Results of experiments that were done by using ammonia.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5365",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Adhesives - Applications and Properties",title:"Adhesives",subtitle:"Applications and Properties",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book presents some information regarding adhesives which have applications in industry, medicine and dentistry. The book is divided into two parts: "Adhesives Applications in Medicine and Dentistry" and "Properties of Adhesive." The aim of such a presentation is to present the usage in very different aspects of application of the adhesives and present specific properties of adhesives. Adhesives\' advantageous properties and relatively uncomplicated processing methods contribute to their increasing application and their growing popularity in the industry, medicine and other branches. Some adhesives represent properties superior to those of most adhesive materials, due to their excellent adhesion and chemical resistance. A wide variety of adhesives\' considerable flexibility in modification of properties of adhesives allows adjusting the composition to particular applications.',isbn:"978-953-51-2784-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2783-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4148-8",doi:"10.5772/62603",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"adhesives-applications-and-properties",numberOfPages:398,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"c2b4cabdd0f77b9b7ab6d38eb8392873",bookSignature:"Anna Rudawska",publishedDate:"November 23rd 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5365.jpg",numberOfDownloads:33380,numberOfWosCitations:70,numberOfCrossrefCitations:44,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:89,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:203,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 7th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 28th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 2nd 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"110857",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Rudawska",slug:"anna-rudawska",fullName:"Anna Rudawska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110857/images/system/110857.png",biography:"Prof. Anna Rudawska, Ph.D., DSc, Eng, works in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Poland. She is an author or co-author of 300 scientific publications in Polish, English, Ukrainian, and Slovak, several monographs and book chapters, and patents and patent applications. Her research focuses on the influence of technological and structural factors on the strength of polymer and metal adhesive joints, design of bonding technology, surface treatment of adherents, properties of adhesives for increasing the strength of adhesive joints, and the modification of epoxy adhesive compounds.",institutionString:"Lublin University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Lublin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"915",title:"Polymers",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry-polymers"}],chapters:[{id:"52419",title:"Etch-and-Rinse and Self-Etch Adhesives Behavior on Dentin",doi:"10.5772/64856",slug:"etch-and-rinse-and-self-etch-adhesives-behavior-on-dentin",totalDownloads:1573,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hybridization is a key phenomenon in bonding resin-based composite restorations to dentin, and results from a molecular-level interaction between the resin and the demineralized collagen fibrils network. Nanoleakage occurs when small molecules or ions infiltrate into the hybrid layer. Our work aims to evaluate if the type of solvent and adhesive system influences the morphology of the hybrid layer and the occurrence of nanoleakage within it. Human molar teeth were distributed into six groups corresponding to adhesives with different solvents (ScotchbondTM 1XT, XP BondTM, Prime&Bond® NT, One Coat Bond®, AdheSE® and Xeno® V). Dentin disks (specimens) were cut from those teeth. The corresponding adhesive systems and a microhybrid composite (Synergy® D6) were applied onto them. The specimens were thermocycled, fixed, cut, polished, decalcified, dried, and, for nanoleakage evaluation, immersed into a tracer solution. The morphology and nanoleakage analyses were performed with a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (field-emission scanning electron microscope—FESEM), and the results were statistically processed. AdheSE® achieved the overall best performance. The type of adhesive, the number of steps, and the solvent seem to play a significant role in hybrid layer morphology and nanoleakage within it. The hybrid layer water absorption can determine the adhesion longevity.",signatures:"João Cardoso Ferreira, Patrícia Teixeira Pires, Paulo Ribeiro de Melo\nand Mário Jorge Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52419",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52419",authors:[{id:"186339",title:"Prof.",name:"João",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"joao-ferreira",fullName:"João Ferreira"},{id:"186375",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Melo",slug:"paulo-melo",fullName:"Paulo Melo"},{id:"186376",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Silva",slug:"mario-silva",fullName:"Mario Silva"},{id:"186377",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Pires",slug:"patricia-pires",fullName:"Patricia Pires"}],corrections:null},{id:"52154",title:"Biocompatibility of Dental Adhesives",doi:"10.5772/64943",slug:"biocompatibility-of-dental-adhesives",totalDownloads:2034,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The accomplishment of developing a truly adhesive bond between a restorative material and the natural tooth structures is the goal of adhesive dentistry. Dentine adhesive systems come into close contact with dental and oral tissue, especially the pulp and gingival cells. Due to this close and long-term contact, adhesives should exhibit a high degree of biocompatibility. Biocompatibility is one of the most important properties of dental materials, and adhesives are no exception. It has been long demonstrated that different components of adhesives can be released. Numerous in vitro investigations have shown that released monomers and other components can cause damage to cultured cells. In addition, many in vivo studies have shown that uncured components which reach the pulpal space cause inflammatory response and tissue disorganization. Only a combination of various in vitro and in vivo tests can provide an overview of the interaction of biomaterials with the host. Therefore, it is necessary on a regular basis to carry out and re-verify the biological compatibility of the increasing number of new dental materials. Adhesives should be biofunctional, protective, and preventive, with health-promoting effects that contribute to a better prognosis for restorative treatments and its biocompatibility.",signatures:"Antonija Tadin, Lidia Gavić and Nada Galić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52154",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52154",authors:[{id:"187383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Antonija",surname:"Tadin",slug:"antonija-tadin",fullName:"Antonija Tadin"},{id:"187385",title:"Prof.",name:"Nada",surname:"Galić",slug:"nada-galic",fullName:"Nada Galić"},{id:"187386",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidia",surname:"Gavić",slug:"lidia-gavic",fullName:"Lidia Gavić"}],corrections:null},{id:"52573",title:"Adhesion in Restorative Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/65605",slug:"adhesion-in-restorative-dentistry",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bonding agents play a crucial role in the effective sealing and retention of resin-based composite