id:"318021",title:"Ms.",name:"Ammara",surname:"Riaz",slug:"ammara-riaz",fullName:"Ammara Riaz"},{id:"318022",title:"Dr.",name:"Javaria",surname:"Nawaz",slug:"javaria-nawaz",fullName:"Javaria Nawaz"},{id:"318023",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayesha",surname:"Sadiqa",slug:"ayesha-sadiqa",fullName:"Ayesha Sadiqa"},{id:"318024",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",surname:"Zara",slug:"rabia-zara",fullName:"Rabia Zara"},{id:"318025",title:"Dr.",name:"Samreen",surname:"Gul Khan",slug:"samreen-gul-khan",fullName:"Samreen Gul Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"68842",title:"Artificial Intelligence-Based Drug Design and Discovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89012",slug:"artificial-intelligence-based-drug-design-and-discovery",totalDownloads:1368,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The drug discovery process from hit-to-lead has been a challenging task that requires simultaneously optimizing numerous factors from maximizing compound activity, efficacy to minimizing toxicity and adverse reactions. Recently, the advance of artificial intelligence technique enables drugs to be efficiently purposed in silico prior to chemical synthesis and experimental evaluation. In this chapter, we present fundamental concepts of artificial intelligence and their application in drug design and discovery. The emphasis will be on machine learning and deep learning, which demonstrated extensive utility in many branches of computer-aided drug discovery including de novo drug design, QSAR (Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationship) analysis, drug repurposing and chemical space visualization. We will demonstrate how artificial intelligence techniques can be leveraged for developing chemoinformatics pipelines and presented with real-world case studies and practical applications in drug design and discovery. Finally, we will discuss limitations and future direction to guide this rapidly evolving field.",signatures:"Yu-Chen Lo, Gui Ren, Hiroshi Honda and Kara L. Davis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68842",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68842",authors:[{id:"187584",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Chen",surname:"Lo",slug:"yu-chen-lo",fullName:"Yu-Chen Lo"},{id:"188117",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Honda",slug:"hiroshi-honda",fullName:"Hiroshi Honda"},{id:"306429",title:"Dr.",name:"Gui",surname:"Ren",slug:"gui-ren",fullName:"Gui Ren"}],corrections:null},{id:"71466",title:"Cell-Penetrating Peptides: A Challenge for Drug Delivery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91684",slug:"cell-penetrating-peptides-a-challenge-for-drug-delivery",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) is a term that describes relatively short amphipathic and cationic peptides (7–30 amino acid residues) with rapid translocation across the cell membrane. They can be used to deliver molecular bioactive cargoes due to their efficacy in cellular internalization and also to their low cytotoxicity. 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The disease is caused by infection with trematodes of the genus
The life cycle of the most important human
The damage caused by schistosomiasis results from the movement of eggs through host tissue, which triggers an inflammatory response and acute, chronic disease. Schistosomes (as members of the genus
Due to increased human population growth, anthropogenic environmental changes, and global movements of humans and animals, there are increasing reports of hybridization events among
The two major
The number of deaths attributable to schistosomiasis is difficult to estimate because of hidden pathologies such as liver and kidney failure, bladder cancer and ectopic pregnancies; in addition, the death rate may have decreased over the past decade due to the implementation of large-scale preventive chemotherapy campaigns [3].
The most prevalent species in Africa,
Chronic disability is far more common than death. Intestinal schistosomiasis can result in abdominal pain, diarrhea, and blood in the stool. Liver enlargement is common in advanced cases, and is frequently associated with an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity and hypertension of the abdominal blood vessels. In such cases, there may also be enlargement of the spleen. Hematuria is the classic sign of urogenital schistosomiasis. Fibrosis of the bladder and ureter, bladder cancer, and kidney damage are sometimes diagnosed in advanced cases. In women, urogenital schistosomiasis may present with genital lesions, vaginal bleeding, pain during sexual intercourse, and nodules in the vulva. In men, urogenital schistosomiasis can induce pathology of the seminal vesicles, prostate, and other organs. This disease can also have other long-term irreversible consequences, including infertility. In children, schistosomiasis can cause anemia, stunting and a reduced ability to learn (although the effects are usually reversible with treatment). Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of schistosomiasis. The drug is recommended for the treatment of all forms of schistosomiasis. Despite that reinfection may occur after treatment, the risk of developing the severe disease is reduced after initiation of treatment [3].
