Potential application areas for ISMF [1].
\r\n\tWithin this scenario, special attention needs to be devoted to financial implications, due to their pervasiveness. Nobody would question the key role that finance plays to complement the real sphere of the economy and that has increasingly attracted both academics and practitioners. As a result, traditional pillars – such as financial markets, products, and institutions – have evolved significantly, with financial innovation fueling further progress over time. The global side of the coin features – among others – financially connected markets, international financial exchanges, and financial conglomerates that provide valuable opportunities in terms of international corporate finance. On the other side, recent advances have involved a wider recourse to ESG factors, allowed forward steps towards a more inclusive financial system, and have made digital finance a must, rather than an option, even though much remains to be accomplished, for instance, to facilitate access to formal financial channels in many underdeveloped regions.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book aims to examine emerging trends, new perspectives, and empirical applications that deal with globalization and sustainability. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of these important concepts as valuable support to successfully meet the challenges and take on the opportunities ahead. At the same time, drawing upon empirical evidence can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, which also fits within the scope of this book.
In recent years, various methods for sheet metal deformation have been developed including incremental sheet metal forming (ISMF). ISMF has been bringing about many effects for small series production and in rapid prototyping of products. ISMF now becomes the leading research and development (R&D) topics in the manufacturing industry. ISMF is a sheet deformation method that uses simple settings: the deformation tool is a spherical round cylinder without a blade, and the metal sheet is fastened on a support to allow the sheet to deform according to the supported mold. The supported mold can be made of simple materials such as wood, plastic, composite, and so on, so that there is no need for expensive specialized molds. To receive tool paths for a complex shape, the CAD 3-D model of the finished part must be designed. The 3D model will be transferred to the CAM environment to simulate a reasonable tool path. Depending on the shape and complexity of the forming part, the machining process may or may not need a support mold. Table 1 lists the practical applications of the ISMF method that has been manufactured in different countries around the world. Figure 1 illustrates the rapid prototyping products of this technology [1].
\nAutomotive cover panels | \n
Other chassis sheet metal parts of an automobile | \n
Sculpture, architecture, decoration | \n
Required shape by customers | \n
Cover for lighting equipment | \n
Dental, medical | \n
Special parts for aerospace and aviation | \n
Small ship body panels | \n
Potential application areas for ISMF [1].
Rapid prototyping products from ISMF: (a) dental, (b) medical, (c) headlight, (d) sculpture, (e) automotive cover.
ISMF processing is a continuous forming process until plastic deformation occurs locally in a small area beneath the forming tool. The deformed shape is a combination of forming movements in the local plastic deformation region. The deformation process is slow and time-consuming, so it is only suitable for rapid prototyping of products or in series production. However, this method allows for greater formability than conventional deformation methods of material sheet. Forming tools are simple and inexpensive and develop products in a short time.
\nThis method contains new and creative contributions in sheet metal forming such as:
A new type of tool path generation in ISMF to create complex surfaces
Improving the formability of sheet metal when comparing to the traditional forming process