restorations, which have been increasingly placed and replaced by dentists in many countries around the world. In fact, direct adhesive restoration with composite resins has become the procedure of choice for the treatment of anterior and posterior teeth. However, long-term durability of those restorations may be compromised due to progressive loss of the integrity of adhesive interfaces. This means that no adhesive strategy is free from technique sensitivity. The specificity and proportion of different constitutive molecules, the interaction between them and substrates can differ greatly from one class of adhesive system to another, which can affect bond quality. Protocol simplification has been an inevitable trend that has boosted the use of self-etching and universal systems in adhesive dentistry. However, there is a lack of randomized clinical trials to prove the effectiveness of these systems. This chapter gives an overview of the most important issues in dental adhesion and adhesive systems, as well, discussing their composition and clinical use.",signatures:"Alexandra Vinagre and João Ramos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52573",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52573",authors:[{id:"186163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Vinagre",slug:"alexandra-vinagre",fullName:"Alexandra Vinagre"},{id:"194352",title:"Prof.",name:"João",surname:"Ramos",slug:"joao-ramos",fullName:"João Ramos"}],corrections:null},{id:"52267",title:"Adhesive Materials for Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/64958",slug:"adhesive-materials-for-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:2398,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, polymeric bioadhesives have become known as promising alternatives to sutures, staples, and wires. Traditional wound closure techniques are time-consuming to apply and cause additional tissue damage. In instances of large-scale hemorrhage or minimally invasive laparoscopic surgery, sutures are impractical to apply. Alternatively, newly developed bioadhesives are polymers that can be dripped or sprayed over superficial or internal injuries, solidifying in situ to form a seal that apposes tissue or arrests bleeding over large areas. This review will outline the main categories of polymers that have been investigated for these applications. The chemistry, mechanisms of adhesion, and advantages and limitations of each category will be described. In addition, needs for next-generation adhesives in tissue engineering will be discussed. For the repair of certain load-bearing areas of the body, such as cartilage and the intervertebral disc, scaffold adhesion is necessary for anchoring the scaffold in place and providing adequate transmission of forces. Researchers continue developing new formulations that exhibit improved biocompatibility, strength, elasticity, and degradability. These advances promise to improve clinical outcomes by enhancing bleeding control and wound healing. In the long term, bioadhesives will play an important role in making orthopedic and musculoskeletal tissue engineering clinically feasible.",signatures:"Andrea J Vernengo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52267",authors:[{id:"186942",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Vernengo",slug:"andrea-vernengo",fullName:"Andrea Vernengo"}],corrections:null},{id:"52081",title:"Adhesive Restorations and the Oral Environmental Behaviour",doi:"10.5772/64973",slug:"adhesive-restorations-and-the-oral-environmental-behaviour",totalDownloads:1810,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adhesive restorations are based on the use of materials, which have the capacity to bond tooth effectively. This is possible due to a polymerizing hybrid layer interface created by the use of the Etch&Rinse (ERAs) and self-etching adhesives (SEAs). Bonding using ERAs include the acid-etching removal of the mineral phase from the substrates of enamel and dentine. A hybrid layer results by filling the voids left by minerals by means of adhesive monomers. However, etching dentine may result in too much demineralization and wetness with discrepancies in reinforcement at the bottom of hybrid layer. SEAs avoid the separate etching phase of ERAs using acidic functional monomers. In the two-step SEAs, hybridization is created by the application of a primer of different pH acidity, followed by an adhesive resin. In the ‘One-Step SEAs’, acidic and adhesive monomers are mixed in the same bottle thereby causing hybridization at the same time. 10-MDP mild SEAs represent the better bonding technology in dentistry due to the ability to form a strong chemical bond in tooth tissue. However, adhesive restorations have high vulnerability in the oral environment, which have been attributed to the esterase activity of Streptococcus mutans and hydrolysis by matrix metalloproteinase.",signatures:"Egle Milia, Roberto Pinna, Enrica Filigheddu and Stefano Eramo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52081",authors:[{id:"187630",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Pinna",slug:"roberto-pinna",fullName:"Roberto Pinna"},{id:"194269",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrica",surname:"Filigheddu",slug:"enrica-filigheddu",fullName:"Enrica Filigheddu"},{id:"194270",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Eramo",slug:"stefano-eramo",fullName:"Stefano Eramo"},{id:"194271",title:"Prof.",name:"Egle",surname:"Milia",slug:"egle-milia",fullName:"Egle Milia"}],corrections:null},{id:"52363",title:"Experimental Investigation on the Self-Healing Efficiency of Araldite 2011 Adhesive Reinforced with Thermoplastic Microparticles",doi:"10.5772/65167",slug:"experimental-investigation-on-the-self-healing-efficiency-of-araldite-2011-adhesive-reinforced-with-",totalDownloads:2169,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Newly developed self-healing technologies allow self-repair of adhesively bonded joints without the need for replacing the damaged joint with a new one. This study addresses to define experimentally the self-healing ability and efficiency of the Araldite 2011 epoxy adhesive reinforced with the thermoplastic co-polyester (TPC). Heating the joint results in melting the co-polyester in adhesive, and then it is expected to repair the damaged region by the melted co-polyester. Firstly, before applying the self-healing process, a preliminary study was applied to define whether selected adhesive is compatible with the thermoplastic particles in terms of self-healing. From the initial results, it is seen that Araldite 2011 adhesive is suitable for use in the self-healing mechanism. In the healing cycle, initial crack in the reinforced adhesive was propagated until 30 mm during the double cantilever beam (DCB) testing. The fractured specimens were repeatedly healed in terms of the close-then-heal (CTH) scheme until no healing has taken place. After the healing process was completed, the healing efficiency was defined using the fracture energy values. In this study, the healing process was repeated two times with the acceptable healing efficiencies. It is concluded that the damaged reinforced adhesive can repair itself with a considerable healing efficiency.",signatures:"Halil Özer and Engin Erbayrak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52363",authors:[{id:"186177",title:"Prof.",name:"Halil",surname:"Ozer",slug:"halil-ozer",fullName:"Halil Ozer"},{id:"187497",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Engin",surname:"Erbayrak",slug:"engin-erbayrak",fullName:"Engin Erbayrak"}],corrections:null},{id:"52691",title:"Research Progress on Formaldehyde‐Free Wood Adhesive Derived from Soy Flour",doi:"10.5772/65502",slug:"research-progress-on-formaldehyde-free-wood-adhesive-derived-from-soy-flour",totalDownloads:2279,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soy‐based