The prevalence of human schistosomiasis in Africa is estimated to be 192 million, which is 93% of the total global prevalence of the disease. About 29 million people are infected by this disease in Nigeria, 19 million in Tanzania, and 15 million each in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ghana, while Mozambique, with 13 million cases, completes the list of five countries with the greatest prevalence in Africa [5]. The heavy burden of schistosomiasis in Africa is attributed to limited access to clean water, poor sanitation and inadequate health services [2].
In Africa, animal schistosomiasis is a common parasitic infection among cattle, although it rarely infects other domestic animals such as goats and sheep; nor does it appear to trouble wild rodents and primates [6]. It is estimated that 165 million domestic cattle are affected by schistosomiasis worldwide. The disease is of veterinary and economic significance [7]. In China, 1.5 million cattle suffer from schistosomiasis, and more than 5 million are at risk of infection [8]. Schistosomiasis among livestock does not show clinical effects in most cases. However, if the infection persists for a long time, it can cause enteritis and anemia, as well as emaciation leading to significantly reduced productivity and growth, and even death [9]. Schistosomiasis in animals is caused by several
The three species with significant animal health impact in Africa are
The distribution of
Like a human, animals are treated for schistosomiasis through the administration of praziquantel. Effective treatment requires two rounds 3 to 5 weeks apart. However, unlike human schistosomiasis, which is frequently controlled by preventive praziquantel chemotherapy in areas where the infection is endemic [15], schistosomiasis in domestic animals is rarely treated in Africa, probably because little attention has been given by scientists to its zoonotic potential.
Environmental and ecological changes due to natural phenomena and anthropogenic activities break species isolation barriers and increase the possibility of acquiring new infections of both human and animal origin. This can lead to the occurrence of multiple infectious species and strains within a single host [4]. Multiple infections of two or more genetically distinct agent species may permit heterospecific (between-species or between-lineage) mate pairings, resulting in the production of a new offspring (species) that can be either infertile or fertile. This process is called , and control [4]. They are characterized by heterotic alterations, speciations, neo-functionalization, and adaptations, called hybrid vigor [16]. Hybrid vigor may increase parasite virulence, transmission potential, resistance, pathology, host use and can lead to the emergence of new diseases [17, 18]. Moreover, hybridization can influence parasite acquisition of novel genotypes, potentially expanding their geographical and host range and leading to novel ecological adaptations detrimental to human and animal populations [17, 20].
Trematode worms of the genus
Evidence of the potential occurrence of natural hybridization within and between human and animal
Typical morphologies of
It was not until 1980, after the invention of biochemical marker technology, that the detection of previously suspected
The number of reported
Several
There is geographic overlapping between different
Natural introgressive hybridization between
The natural hybridization events documented between animal (livestock)
The most important and interesting schistosome hybridization is that between human and animal schistosome species (e.g.,
Distribution of
Zoonotic diseases (also known as zoonoses) are those diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites that are naturally transmitted between humans and other vertebrate animals [18, 34]. Currently, six main species of
Recent studies have reported evidence of some unique schistosomiasis transmission events in Africa. It had been believed that
The magnitude of
Schematic presentation of the causes and consequences of schistosome hybridization.
The ongoing emergence (or discovery) of potential zoonotic
Recent years have witnessed an increased interest in the control and, finally, elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs), and today the control of schistosomiasis has again become a priority on the agenda of many governments, donors, pharmaceutical companies and international agencies [40]. WHO has developed several road maps for NTDs, and many African countries have made significant progress by rolling out national action plans and programs targeting schistosomiasis control and elimination [41, 42]. Preventive chemotherapy is the main strategy for schistosomiasis control in Africa, supplemented with water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions in some regions [43].
Current control of human schistosomiasis in Africa is based on preventive chemotherapy, whereby populations are mass-treated with anthelminthic praziquantel administered in the standard single oral dose of 40 mg/kg body weight. Treatment with praziquantel is currently the strategy of choice and is endorsed by WHO [41, 43]. The ambitious goals of control and eventual elimination are underpinned by targets that require countries to reach at least 75% treatment coverage of school-age children and at-risk adults, with mass drug administration schedules and the designation of target groups depending on schistosomiasis endemicity [43]. This coverage goal is endorsed for schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths in the 2012–2020 WHO road map for NTDs, in which preventive chemotherapy was identified as a key strategy for tackling NTDs [42, 44].