ISMF is an innovative process for manufacturing sheet metal products by numerical control machines (CNC) based on simple forming tools for plasticity deformation to form metal sheets according to the desired shape. The controllable motion of the forming tool allows deforming three-dimensional profiles. This forming method offers many advantages in rapid prototyping of sheet metal products, which were directly constructed from CAD 3-D models to a complete traditional product without middle stages for designing and manufacturing molds. There are two main deformations of ISMF according to concave surfaces (Figure 2a) and convex surfaces (Figure 2b). They show the workpiece surface where the tool is shaping motion. The actual experimental setup used in ISMF is shown in Figure 3. The forming limit curve (FLC) of ISMF process is much higher than the forming limits calculated from the theory of plasticity as well as obtained from traditional test [2]. The forming limit curve from conventional deformations is V-shaped. But, recently studies have shown that ISMF process achieved greater formability and FLC shape almost like a straight line with negative slope in the principal limit strains (major strain, ε1, and minor strain, ε2). In order to estimate the forming limit curve at fracture (FLCF) in ISMF for a cold rolled, Nguyen et al. [3] proposed the combination method for predicting FLC based on in-plane test (M-K model) and ductile fracture criterion of Clift et al. [4]. In the previous study [5], cold rolled steel sheet improved formability by ISMF process and is also used to manufacture automotive structure [6] as shown in Figure 4. In ISMF process, the effects of parameters such as size-step, tool-down step, tool radius, etc. on formability are very important. The influences of the main material parameters of the sheet material on the formability of ISMF had been studied in several published papers. In order to demonstrate the formability improvement for sheet metal by ISMF process using rotational tool (RISF), both empirical and simulation studies [7, 8] have been carried out for a magnesium sheet alloy. They concluded that heat generation in the contact zone between forming tool and metal sheet would affect formability of light alloy sheet materials such as titanium and magnesium alloy. With light alloy structures, titanium alloy and magnesium alloy have many advantages when compared to steel, cast metal, and aluminum alloy. However, the structure of titanium and magnesium alloys is limited by the formability at room temperature due to the tightly packed hexagonal structure. In order to apply these light alloys widely in industry, many studies have investigated the ability of these alloys to form at elevated temperatures and concluded that magnesium and titanium alloys have the best formability in the temperature range of 200–800°C by experiments and corresponding simulations as shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
\nForming concave surface (a) and convex surface (b).
ISMF experimental setup: lower mold, clamping, metal sheet and forming tool.
Incremental sheet forming for automobile shape [
When the mold has a convex surface shape, the forming device must be equipped with a hydraulic clamping system to hold the metal sheet firmly in the proper working position. In the case of concave molded surfaces, metal plates can be fixed on the clamping system. This is a suitable machining method for small series production, prototype production, and shaping of complex surfaces used in aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding, medical industries, and so on. This method is being applied to reduce costs related to specialized molds used for processing mass production in traditional deformation machining.
\n\nTable 2 lists the basic parameters used for ISMF. The influence of these parameters on the formability of different materials has been studied by many researchers around the world. The conclusions about the influence of parameters on various sheet materials are different, and there is no general rule for each specific effect except the effect of the tool diameter. In general, the conclusions can be generalized as follows: when increasing the thickness of sheet metal, reducing the size of the tool and reducing the down step will tend to increase the formability of the sheet metal. It can be explained why the results are not uniform because the parameter areas used for each research are different. In addition, there is a reciprocal interplay between the parameters that affect the formability of the sheet material.
\nParameters | \nSymbol | \nValue | \n
---|---|---|
Radius of forming tools | \nrt\n | \n5–15 (mm) | \n
Metal sheet thickness | \nto\n | \n0.5–3 (mm) | \n
Down step | \nz | \n0.1–2 (mm) | \n
Tilt angle after deformation | \nψmax\n | \nto 90(°) | \n
Deformation speed | \nS | \n500–2000 (mm/min) | \n
Axial force | \nFA\n | \n300–1000 (N) | \n
Horizontal bending force | \nFb\n | \n100–500 (N) | \n
Basic parameters of ISMF.
The history of ISMF was started in 1967 when Leszak [9] obtained a patent for the solution: “Equipment and process of ISMF.” The idea was to be ahead of its time, but subsequent studies were not conducted until the 1990s when studies were conducted mainly on circular-shaped workpieces and products could be shaped on horizontal lathes.