adhesives have been regarded as the most suitable candidates for wood industry. For a widespread use of soy‐based adhesives, new technologies need to be developed to improve the water resistance. An overview on the methods to improve water resistance of soy‐based adhesives is presented. Denaturants were once considered necessary to modify soy protein. However, water‐resistant soy adhesives could be prepared by simply removing water‐soluble carbohydrates and low molecular peptides from soy flour. In addition, proper grafting and cross‐linking agents help to prepare water‐resistant soy‐based adhesives, which are used widely to bond interior wood composites. In particular, a new type of polyamidoamine (PADA) resin and an itaconic acid‐based polyamidoamine‐epichlorohydrin (IA‐PAE) resin were synthesized to perform as cross‐linking agents for soy‐based adhesives. This review concludes that soy‐based adhesives have great potential for use in numerous applications. However, future work is still needed to make soy‐based adhesives more competitive with synthetic adhesives.",signatures:"Chengsheng Gui, Jin Zhu, Zhongtao Zhang and Xiaoqing Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52691",authors:[{id:"186174",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengsheng",surname:"Gui",slug:"chengsheng-gui",fullName:"Chengsheng Gui"},{id:"194584",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoqing",surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaoqing-liu",fullName:"Xiaoqing Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52127",title:"Evaluation of Addition of Reactive Resin for an Adhesive Formulation of Pressure-Sensitive Adhesive",doi:"10.5772/64941",slug:"evaluation-of-addition-of-reactive-resin-for-an-adhesive-formulation-of-pressure-sensitive-adhesive",totalDownloads:2503,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, adhesive industry is growing, and its development will be important in a short future because it offers good returns, and in some cases it is a better option for packaging and sealing with advantages in prices, productivity and weight reduction. In terms of joining and/or sealing, adhesives are well positioned among joining systems; however, knowledge about adhesives is need for their efficient use and only through proper design of the union can be achieved satisfactory results. In this chapter, a development of a formulation of pressure-sensitive adhesive based on styrene-butadiene copolymers using a reactive resin is reported. Non-aromatic solvents were used in adhesive formulation with the aim of avoiding the emission of harmful solvents into the Atmosphere, and the adequate combination and amount of solvents were found. The effect of addition of a phenolic resin in the adhesive formulation as a crosslinking agent was evaluated. By means Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), the crosslinking reaction was also studied. The performance of adhesive formulation was evaluated by means of dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA).",signatures:"Tzeitel Hernández-Martínez, Beatriz Adriana Salazar Cruz, José Luis\nRivera-Armenta, María Yolanda Chávez-Cinco, María Leonor\nMéndez-Hernández and Ulises Paramo-García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52127",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52127",authors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"},{id:"171043",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz Adriana",surname:"Salazar-Cruz",slug:"beatriz-adriana-salazar-cruz",fullName:"Beatriz Adriana Salazar-Cruz"},{id:"186466",title:"MSc.",name:"Tzeitel",surname:"Hernandez-Martinez",slug:"tzeitel-hernandez-martinez",fullName:"Tzeitel Hernandez-Martinez"},{id:"186467",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria Yolanda",surname:"Chavez-Cinco",slug:"maria-yolanda-chavez-cinco",fullName:"Maria Yolanda Chavez-Cinco"},{id:"186468",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Leonor",surname:"Mendez-Hernandez",slug:"maria-leonor-mendez-hernandez",fullName:"Maria Leonor Mendez-Hernandez"},{id:"186469",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",surname:"Paramo-Garcia",slug:"ulises-paramo-garcia",fullName:"Ulises Paramo-Garcia"}],corrections:null},{id:"52122",title:"What are the Health Risks of Occupational Exposure to Adhesive in the Shoe Industry?",doi:"10.5772/64936",slug:"what-are-the-health-risks-of-occupational-exposure-to-adhesive-in-the-shoe-industry-",totalDownloads:1989,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The term “shoe” covers a wide range of products made from various materials. Organic solvents (OS) are components of various products such as the adhesives which are used in many industries. The shoe industry consumes large amounts of adhesives. This chemical risk assessment (CRA) is to validate the hypothesis of decreasing gradient of RA craft enterprises to industrial enterprises through the semi-industrial. The simplified methodology CRA of INRS was applied. For each chemical, a hazard class is assigned based on the sign, and then the potential exposure class is determined according to parameters “quantity and frequency of use”. Our RA process is complete with ambient measurements for solvents to which employees are most frequently exposed. Adhesives being constituted as solvent mixture, we have conventionally used an exposure index which is compared with the limit values. The simplified method CRA of INRS was chosen because it is one of the reference methods in RA established from the Kinney model. If these atmospheric samples and toxicology tests were made for the first time in the shoe industry in Sfax, they concerned a sample of companies of the three shoe manufacturing processes preceded by a preliminary RA with post-study and inventory of products handled.",signatures:"Imed Gargouri, Moncef Khadhraoui and Boubaker Elleuch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52122",authors:[{id:"186371",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Imed",surname:"Gargouri",slug:"imed-gargouri",fullName:"Imed Gargouri"},{id:"188100",title:"Dr.",name:"Moncef",surname:"Khadhraoui",slug:"moncef-khadhraoui",fullName:"Moncef Khadhraoui"},{id:"188101",title:"Prof.",name:"Boubaker",surname:"Elleuch",slug:"boubaker-elleuch",fullName:"Boubaker Elleuch"}],corrections:null},{id:"52871",title:"Fracture Toughening Mechanisms in Epoxy Adhesives",doi:"10.5772/65250",slug:"fracture-toughening-mechanisms-in-epoxy-adhesives",totalDownloads:2488,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fracture toughness is generally considered as the main properties of a polymer or a polymer adhesive system for measuring the material resistance to the extension of cracks. Epoxy adhesives are generally brittle in nature; however, the addition of a second dispersed phase could induce a remarkable increase of damage tolerance performance by an enhancement of the material fracture toughness. The fracture behavior of a filled epoxy resin is strongly affected by the dimensions, the shape, and the chemical nature of the considered filler. The chapter describes the different toughening mechanisms for polymer adhesives with special attention toward innovative nanofiller such as graphene nanoplatelets and hyperbranched polymer nanoparticles.",signatures:"Aldobenedetto Zotti, Simona Zuppolini, Mauro Zarrelli and Anna\nBorriello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52871",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52871",authors:[{id:"186421",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Borriello",slug:"anna-borriello",fullName:"Anna Borriello"},{id:"194303",title:"Mr.",name:"Aldobenedetto",surname:"Zotti",slug:"aldobenedetto-zotti",fullName:"Aldobenedetto Zotti"},{id:"194304",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",surname:"Zuppolini",slug:"simona-zuppolini",fullName:"Simona