Over the past decade, significant progress has been made on large-scale treatments through integrated control of schistosomiasis and other NTDs. It is estimated that at least 236.6 million people required preventive treatment for schistosomiasis in 2019, of which more than 105.4 million (about 45%) were reported to have been treated [45]. In Africa, 17 countries out of the 40 that require preventive chemotherapy had not achieved the 75% treatment coverage target for school-age children during 2018, when a total of 69.1 million school-age children were treated, representing overall coverage of 62.9% [46]. In general, annual mass drug administration of preventive chemotherapy has had a significant effect on infection prevalence, intensity and associated morbidity among school-age children [47, 48, 49]. However, disease reoccurrence and persistent transmission suggest a need for more intense control measures to achieve the goal of schistosomiasis elimination.
Since the adoption of the World Health Assembly Resolution WHA 65.21 and NTDs road map 2021–2030, schistosomiasis control programs have shifted from morbidity control to disease elimination [41]. However, gaps continue to be observed in the implementation of control programs in Africa. Mass drug administration programs commonly overlook large numbers of preschool-age children, adolescents and adults, thus increasing health inequality and the risk of reinfections of previously treated groups [50]. Schistosomiasis cannot be eliminated in communities where mass drug administration is not ongoing. In the past, a key bottleneck to the implementation of preventive chemotherapy for control of schistosomiasis in Africa was the limited access to praziquantel [51]. Though there is now growing access to this medication for schistosomiasis control in Africa, it is not at the level that is projected to be necessary to reach all people who are at risk or who require treatment [52]. Analysis of data reported on treatment coverage for schistosomiasis shows that utilization of available praziquantel by NTD programs is not yet optimal in many countries [46, 52].
Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of schistosomiasis, as it is considered cost-effective, relatively safe, inexpensive and efficacious; also, donor organizations are willing to provide the drug [53]. Despite increased efforts to control schistosomiasis using preventive chemotherapy, several challenges still exist in reaching the target populations. Until recently, preschool-age children, as well as at-risk adults such as fishery workers, have not been included in many mass drug administration programs despite the evidence of schistosomiasis infection among these populations [54, 55]. This increases health inequality and the accumulation of potentially irreversible morbidities due to prolonged infection [56].
A major challenge now lies in the unavailability of a child-size formulation of praziquantel [56, 57]. The currently available formulation presents several limitations: (a) It is a large tablet, which is difficult for young children and infants to swallow and thus must be broken and crushed to allow for safe uptake. (b) It has a very bitter taste, and so is often mixed with a sweetener to make it palatable to young children. (c) The current formulation of 600 mg does not allow for flexible-dose adjustments for this age group.
Clean water provision, sanitation and hygiene are critical components of the global NTD roadmap [41]. For schistosomiasis, improved sanitation across the entire community to prevent contaminated feces and urine from reaching surface water can reduce or eliminate transmission, by stopping worm eggs in feces and urine from entering water sources, which are the snail habitat [58]. The aim of United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) is to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. WASH interventions are among the most important measures used to control water-related diseases in Africa. However, sanitation, hygienic practices, and access to clean water are inadequate in large parts of Africa where schistosomiasis is endemic [59]. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund, in 2020 more than two-thirds of the African population did not have basic sanitation services and about 18% practiced open defecation. Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania had the largest numbers of people in the continent without access to basic sanitation services, while Eritrea, South Sudan and Ethiopia had the largest proportions and numbers of people practicing open defecation [60]. Furthermore, in Eastern and Southern Africa, about 50 million (over 27%) of school-age children had no access to sanitation services, while 117 million (62%) had no access to hand-washing facilities at school [60]. It has also been reported that nearly half of Africans do not have access to clean water and two-thirds lack access to sewage infrastructure [61]. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between safe water, adequate sanitation, good hygiene and schistosomiasis found that people with access to safe water were significantly less likely to acquire a
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define One Health as a collaborative, multispectral transdisciplinary approach applied at the local, regional, national and global levels, with the goal of achieving optimal health outcomes that recognize the interconnection among people, animals, plants and their shared environment [63]. The One Health approach is a collaborative effort between the human health, animal health and environmental sectors to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment. Over 60% of emerging, re-emerging and endemic human diseases have their origins in animals [64]. Humans are at increased risk of contracting diseases of animal origin because of a wide range of interconnected variables, including mass urbanization, large-scale livestock production and increased travel [64]. Therefore, efforts to unite the sectors working to protect humans and animals and the ecosystem are of paramount significance.