\nIn 2001, along with the development of three-axis CNC milling centers, the method of ISMF was continuously deployed. Previously only specialized CNC machines were used for this shaping process. This is the starting point for studies conducted outside Japan. Some of the most active researchers since then can be listed as Jeswiet et al. [10]. Although it has been more than three decades of research and development, the technology of ISMF applied in rapid prototyping is still a hot topic to be further studied by the following reasons: Accuracy of deformed products are still limited; the heat generation by the contact and friction between the forming tool and the material sheet is significant; there are high surface roughness and low productivity. Some recent applications of ISMF process have been summarized by several researchers [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
\nWhen comparing the deformations of ISMF with other traditional forming process such as stamping, clawing, pulling, bending, and so on, researchers have shown that the forming limit diagram (FLD) of ISMF is raised much higher than the traditional forming limit diagrams calculated from the theory of plastic deformation as well as obtained from experiments through traditional testing methods. The forming limit diagrams of traditional deformations are V-shaped. But studies have shown that the formability in ISMF is larger and shaped almost like a straight line in the minor-major strain space. In order to obtain the FLDs of ISMF, they could be based on the ductile fracture criterion of Clift et al. as shown in Eq. (1). The points on FLDs are calculated based on the initial point of the minor-major strain point convergence at the equilibrium strain region; the following points are calculated according to the relationship between the minor-major strain ratios (Eq. (2)) and the equivalent strain function for the plane stress state (Eq. (3)):
\nwhere \n
where
To determine
ISMF method can be considered a new rapid prototyping method without creating expensive molds, and the time to create parts from the idea of the final product is less than 24 hours. ISMS method can also be distinguished as a layered technology process because the products are deformed according to the continuous layers of the tool path. Because the processing time for a product is large, this method could not be applied to mass production. However, the low initial cost makes it suitable for small series of products or rapid prototyping. The cost for a product of the ISMF method is difficult to identify and is often higher than the initial prediction. Products must be created in a CAD system, and tool paths are generated in a CAM system. It will consume about 2–5 hours of continuous work by a technician for a product with complex shapes. The setup and operation times on a CNC machine will also take about 3 hours. Therefore, this method should not be used to manufacture simple products.
\nIn the medical industry, this method can be used to make replacement parts of the human body. Specific examples are shown in Figure 1a and b, where researchers have applied ISMF to create details such as teeth support plates and fragments of the skull with light titanium material. Recently, this method has been tested and applied in the automotive industry to make some new models of heatsink, headlamp, automotive cover, and some other products (Figure 1c and e). Currently, this processing method is still a hot topic in research for many different products and different materials.
\nThe tool path generation of ISMF method is similar to the tool path generation for finishing the surface with CNC machines by the cutting method, where the metal sheets are clamped on a dedicated jig. Along the depth of product will be divided into a number of required forming layers. At each forming layer, from the top to the bottom of the product, the sheet metal will be deformed step by step along with the shape profile of each layer. Every time a forming layer is completed, the elevation
Square cups formed by rotational incremental sheet forming: (a) 45° wall angle, (b) 60° wall angle, and (c) 70° wall angle at which point cracks occurred [
Deformed shape in finite element simulation: (a) 45° wall angle, (b) 60° wall angle, and (c) 70° wall angle [
Forming limiting curves of ISMF compared to traditional FLC methods [
Tool path generation ISMF simulation and experiment.
Intersection point recognition.
Calculation of tool location points (CL data).
Tool path generated from CAM software.
Finite element model for simulation.
Simulation and experimental results for square shape with different wall angles. (a) The wall angle of 80°. (b) The wall angle of 45°.
The evolution of deformed shape in FEM of ISMF [
Experiments of incremental forming for various square shape sizes with (a) 80° wall angle, (b) 85° wall angle, and (c) 60° wall angle.
Obtained forming limit based on the maximum wall angle versus maximum deformed height [
Simulation and rapid prototyping of complex surfaces. (a) Intermediate deformations, and (b) Final shape.
Types of errors occurring during ISMF process. (a) Deformation at tool stroke h = 8.5 mm, (b) Deformation at tool stroke h = 17 mm, and (c) Final results at tool stroke h = 22 mm.
The first method is the basic programming through the use of MATLAB software which was implemented as follows: the initial CAD model is stored as standard triangular language (STL) files, which include a list of triangular shapes that describes the outer surface of the CAD object. These triangular surfaces are described by a set of X, Y, and Z coordinates for three vertices and a normal vector. To find the internal intersection points of the triangle used for calculating the tool position at each Z layer, the points are projected in the radial direction from the center axis and calculate their intersection with the created surface. Those intersection points must be checked to see whether they are inside or outside of corresponding triangular elements as illustrated in Figure 9. After finding the points in the inner domain of the triangle, it is possible to calculate the position points of the tool according to Eq. (6) and Figure 10.