Zuppolini"},{id:"194305",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Zarrelli",slug:"mauro-zarrelli",fullName:"Mauro Zarrelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"52676",title:"Wood Adhesives and Bonding Theory",doi:"10.5772/65759",slug:"wood-adhesives-and-bonding-theory",totalDownloads:4518,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this last century, world had grown faster than before; now people need more furniture than in the past century. More furniture means, more particleboards and more adhesives. Wood adhesives are used in every step of furniture manufacturing. Wood adhesives aim to bond wooden materials with each other or with different materials. Today, production with a faster pace is more important. Furniture production lines could be more productive with fast curing glues. Wood adhesives are used in more than 70% of wood products today in the world. The main reason is their use in gluing furniture joints and wood composite materials. In this chapter, readers can find four different topics: (1) technical properties of wood adhesives, (2) environment friendly adhesives, (3) semisynthetic adhesives, and (4) synthetic adhesives.",signatures:"Onur Ülker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52676",authors:[{id:"186443",title:"Dr.",name:"Onur",surname:"Ülker",slug:"onur-ulker",fullName:"Onur Ülker"}],corrections:null},{id:"52991",title:"Dynamic Characterization of Adhesive Materials for Vibration Control",doi:"10.5772/66104",slug:"dynamic-characterization-of-adhesive-materials-for-vibration-control",totalDownloads:1697,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the dynamic characterization of adhesive materials for vibration control proposes. First, the experimental characterization and modelization of the relaxation and complex moduli of the flexible adhesive ISR 70-03 by means of a dynamic mechanical thermal analysis technique (DMTA) are presented. Then, the interconversion path between the relaxation modulus \n\n\nE\n\n(\nt\n)\n\n\n\n and the corresponding complex modulus \n\n\n\nE\n*\n\n\n(\nω\n)\n\n\n\n for linear viscoelastic solid materials is explored. In contrast to other approximate methods, in this work the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm is directly applied on relaxation functions. Finally, an experimental study for the structural noise and vibration reduction in a cabin elevator by means of adhesive-bonded joints of panels is presented.",signatures:"Jon García-Barruetabeña and Fernando Cortés Martínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52991",authors:[{id:"183342",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Cortés",slug:"fernando-cortes",fullName:"Fernando Cortés"},{id:"184840",title:"Dr.",name:"Jon",surname:"García-Barruetabeña",slug:"jon-garcia-barruetabena",fullName:"Jon García-Barruetabeña"}],corrections:null},{id:"52916",title:"Thermoplastic Adhesive for Automotive Applications",doi:"10.5772/65168",slug:"thermoplastic-adhesive-for-automotive-applications",totalDownloads:2970,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this study is to give a general overview on the thermoplastic adhesives used in the automotive sector. Some of the main applications in which the hot-melt adhesives (HMAs) are used in automotive industries are indicated, together with the adhesive characteristics that explain the reasons for their adoption. The chemical and mechanical behavior of these adhesives and the generally used experimental characterization methods are presented and opportunely criticized. In this study, some of the main properties of thermoplastic adhesives are reviewed together with the standard tests used for their characterization. For what concerns the structural performance, single lap joint test is used to determine the shear strength of the adhesive joint. Thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy are used to characterize the chemical properties of the adhesive. 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Syamasundar Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1092",title:"Atrial Septal Defect",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1361c07e99c214eeae3aee284b23f10",slug:"atrial-septal-defect",bookSignature:"P. Syamasundar Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. Syamasundar Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73749",title:"Investigation of Alternative Techniques for Graphene Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94153",slug:"investigation-of-alternative-techniques-for-graphene-synthesis",body:'Graphene is a 2D material, which was firstly discovered by Geim and Novoselov in 2004. They won Nobel Prize in Physics by synthesizing graphene including of sp2 carbon bonds via Scotch-tape method in 2010 [1, 2]. Graphene is a thin nanoplatelet, which can be produced by cleaving of graphite. Graphite can be downed into the single graphene sheet level [3]. Graphene is a one atomic layer having 0.34 nm thicknesses. Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms organized in a honeycomb lattice [4]. It is the block of graphite that is used in pencil tips, but graphene is an extraordinary matter with a multitude of astounding specialties that named it as wonder material [5]. It is a hexagonal shaped plane consisting of sp2-carbon atoms [6, 7]. Graphene can be seemed as either uncoiled single-walled carbon nanotubes or a wide atomic sheet of graphite. Graphene has superior mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, optical transparency, high mobility, room temperature quantum Hall effect and great electronic properties like Dirac-particles having a linear dispersion, transport energy gap and simply absorption coefficient of lights, thus it will become the favorable prospect after the silicon time [8, 9]. It is the thinnest substance at one atom thick, and also fabulously strong around 200 times stronger than steel [5]. Apart from that, graphene is a superb conductor of heat and electricity and has exciting light absorption capabilities. It is truthfully a material with wide potential for integrating in nearly any industry.
Graphene is a highly varied material and can be merged with other materials (involving gases and metals) to synthesize various materials with different exceptional qualities. Researchers proceed to examine its unexplored properties and possible applications such as touchscreens (for LCD or OLED displays), computer chips, transistors, batteries, supercapacitors, energy production, DNA sequencing, water filters, antennas, solar cells, and spintronics. This new 2D material has a prominent importance in present day. It is a quickly developing subject that flourishing novel concepts at incredible speed [10]. Graphene is extensively used substance in electronic industry such as field-effect transistor, transparent electrode, etc. The recent developments in surface area, optical, magnetic, and mechanical properties of functionalized graphene and the unique electronics have arisen new attitude of green technology and creative discovery for present complications such as photonic and electronic usages for ultrahigh-frequency graphene-based apparatus, anode for Li-ion battery, material science, ceramics, light natural gas tanks, medical science, sensors to identify sickness, supercapacitor, solar cell, desalination of seawater, smartphones, computers, satellites, planes, cars, building materials, obtaining protective coatings and rust free cars, nuclear clean up, transistors, sensors, electron microscopy, and bionics.
Graphene molecular structure includes of sp2 hybrid carbon atoms that were presented in Figure 1a. Sp2 hybrids supply σ bonds with adjacent carbon atoms. Each of σ bonds has the length of 1.42 A°. Excellent mechanical characteristics of graphene are obtained under favor of σ bonds.