The recurrent hybridization between
Schematic presentation of the proposed one health framework for controlling zoonotic schistosomiasis in Africa.
Snail control can be attempted through snail habitat modifications such as altering flow rate and water levels so as to disturb snail habitat and disrupt snails’ food sources. Such modifications include constructing V-shaped banks in irrigation channels, removing vegetation and draining water sources that serve no special purpose for humans, wildlife or livestock [67]. Biological control of snails using nonsusceptible competitor snails has been reported to be successful in the Caribbean region [69], although it is important not to run the risk of importing potentially invasive snails. Snail control may also be accomplished through molluscicide application; however, since molluscicides have not been notably effective in past efforts, and may cause damage to other organisms [70], the application should be targeted, and carefully monitored rather than widespread [67].
As part of ongoing mass drug administration campaigns, other human interventions should be considered. Therefore, WASH providers must prioritize the reduction of inequality to align with the Sustainable Development Goals agenda, as developed in the recent WASH strategy to accelerate and sustain progress on NTDs [71]. Water scarcity can result in the sharing of water sources between people and animals, which can increase the risk of zoonotic diseases. Improving access to clean water by supplying tap water or wells at homes [65], accompanied by behavioral changes such as avoiding swimming, wading, washing or bathing in contaminated ponds, rivers and lakes, would help to prevent human contact with
The most effective way of controlling zoonotic schistosomiasis in livestock is also through keeping susceptible domestic animals from coming into contact with infested water. This can be achieved by preventing livestock grazing in infested wetlands, fencing infested water sources and supplying drinking water to the animals in troughs [73]. Apart from reducing the risk of infections to the animals, these measures will also prevent contaminated excreta from livestock from entering freshwater sources. Susceptible animals used in wetland areas for agriculture purposes should be replaced with nonsusceptible species or with farm machinery if the purpose of animals’ use is mechanical management. Periodic examination and treatment of susceptible livestock should be conducted. However, reinfection may occur quickly if the source of contamination is left uncontrolled. Regarding wild animals, high-density populations of susceptible wildlife increase the potential for disease transmission. Interaction between livestock and wildlife should be prevented wherever possible, and supplementary feeding of wild animals close to water sources should be avoided. Lastly, scientists and funders should invest in finding
Strong social, economic and political commitments are key elements in successful schistosomiasis control, which requires persistent efforts and a systematic step-by-step approach with increasingly ambitious targets to reach elimination [35]. The disease context is complex, with the interplay of social, economic, political and cultural factors [20, 27] that may affect the attainment of the goals of the NTD 2021–2030 road map [28]. Concurrent treatment of zoonotic
Given the potential impact of schistosomiasis on animal health and productivity, a One Health economic evaluation of extending treatment to animal hosts in Africa appears warranted, and requires data to be gathered on the costs and benefits to both the animal and human health sectors. To assess the economics of One Health interventions, the impacts on both sectors need to be integrated so that decision-makers in both sectors can assess and interpret outcomes in a way that is meaningful both to their sector and to society [74]. In light of these challenges, there is a need to revisit the current approach to schistosomiasis control among African countries irrespective of the level of endemicity.