\nwhere
The second method used to calculate tool position points is to immediately utilize the advantage of CAM software, where CAD models are stored in IGES file format and exported to CAM environment such as CIMATRON, DELCAM, MASTERCAM, etc. to conduct the simulation according to different types of tools. Usually, the selected tool path type will be a
Numerical simulations for ISMF are still one of the challenges that need to be solved due to the loss of time in the simulation process, and the contact between the tool and the forming surface is always replaced. Therefore, the meshed surfaces in the simulation should not be too complicated, and the tool paths must be programmed and imported into the input files of CAE software such as ABAQUS, DEFORM, LS-DYNA, and so on. This software can provide a simulation of elastic and plastic deformation of the sheet metal forming process. Characteristics such as stress distribution, deformation, ductile fracture, etc. can be easily inspected through the simulation process. The results of the simulation process can then be used to obtain the optimal shape as well as the material properties required for the final product. Before simulating the process of forming deformation, mechanical properties of 3D models, geometric profiles of products, and contact surfaces must be built. Elastoplastic model is often selected to simulate through material properties such as elastic modulus, Poisson’s coefficient, and density of materials. The flow stress curve equations of materials and anisotropic models must be applied to describe the plastic flow rule of materials.
\nMeshed elements used in finite element simulation of ISMF are often shell element models with more than five integral points according to the thickness of the shell. Using the integral points in the thickness direction of the shell element could be replaced by the solid element and described the effects of the tension and compression area on the simulation results. Most shell elements consider the normal stress to be zero in the direction of the thickness, but because the shear stress in that direction may be not zero, then the stress state is not plane stress. Some shell elements consider the normal stress in the thick direction, and they are called thick shell elements. Figure 12 shows the finite element model for the ISMF simulation process, in which forming tools and supported molds are designed and calibrated with 3D software, the blank is modeled with shell elements (S4R), and tools and molds are modeled by rigid surface elements (R3D4). The average size of the elements can be selected to suit the calculation time and desired accuracy.
\nObtaining input data for the simulation of ISMF is not an easy task. The friction coefficients between the forming tool and the material sheet have hardly been measured and determined correctly by previous researches. Measuring forming forces and converting them into corresponding friction coefficients are also difficult. In general, the friction coefficient of the forming process could be assumed in the range from 0.05 to 0.2 depending on the specific conditions of the forming process. Another difficult issue is how to obtain reliable material data. Most studies use standard materials and conduct experiments using conventional tension or compression test methods. However, these experimental data only provide results with lower strain values than those observed during ISMF. Therefore, the representation of the stress-strain curve for higher deformation levels is necessary to simulate the ISMF process.
\nAfter collecting experimental data, this data is used as input parameters for the simulation process. To determine the accuracy of the simulation process compared to the corresponding experiment, the square tower shape with different angles was simulated to predict the forming height obtained until the appearance of the tear of products for materials.
\n\nFigure 13 describes the simulation results. From the simulation results, we can observe the ductile fracture phenomenon occurs with the wall angle of 80° and the forming height of 25 mm (Figure 13a). While forming with a square shape with 45° wall angle, the fracture is not observed even until the end of forming process with the final forming height of 40 mm (Figure 13b). In order to verify the predictability of the simulation process, the corresponding experiments were also conducted as shown in Figure 13. The experimental results are in good agreement with corresponding simulation results.
\nHowever, commercial software is inconvenient to simulate an incremental forming process for a complex shape because the various programs only support simple movements such as linear or circular motions. To overcome this inconvenience, the combination of CAM and computer-aided engineering (CAE) simulation using MATLAB programming to modify input ABAQUS file has been proposed. This method was also applied in previous study to simulate ISF for complex part (Figure 14).