(a) sp2 hybrids carbon atoms in graphene (b) sp2 hybrids of graphene carbon atoms connected to adjacent ones.
Graphene gathers much interest particularly after Geim and Novoselov win the 2010 Nobel Prize in physics by obtaining it in 2004. To produce high-quality graphene in high amount is not easy and affordable. Most companies are using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) based processes. Also, mechanical and chemical exfoliation and chemical synthesis are the most preferred ways today. Other methods are unzipping of a nanotube and microwave irradiation [11].
In graphene synthesis, starting material is usually graphite. But different starting materials are also used in literature such as; rice husks [12], fenugreek seeds [13], hibiscus flower petals [14], camphor [15], alfalfa plants [16], petroleum asphalt [17]. Graphene synthesis ways are primarily separated under two main groups entitling as bottom-up and top-down methods as seen as in Figure 2 [11].
Flow chart for available methods for synthesis of graphene sheets.
In top-down approach, graphene is synthesized by using graphite or graphite-oxide with the help of different methods. In this method, carbon materials such as graphite, carbon nanotubes are starting substances, and they are peeled by using chemical, electrochemical or physical ways [18]. Main top-down techniques are micromechanical exfoliation, cleavage of graphite intercalated compounds (GICs), unzipping of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), arc discharge, cleavage of graphene oxide, and liquid phase exfoliation.
Liquid phase exfoliation is an efficient and productive way for synthesizing of single and few layered graphene. It has been considered as one of the most feasible approach for industrial production of graphene due to its scalability and low cost. Solvent – carbon source suspension was first sonicated for preparation of exfoliation. Due to not having defects and oxide groups in the graphene products synthesized by LPE, they are more suitable for use in the electronics industry than that are produced by other techniques.
The LPE can form a stable dispersion of monolayer or few-layer defect-free graphene, which only involves the exfoliation of natural graphite via high-shear mixing or sonication [19]. Prepared graphene dispersion was stabilized by used solvent. Solvent type has also importance in productivity of the graphene dispersion [20]. Solvent ensures both the stability of synthesized graphene mixture and its productiveness. Tetrahydrofuran (THF) and N,N-dimethyl-formamide (DMF) are advantageous solvents to get high quality of graphene merely they are poisonous and show low efficiency. Dibasic ester (DBE) is an a nontoxic and environmental-friendly solvent and it was used for cleavage of graphite by Jiang et al. Its surface tension is 35.6 mJ/m−2 and solubility parameter is 9.7 [20].
Graphite can be exfoliated in liquid medium exploiting sound waves to form single layer, Figure 3 [21]. Basically, exfoliation of carbon materials is a relatively economical and easy way to produce graphene [22].
Liquid phase exfoliation.
The exfoliation step of the LPE can be conducted by the sonication of graphite in different solvents. There are two types of sonication: tip and bath sonication. In this study, tip sonication treatment was applied to the graphite-solvent dispersions. Epoxy/graphene composite shows better mechanical properties due to direct ultrasonication of tip sonication, that generates higher sound pressures and intensity compared to bath sonication which is indirect ultrasonication [23, 24]. The direct sonication of graphite in a solvent having similar surface energy to graphite enables a stable graphite dispersion [25]. Several studies have been performed in order to find the most appropriate solvent as well as the optimum operation conditions for the sonication process [26, 27, 28, 29].
The experimental studies consist of two different methods; microwave (MW) energy-assisted method and ultrasound (US) energy-assisted method.
In microwave energy method; graphite (natural flake graphite, grade 3061; purchased from Asbury Graphite Mills, Inc., New Jersey) was used as starting carbon source. Different solvents were used such as 25% ammonia solution (Merck KGaA), N,N-Dimethyl formamide (Merck KGaA), ethylene glycol (ZAG Chemicals) and ethylene diamine (Merck KGaA). Chemicals used in the second cycle of experiments were of analytical grade; n-Hexadecane (Merck, 99.5%), dimethyl sulfoxide (Merck, 99.9%), sodium hydroxide (J.T. Baker, 99%), 1-octanol (Merck, 99%), perchloric acid (Merck, 70–72%), N,N-Dimethyl formamide (Merck, 99.8%), ethylene glycol (ZAG Chemicals, 99.3%), and ethylene diamine (Merck, 99%).
Chemicals used in the ultrasound method are as follows: Graphite fine powder (Extra pure, Asbury Inc., New Jersey), graphene nanoplatelets (XG Sciences, Michigan, US) Dimethyl sulfoxide - DMSO (Merck), N,N-Dimethylformamide - DMF (Merck), Perchloric acid 70–72% - PA (Merck).
The procedure of MW treatment was summarized as following: First, natural graphite is added to ammonia, then obtained suspension was sonicated by ultrasound energy device (BANDELIN ® HD 2200 SONOPULS), under conditions 200 W, 35 kHz, mode 5 and 50% power for 10 min. Secondly, reaction was performed in Milestone Start-S model microwave oven for half an hour at 120°C temperature and 1 bar pressure by applying 50, 100 or 200 Watt energy. Pressure controller was active, and thermocouple was adjusted carefully as shown in Figure 4.
The experimental system with a multimode microwave furnace: Reaction was performed inside a Teflon vent-and-reseal vessel.
0.3 g graphite was dispersed in 50 ml solvent such as DMSO, DMF and PA. Obtained dispersions were sonicated by the means of BANDELIN ® HD 2200 SONOPULS (which is given in Figure 5) equipped with a VS 190 T sonotrode, 200 W, 50% amplitude for 3 hours.
Ultrasound device.
Then, these dispersions were subjected to 60 minutes centrifugation (Elektromag, M 4812 P) at 3000 rpm to remove the unexfoliated part of graphite; after the heavier particles were settled down, supernatant parts were decanted and collected in separate vials.
Different characterization techniques were applied to the obtained final products via microwave energy method in order to determine their properties such as thickness, layer number, electrical conductivity. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis was done via Rigaku D-Max 2200 Series equipped with Cu-Kα radiation (λ = 1.54 Å) at a scanning rate of 3° per minute. The tube voltage was 40 kV and the current were 40 mA. The intensity was determined over a 2θ° angular range of 2–90°. Electrical conductivities of synthesized products were measured by Keithley 2400 Sourcemeter which is seen in Figure 6.