Since the novel zoonotic
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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Utkin",authors:[{id:"16132",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:"B.",surname:"Utkin",slug:"andrei-utkin",fullName:"Andrei Utkin"}]},{id:"73811",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94103",title:"Introduction to Quantum Computing",slug:"introduction-to-quantum-computing",totalDownloads:1211,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Quantum computing is a modern way of computing that is based on the science of quantum mechanics and its unbelievable phenomena. It is a beautiful combination of physics, mathematics, computer science and information theory. It provides high computational power, less energy consumption and exponential speed over classical computers by controlling the behavior of small physical objects i.e. microscopic particles like atoms, electrons, photons, etc. Here, we present an introduction to the fundamental concepts and some ideas of quantum computing. This paper starts with the origin of traditional computing and discusses all the improvements and transformations that have been done due to their limitations until now. Then it moves on to the basic working of quantum computing and the quantum properties it follows like superposition, entanglement and interference. To understand the full potentials and challenges of a practical quantum computer that can be launched commercially, the paper covers the architecture, hardware, software, design, types and algorithms that are specifically required by the quantum computers. It uncovers the capability of quantum computers that can impact our lives in various viewpoints like cyber security, traffic optimization, medicines, artificial intelligence and many more. At last, we concluded all the importance, advantages and disadvantages of quantum computers. Small-scale quantum computers are being developed recently. This development is heading towards a great future due to their high potential capabilities and advancements in ongoing research. Before focusing on the significances of a general-purpose quantum computer and exploring the power of the new arising technology, it is better to review the origin, potentials, and limitations of the existing traditional computing. This information helps us in understanding the possible challenges in developing exotic and competitive technology. It will also give us an insight into the ongoing progress in this field.",book:{id:"10209",slug:"quantum-computing-and-communications",title:"Quantum Computing and Communications",fullTitle:"Quantum Computing and Communications"},signatures:"Surya Teja Marella and Hemanth Sai Kumar Parisa",authors:[{id:"297632",title:"Mr.",name:"Surya Teja",middleName:null,surname:"Marella",slug:"surya-teja-marella",fullName:"Surya Teja Marella"},{id:"336267",title:"Mr.",name:"Hemanth Sai Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Parisa",slug:"hemanth-sai-kumar-parisa",fullName:"Hemanth Sai Kumar Parisa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73811",title:"Introduction to Quantum Computing",slug:"introduction-to-quantum-computing",totalDownloads:1206,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Quantum computing is a modern way of computing that is based on the science of quantum mechanics and its unbelievable phenomena. It is a beautiful combination of physics, mathematics, computer science and information theory. It provides high computational power, less energy consumption and exponential speed over classical computers by controlling the behavior of small physical objects i.e. microscopic particles like atoms, electrons, photons, etc. Here, we present an introduction to the fundamental concepts and some ideas of quantum computing. This paper starts with the origin of traditional computing and discusses all the improvements and transformations that have been done due to their limitations until now. Then it moves on to the basic working of quantum computing and the quantum properties it follows like superposition, entanglement and interference. To understand the full potentials and challenges of a practical quantum computer that can be launched commercially, the paper covers the architecture, hardware, software, design, types and algorithms that are specifically required by the quantum computers. It uncovers the capability of quantum computers that can impact our lives in various viewpoints like cyber security, traffic optimization, medicines, artificial intelligence and many more. At last, we concluded all the importance, advantages and disadvantages of quantum computers. Small-scale quantum computers are being developed recently. This development is heading towards a great future due to their high potential capabilities and advancements in ongoing research. Before focusing on the significances of a general-purpose quantum computer and exploring the power of the new arising technology, it is better to review the origin, potentials, and limitations of the existing traditional computing. This information helps us in understanding the possible challenges in developing exotic and competitive technology. It will also give us an insight into the ongoing progress in this field.",book:{id:"10209",slug:"quantum-computing-and-communications",title:"Quantum Computing and Communications",fullTitle:"Quantum Computing and Communications"},signatures:"Surya Teja Marella and Hemanth Sai Kumar Parisa",authors:[{id:"297632",title:"Mr.",name:"Surya Teja",middleName:null,surname:"Marella",slug:"surya-teja-marella",fullName:"Surya Teja Marella"},{id:"336267",title:"Mr.",name:"Hemanth Sai Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Parisa",slug:"hemanth-sai-kumar-parisa",fullName:"Hemanth Sai Kumar Parisa"}]},{id:"71370",title:"Complex Space