\nToday, sheet metal forming methods based on the deformation of materials play an important role in mechanical production and metallurgy. The growing applications of numerical simulations in the field of sheet metal forming have helped engineers solve various problems in improving the formability and reducing the cost and time of products. Accurate simulation results are necessary for mold and product design. Many factors affect the final simulation results, but the most important input data for the ductile fracture prediction of a product is the forming limit curve of the sheet material. Several studies have been carried out to predict and evaluate the FLC by using experimental and theoretical methods. In addition, this concept has been widely applied in various commercial finite element software packages for technical studies. According to the experimental approach, Keeler [15, 16] tests are popular methods that have been widely used to clarify the levels of FLCs for sheet metals. However, time-consuming and high-cost computing is the main drawback of this testing method. Therefore, considerable effort has been made to obtain FLCs theoretically. Swift [17] can be recognized as a pioneering study on predicting FLC. Hill [18] then proposed a way to improve the accuracy of FLC prediction by adopting necking point criteria. Stören and Rice [19] developed a solution for FLC prediction by applying a force equilibrium between necking and uniform deformed regions. Banabic et al. [20] observed and developed a pre-defect in the material and developed a theory of limited deformation based on imperfections of material thickness. Hora et al. [21] upgraded the Swift diffuse necking criteria and set a modified maximum force criterion (MMFC) by effectively examining the instant deformation state changes until the forming force achieved a maximum value. Some new MMFC models proposed to improve the accuracy of FLC prediction based on theoretical models by solving systems of equations. Currently, the finite element (FE) simulation is an indispensable tool to research, evaluate, and discern physical phenomena modeled by various theoretical and experimental equations. However, the current FLC curves are inconsistent with the experimental results in ISMF. To improve the fitting of experimental data with numerical data, Nguyen and Kim [22] upgraded and introduced Swift’s equation to MMFC and predict FLD curve for cold rolled steel material. They imported obtained forming limit diagram curves to FEM software [23] in order to predict fractures of various square shapes and compare them with corresponding experimental results. In order to verify the effect of tool dimension on FLD at fracture, ductile fracture criterion of Clift et al. [4] should be adopted to predict FLC, simulated and confirmed by corresponding experimental results. After experimentally verified, FLC data were used to simulate different square sizes to show the effect of the wall angle to the maximum height of the square shape and established limits of formability based on the relationship between the maximum destructive height and the corresponding wall angle (Figures 15 and 16). The obtained limit curves could be used to indicate the failure of sound products through the relationship between the wall angles and corresponding maximum height of complex shapes for ISMF process.
\nIn order to perform ISMF for complicated surface products with various wall angles, the designed products must ensure the ability to be formed according to the following specific conditions:
To accommodate with working space of CNC machine
To satisfy the plastic deformation by comparing the large wall angles corresponding to the forming height
To pre-simulate and verify the ductile fracture occurrence (Figure 16)
If it is found that there is a possibility of plastic destruction in a certain area, it is possible to conduct a simulation beforehand to check.
\n\nFigure 17 shows the simulation process and the obtained results after rapid prototyping of complex surface products by ISMF.
\nTo verify and compare the accuracy of the final shape between simulation results, experimental products with CAD-designed surface in ISMF, we can use different sections and measure the shape distribution at different wall profiles and angles as shown in Figure 18. From that comparison, it can be seen that different deviations appear in the process of ISMF such as incorrect tool path generation, error due to tool radius, and error by springback and pillow effect.
\nThus, it can be concluded that the simulation method is a particularly useful method for understanding, predicting, and evaluating the phenomena that occur in the ISMF process. This rapid prototyping method also proves that this is a new and innovative method. ISMF method satisfies the task of researching and developing new products. The proposal steps in this chapter can be applied to the actual manufacturing industry. Products of ISMF are continuously designed and ordered for rapid prototyping sample; when traditional forming methods are not applicable due to limitations on the formability, cost money, and the time for the fabrication of molds, then the ISMF using CNC machine with simple forming tools combined with FEM simulation will prove to be an effective and feasible method.
\nSome obtained scientific outcomes from proposal chapter are:
The forming limit curves of sheet materials for ISMF will be increased when tool diameters decrease.
The high-temperature generation at the contact area of the rotational incremental sheet metal forming process will improve the formability of light alloy sheet materials.
To generate tool path for ISMF process in a simulation of complex surface, MATLAB code should be used to import to FEM input file.
To predict and improve the formability of the ISMF process for industrial sheet products, pre-simulate based on the relationship between maximum wall angle versus maximum deformed height need to perform.
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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"