Electrical resistivity measurement system: (a) copper cylindrical container and a copper cap. (b) Electrical resistivity measurement set-up (joiner’clamp and copper container). (c) Keithley 2400 Sourcemeter.
Each sample was measured by applying following procedure; first, it was placed in a copper cylindrical container which has a copper cap and it was compressed by a hydraulic press under 50 bar for 30 min. The electrical resistivities of obtained products were determined by 4-point probe method. Synthesized powder sample were compressed in copper mold with the help of a joiner’s clamp during the electrical conductivity measurement. The conductivity σ was then estimated according to σ = l/AR. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of synthesized products were measured by Perkin Elmer Spectrum Two equipped with a germanium (Ge) crystal (Pike Gladi ATR Ge-ATR) in the range of 650–4000 cm−1. The obtained powder was characterized via ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy. For UV–vis analysis, the dried filtrate which is dried on drying oven at overnight was dispersed in distilled water by agitating via a magnetic stirrer. After that an amount of dispersion was taken into the 10x10 mm vial then it was analyzed by comparing with the water which is reference sample. The spectrum has an operation range (UV Perkin Elmer, Lambda 35) of 200 to 700 nm.
Also, the synthesized products via ultrasound energy method were analyzed via different characterization techniques such as UV–vis spectroscopy, Atomic Force Microscopy, X-ray Diffraction and dynamic light scattering analysis. UV–vis spectral measurements were acquired using a Perkin Elmer Precisely Lambda 35 UV/vis Spectrometer. UV–Visible spectra (Perkin Elmer, Lambda 35) were measured from 200 to 800 nm. Samples for AFM were prepared by dropping the graphene dispersions onto glass pieces (0.7 x 0.7 mm2) and measurements were made in contact (tapping) mode, with 10.00 μm scan size, and 20.35 Hz scan rate by using Digital Instruments Nanoscope. Samples for XRD were prepared by depositing onto glass pieces (0.7 x 0.7 mm2) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained with a Rigaku D-Max 2200 Series equipped with Cu-Kα radiation (λ = 1.54 A°) at a scanning rate of 3° per minute. The tube voltage was 40 kV, and the current was 40 mA. Also, an extensive study of the particle size distribution was carried out by an analytical technique such as dynamic light scattering (DLS) method by using Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS Laser Particle Size Distribution Meter.
Microwave energy-assisted method and ultrasound energy-assisted method were studied, and the final products were obtained. Synthesized carbon products were analyzed by applying different characterization techniques such as XRD, AFM, TEM.
All the results of ammonia tests were summarized in Table 1. According to the results; sonication did not create a positive effect on electrical conductivity of final product. Lower temperature conditions give better yield and electrical conductivity results.
Exp. No | Carbon source | Solvent | Sonication step | React. Cond. | Yield (%) | Elec. cond. (S/m) | E. cond. (After annealing) (S/m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Natural graphite (0.5 g) | 25% Ammonia | — | 120°C, 1 bar, 50 watt | 94 | 52.44 | 58.114 |
2 | Natural graphite (0.5 g) | 25% Ammonia | — | 120°C, 1 bar, 50 watt | 89 | 12.8 | 30.647 |
3 | Natural graphite (0.5 g) | 25% Ammonia | 30 min mode 5 power 50% | 200 °C, 1 bar, 50 watt | 53.5 | 9.06 | 12.047 |
Results of experiments that were done by using ammonia.
According to these results which were given in Table 1, low temperature showed better electrical conductivity results. Sonication step built a negative effect on electrical conductivity results. Also, after annealing step, electrical conductivity results slightly increased.
Another set of experiment were done in order to compare the effect of different solvents on graphene synthesis via microwave energy. The results of microwave tests that were conducted by using N,N-Dimethyl formamide (DMF), ethylene glycol (EG) and ethylene diamine (ED) were given in Table 2.
Exp. No | Carbon source | Solvent | Sonication step | React. Cond. | Yield (%) | Elec. cond. (S/m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 | Natural graphite (0.1 g) | DMF (50 ml) | 10′, 200 W, 20kHz, mode 5, power 50% | 30 min 180°C | 60 | 22.7 |
5 | Natural graphite (0.1 g) | EG (50 ml) | 10′, 200 W, 20kHz, mode 5, power 50% | 30 min 180°C | 88 | 6 |
6 | Natural graphite (0.1 g) | ED (50 ml) | 10′, 200 W, 20 kHz, mode 5, power 50% | 30 min 180°C | 75 | 7.1 |
Microwave tests that were conducted by using DMF, EG and ED.
According to the results which were given in Table 2, the reaction yields of DMF, EG, and ED are 60, 88, and 75%, respectively. The electrical conductivity values of DMF, EG, and ED are 22.716, 6.0002, 7.0967 S/m, respectively. It can be concluded that; G-DMF shows better conductivity performance.
XRD spectra of natural graphite, MW assisted expanded graphite products which were obtained in different solvents such as ethylene glycol, ammonia, and DMF were given in Figure 7, respectively.
XRD spectra of commercial graphite and the MW-assisted graphene products which were obtained in ethylene glycol, ammonia, and DMF.
According to XRD results; all the spectrums show the 002 peak of graphite was predominant in all the four types of graphite, at 2θ° = 26.44° peak, which is characteristic for graphite. Natural graphite shows highest intensity peak at 2θ° = 26.44. The intensity of other two peaks 101, 004 was low at all the spectrums. Layer numbers of final products calculating by using XRD data were presented at Table 3. Layer numbers of expanded graphite products, which were obtained in EG, ammonia, and DMF by using MW energy, were calculated as 1.5 for all solvents. Layer number of natural graphite was calculated as 1.75 by the help of XRD results.
Code | Layer number |
---|---|
Ethylene glycol (EG) | 1.5 |
Ammonia | 1.5 |
N,N-Dimethyl formamide (DMF) | 1.5 |
Natural graphite | 1.75 |
Layer numbers of final products calculating from XRD results.
The results of another experiment plan which covering the usage of wide scale of solvents including n-Hexadecane (n-Hexa), Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), Sodium Hydroxide (50% aq.) (NaOH), 1-octanol (OCTA), Perchloric acid (PA), N,N-Dimethyl formamide (DMF), Ethylene glycol (EG), and Ethylene diamine (ED) were presented in Table 4.