Nature of the Quantum World: Return Causality to Quantum Mechanics",slug:"complex-space-nature-of-the-quantum-world-return-causality-to-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As one chapter, we about to begin a journey with exploring the limitation of the causality that rules the whole universe. Quantum mechanics is established on the basis of the phenomenology and the lack of ontology builds the wall which blocks the causality. It is very difficult to reconcile the probability and the causality in such a platform. A higher dimension consideration may leverage this dilemma by expanding the vision. Information may seem to be discontinuous or even so weird if only be viewed from a part of the degree of freedoms. Based on this premise, we reexamined the microscopic world within a complex space. Significantly, some knowledge beyond the empirical findings is revealed and paves the way for a more detailed exploration of the quantum world. The random quantum motion is essential for atomic particle and exhibits a wave-related property with a bulk of trajectories. It seems we can break down the wall which forbids the causality entering the quantum kingdom and connect quantum mechanics with classical mechanics. The causality returns to the quantum world without any assumption in terms of the quantum random motion under the optimal guidance law in complex space. Thereby hangs a tale, we briefly introduce this new formulation from the fundamental theoretical description to the practical technology applications.",book:{id:"10076",slug:"quantum-mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics"},signatures:"Ciann-Dong Yang and Shiang-Yi Han",authors:[{id:"158670",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciann-Dong",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ciann-dong-yang",fullName:"Ciann-Dong Yang"},{id:"315900",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiang-Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"shiang-yi-han",fullName:"Shiang-Yi Han"}]},{id:"72922",title:"Analysis of Quantum Confinement and Carrier Transport of Nano-Transistor in Quantum Mechanics",slug:"analysis-of-quantum-confinement-and-carrier-transport-of-nano-transistor-in-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:622,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that consists of laws explaining the physical properties of the nature of nano-particles and their characteristics on an atomic scale. The study of nano-particles significantly challenges our current perception of the universe and the fabric of reality itself. Quantum particles have both wave-like and particle-like characteristics. The fundamental equation that predicts the physical behaviour of a quantum system is the Schrödinger equation and the Poisson equation using Monte Carlo simulations. This gives rise to the wavefunction, electron and hole densities, energy levels and band structure of the system which contains all the measurable information about the particle such as time and position, where position is represented using probabilities. This is because particles do not have one definite position during the time before measurement. In fact, they exist as a fuzzy distribution of all possible states where the likelihood of finding the particle in some states is more probable than others. This is known as being in a superposition of all states. When the quantum system is observed, however, its wavefunction collapses so it consequently falls into one specific position. Moreover, in this chapter we present the simulation results of conduction band profile, electron density (classical and quantum mechanical), eigenstate and eigenfunctions for Si, SOI and III-V MOSFET structures at bias voltage 1.0 V using 1D Poisson-Schrödinger solver.",book:{id:"10076",slug:"quantum-mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics"},signatures:"Aynul Islam and Anika Tasnim Aynul",authors:[{id:"316001",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",middleName:null,surname:"Aynul",slug:"islam-aynul",fullName:"Islam Aynul"},{id:"325161",title:"BSc.",name:"Anika Tasnim",middleName:null,surname:"Aynul",slug:"anika-tasnim-aynul",fullName:"Anika Tasnim Aynul"}]},{id:"71547",title:"Dipolar Interactions: Hyperfine Structure Interaction and Fine Structure Interactions",slug:"dipolar-interactions-hyperfine-structure-interaction-and-fine-structure-interactions",totalDownloads:636,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The interaction between the nuclear spin and the electron spin creates a hyperfine structure. Hyperfine structure interaction occurs in paramagnetic structures with unpaired electrons. Therefore, hyperfine structure interaction is the most important of the fundamental parameters investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. For EPR spectroscopy the two effective Hamiltonian terms are the hyperfine structure interaction and the electronic Zeeman interaction. The hyperfine structure interaction has two types as isotropic and anisotropic hyperfine structure interactions. The zero-field splitting term (electronic quadrupole fine structure), the nuclear Zeeman term, and the nuclear quadrupole interaction term are among the Hamiltonian terms used in EPR. However, their effects are not as much as the term of the hyperfine structure interaction. The zero-field splitting term and the nuclear quadrupole interaction term are the fine structure terms. The interaction of two electron spins create a zero-field splitting, the interaction between the two nucleus spins form the nuclear quadrupole interaction. Hyperfine structure interaction, zero-field interaction, and nuclear quadrupole interaction are subclasses of dipolar interaction. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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