Solvent | Dipole moment (Debye) | Dielectric constant (ε) | Layer number | Surface Tension @ 20 °C (mN/m) | Elect. conductivity (S/m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n-Hexadecane | 0.06 | 2 | 15.81 | 27.47 | 8.174 |
Dimethylsulfoxide | 3.96 | 46.7 | 12.36 | 43.54 | 7.581 |
Sodium Hydroxide (50% aq.) | 6.832 | 57.5 | 10.33 | 74.35 | 10.664 |
1-octanol | 1.76 | 3.4 | 14.02 | 27.6 | 1.784 |
Perchloric acid | 2.146 | 115 | 10 | 69.69 | 20.619 |
N,N-Dimethyl formamide | 3.86 | 36.7 | 15 | 37.1 | 22.716 |
Ethylene glycol | 2.746 | 37 | 5.5 | 47.7 | 6.002 |
Ethylene diamine | 1.83 | 16 | 10.61 | 42 | 7.097 |
Electrical conductivities, dipole moments, layer numbers and dielectric constants of MW supported graphene products.
According to the results, MW-G-DMF showed the highest electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivities of MW assisted graphene products were higher when the used chemicals have 2–4 Debye (D) dipole moments. These results are compatible with the dielectric constants and surface tensions of the used chemicals. Layer numbers were calculated by Scherrer equation and the half-width of the diffraction line β(2θ) (in rad) was taken as the experimental half-width (βexp) and was corrected for experimental broading (βinstr) as described in Saberi et al.’s study [30]. Layer numbers show distribution between 10 and 16. MW-G-EG showed the thinnest layer number with the value of 5.5, which is seen at Table 4. Solvents that have surface tension bigger than 40 mN/m show better layer number results. Briefly, as the surface tensions increased, layer numbers decreased. These results are supported with Hernandez et al.’s study [29]. Electrical conductivities of MW assisted graphene products were higher when the used chemicals have 2–4 Debye (D) dipole moments as seen as in Table 4. When the dielectric constants (ε) get larger, electrical conductivity values of synthesized products increased.
MW-G-PA showed the optimum electrical conductivity and layer number values for the MW assisted graphene synthesis as seen in Figure 8.
Relation between layer numbers and electrical conductivity.
All XRD spectrums showed peak at 26.5° which can be seen in Figure 9. XRD spectra of MW- G-PA also proved that graphite peak at 26.5° shows minimum intensity.
XRD spectra of MW-assisted graphene products.
According to the UV–vis spectrums of MW-assisted graphene samples, which are presented in Figure 10, synthesized graphene samples, which were labeled as MW- G-PA, MW-G-NaOH, MW-G-n-Hexa, MW-G-ED, MW-G-DMSO, and MW-G-OCTA showed peak at 265 nm wavelength that referring sp2 C=C bonds. This result is in line with the previous literature [31].
UV spectrums of MW based synthesized graphene products.
The US-assisted synthesized graphene products were characterized by using UV–vis spectroscopy, AFM Spectroscopy, and DLS analysis. UV–vis spectrums of US-assisted graphene products are presented in Figure 11. Coleman’s team calculated the absorption coefficient of graphene dispersion via UV/vis spectroscopy. Concisely, with the help of the Beer–Lambert law, absorption coefficient (A = αcl) of graphene could be found by using dispersion at specific concentrations [29, 32, 33, 34, 35]. UV–Vis absorbance spectroscopy was conducted at fixed wavenumbers of 253 nm for graphene. A piercing peak at 210 nm can be noticed and one more peak around 226 nm with a little bit less intensity of absorption peak is also observed due to Π-Π* bondings of the C-C aromatic rings.
UV–vis spectra of CG, US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA products.
The obtained graphene samples, which are labeled as US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF and US-G-PA, show peak at 265 nm wavelength that referring sp2 C=C bonds [31].
AFM characterization of final graphene products (US-G-DMF, US-G-DMSO, US-G-PA) were conducted to determine the optimal growth condition by measuring surface roughness and thickness. The AFM images of US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA were presented in Figure 12. The Ra values of US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA are 2.937, 6.343, and 10.103 nm, respectively. The Rq values of US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA are 3.471, 8.046, and 11.748 nm, respectively. The RMS values of US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA are 5.675, 8.842, and 11.910 nm, respectively. Vertical distance denotes the thickness of graphene and it is determined for US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA as 1.638, 2.151, and 10.754 nm, respectively. The layer numbers were calculated via following equation: N = (tmeasured - 0.4)/0.335.
The AFM images of (a) US-G-DMSO, (b) US-G-DMF, and (c) US-G-PA drop casted onto glass piece showing the homogeneous structure of the pristine graphene nanosheets.
The layer numbers of US-G-DMSO, US-G-DMF, and US-G-PA are calculated as 4, 5, and 31, respectively. According to AFM results, best result was obtained with DMSO. All these results confirmed that the US-G-DMSO materials had fewer layers and defects.
Although these techniques can determine the size of graphene products, dynamic light scattering (DLS) is also helpful to measure the lateral size. It is an easy and quick method for evaluating the size of graphene samples [36]. The size distribution of the synthesized graphene samples using DLS are shown in Figure 13. Z-average hydrodynamic radius (Rh) of US-G-DMF is 3846 nm, Rh of US-G-DMSO is 6930 nm, and Rh of US-G-PA is 7137 nm. According to these results, DMF provides graphene products with smallest lateral size.
Lateral size results of synthesized samples, (a) US-G-DMSO, (b) US-G-DMF, (c) US-G-PA.
Microwave (MW)-assisted method was developed. Although many solvents have been studied, carbon product, which was synthesized in DMF, showed the highest electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivities of MW-assisted graphene products were higher when the used solvents have 2–4 Debye (D) dipole moments. These results are compatible with the dielectric constants and surface tensions of the used chemicals. Layer numbers show distribution between 10 and 16. EG has minimum layer number with the value of 5.5. Solvents that have surface tension bigger than 40 mN/m show better layer number results. When the dielectric constants (ε) get larger, electrical conductivity values of synthesized products increased. As the surface tensions increased, layer numbers decreased. PA showed the optimum electrical conductivity and layer number values for the MW-assisted graphene synthesis. According to the UV–vis spectrums of MW assisted graphene samples. The obtained graphene samples, which were labeled as MW-G-PA, MW-G-NaOH, MW-G-n-Hexa, MW-G-ED, MW-G-DMSO, and MW-G-OCTA showed peak at 265 nm wavelength that referring sp2 C=C bonds.
Ultrasound (US)-assisted method was studied. Graphene samples were easily synthesized via solution-based process. According to the UV–vis spectrums, all graphene products gave peak at 265 nm wavelengths, which may be caused by the ultrasonication required for proper suspension using the solution-based process. Also, as a result of AFM analyses, US-G-DMSO has four layers, US-G-DMF has five layers and US-G-PA has thirty-one layers. It can be understood that DMSO shows better solvent effect on graphite exfoliation by sonication process. Z-average hydrodynamic radius (Rh) of US-G-DMF is 3846 nm, Rh of US-G-DMSO is 6930 nm, and Rh of US-G-PA is 7137 nm. It can be concluded that, DMF provides graphene products with smallest lateral size.
This work has been partially supported by Research Fund of the Gebze Technical University (project no. 2018-A105-55). The authors also acknowledge the Materials Science and Engineering Department of Gebze Technical University for providing AFM and DLS measurements.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Fernández-Bolaños, Óscar López, M. Ángeles López-García and Azucena Marset",authors:[{id:"84025",title:"Dr.",name:"José G.",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Bolaños",slug:"jose-g.-fernandez-bolanos",fullName:"José G. Fernández-Bolaños"},{id:"84258",title:"Dr.",name:"Óscar",middleName:null,surname:"López",slug:"oscar-lopez",fullName:"Óscar López"},{id:"84284",title:"MSc",name:"M. Ángeles",middleName:null,surname:"López-García",slug:"m.-angeles-lopez-garcia",fullName:"M. 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Not doing so will forever make Africa fail to achieve a sustainable economic development and create an inclusive shared-prosperity for its people. The African Union (AU), as well as respective national governments and regional organizations, and the international community at large, have in recent decades launched a multitude of policy initiatives aimed at addressing and tackling Africa’s food insecurity and nutrition challenges. Despite those efforts and commitments by the disparate stakeholders, much remains to be done. This chapter presents Africa’s food security and nutrition challenges, and sheds light on the climate change threats and potential consequences of the rapid population growth on Africa’s food security. The chapter concludes with policy recommendations and proposals and makes points about Africa’s bright prospects if food security were to be achieved.",book:{id:"8063",slug:"food-security-in-africa",title:"Food Security in Africa",fullTitle:"Food Security in Africa"},signatures:"Mahamat Kabirou Dodo",authors:[{id:"301440",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mahamat Kabirou",middleName:null,surname:"Dodo",slug:"mahamat-kabirou-dodo",fullName:"Mahamat Kabirou Dodo"}]},{id:"69691",title:"Food Contamination",slug:"food-contamination",totalDownloads:1030,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses food contamination including mycotoxin contamination problems, biological, chemical, physical, and cross contamination. Food contamination challenges are generally referred to the presence of microorganisms or derived toxic substances such as mycotoxin in food that make them unsafe for human, animals, and crops. The mycotoxins can enter food throughout the food supply chain (from farm to fork). In terms of the safety of food, the presence of mycotoxin is a hazard threatening the consumer of contaminated food. Furthermore, it is necessary to know the nature, sources, distribution ways, and incidence of mycotoxin contamination in order to protect people and provide public health.",book:{id:"7913",slug:"mycotoxins-and-food-safety",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety",fullTitle:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety"},signatures:"Anna Abdolshahi and Behdad Shokrollahi Yancheshmeh",authors:[{id:"295585",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Abdolshahi",slug:"anna-abdolshahi",fullName:"Anna Abdolshahi"},{id:"297628",title:"Dr.",name:"Behdad",middleName:null,surname:"Shokrollahi Yancheshmeh",slug:"behdad-shokrollahi-yancheshmeh",fullName:"Behdad Shokrollahi Yancheshmeh"}]},{id:"72086",title:"The Role of Small-Scale Farmers in Ensuring Food Security in Africa",slug:"the-role-of-small-scale-farmers-in-ensuring-food-security-in-africa",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the role of African small-scale farmers in ensuring food security going into the future and the support they will need to face the projected climatic conditions. Severe climatic conditions contribute to the uncertainty in water availability for future agricultural production. Adapting to climate change and ensuring food security requires dynamic interventions that will lead to the transformation of current farming and food production patterns as well as food distribution. Nearly 95% of Africa’s agriculture is rainfed; therefore, developing and promoting rain-fed small-scale agricultural activities is a cost-effective approach for transforming rural areas in Africa and ensuring food security at local and regional levels. This is crucial in reducing vulnerability to climate change and for building sustainable livelihoods.",book:{id:"8063",slug:"food-security-in-africa",title:"Food Security in Africa",fullTitle:"Food Security in Africa"},signatures:"Samkelisiwe Nosipho Hlophe-Ginindza and N.S. 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Keast",authors:[{id:"75123",title:"Prof.",name:"Russell",middleName:null,surname:"Keast",slug:"russell-keast",fullName:"Russell Keast"}]},{id:"69163",title:"Mycotoxins: The Hidden Danger in Foods",slug:"mycotoxins-the-hidden-danger-in-foods",totalDownloads:2244,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites synthesized by a variety of fungal species such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria. These secondary metabolites are toxic and have a significant impact if they enter the production and food chain. Mycotoxins have attracted worldwide attention because of their impact on human health, huge economic losses, and domestic and foreign trade. Although more than 400 mycotoxins have been identified, most studies have focused on aflatoxins (AF), ochratoxin A (OTA), Fusarium toxins, fumonisin (FUM), zearalenone (ZEA), trichothecenes (TCT), and deoxynivalenol/nivalenol due to food safety and economic losses. This chapter will be addressing the type of mycotoxins, its importance in food industry, preventive measures, and implementation of hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) to control mycotoxin.",book:{id:"7913",slug:"mycotoxins-and-food-safety",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety",fullTitle:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety"},signatures:"Aycan Cinar and Elif Onbaşı",authors:[{id:"297267",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aycan",middleName:null,surname:"Cinar",slug:"aycan-cinar",fullName:"Aycan Cinar"},{id:"297270",title:"MSc.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Onbaşı",slug:"elif-onbasi",fullName:"Elif Onbaşı"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"327",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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