5 categories of degradation characteristics for microplastics found in the environment.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10856",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Petroleum crude oil is the main energy source worldwide. However, global fossil fuel resources and reservoirs are rapidly and disturbingly being depleted. Thus, it is particularly important to shed light on new techniques developed for economic production and better utilization of crude oil. In addition, the processes involved in the production, refining, and transportation of crude oil are environmentally hazardous. It is essential to develop cleaner technologies and to find innovative solutions to overcome these problems. Over four sections, this book discusses materials used in cracking crude oil and improving its specifications, methods for reducing or eliminating the hazardous effects of petroleum pollution, and the environmental effects of crude oil, as well as presents case studies from different countries.",isbn:"978-1-83969-533-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-532-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-534-6",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",numberOfPages:246,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1332,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 17th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/102626/images/system/102626.jpg",biography:"Professor Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf is a Professor of Polymer Science at the Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. Her main research interests are the modification and utilization of green polymers in different fields such as the production of renewable energy, wastewater treatment, and reduction or elimination of environmental pollution. She has published more than sixty research papers and review articles in reputed journals. She also has several book chapters to her credit. Prof. Manar is a reviewer, guest editor, and editorial board member for several international highly ranked journals. She is also the principal investigator for some national and international projects dealing with environmental issues.",institutionString:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"196784",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Hasan",surname:"Hasan El-Keshawy",slug:"mohamed-hasan-el-keshawy",fullName:"Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196784/images/system/196784.png",biography:"Dr. Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy is an Associate Professor of Polymer Science at the Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. His main research interests are polymer engineering, including polymer synthesis and emulsion polymerization, and its applications in the removal of organic compounds from wastewater. He is also interested in polymer nanocomposites, synthesis of nanomaterials from wastes, and synthesis of hyperbranched polymers and their applications. He has published many research papers and review articles in reputed journals. Dr. Keshawy is a reviewer for several international journals. He is also collaborating on projects dealing with water and environmental issues.",institutionString:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"702",title:"Petrochemical Engineering",slug:"engineering-chemical-engineering-petrochemical-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"77496",title:"Acrylic Polymers as Additives for Engine Oil: A Historical Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98867",slug:"acrylic-polymers-as-additives-for-engine-oil-a-historical-perspective",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oil undergoes temporary viscosity changes under operating conditions in engines. Therefore, engine oils usually contain polymeric additives called viscosity modifiers. These additives are oil soluble polymers; enable the oil to provide adequate hydrodynamic lubrication at high temperatures and good starting/pumping performance at low temperatures. Pour point depressants are additives which add to engine oil to lower/decrease the probability of wax argument formation under lower temperature conditions. The aim of this chapter is to present the historical synthesis of different types of acrylic polymers, there effect as lubricating oil additives (viscosity index improvers and pour point depressants). In addition, the mechanisms by which viscosity modifiers and pour point depressants work, and method of evaluation.",signatures:"Rabab M. Nasser",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77496",authors:[{id:"219445",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabab M.",surname:"Nasser",slug:"rabab-m.-nasser",fullName:"Rabab M. Nasser"}],corrections:null},{id:"78072",title:"Green Polymers and Their Uses in Petroleum Industry, Current State and Future Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99409",slug:"green-polymers-and-their-uses-in-petroleum-industry-current-state-and-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:199,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The concept of green chemistry has been established to find safe methodologies and environmentally benign solutions for the present and the onset problems. In this regard, extensive work has been carried out worldwide to replace the currently used materials with green ones. The terminology green relies on all the non-pollutive or the degradable materials regardless of their source. Therefore, there are biobased green materials and non-biobased green materials. This review sheds light on several green polymers used in different petroleum industries. The polymers are reviewed according to the stage of oil processing in which they are applied. Furthermore, different modification methodologies of natural polymers are revised. Also, the role of green non-biopolymers in different petroleum industries is investigated. It is worth mentioning that we concentrate our efforts on the utilization of different natural polymers in petroleum applications. Thereafter, some natural polymers such as chitosan and cellulose and their derivatives were specifically reviewed.",signatures:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf, Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy and Abdulraheim M.A. Hasan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78072",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78072",authors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"},{id:"196784",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Hasan El-Keshawy",slug:"mohamed-hasan-el-keshawy",fullName:"Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy"},{id:"203536",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulraheim",surname:"M.A. Hasan",slug:"abdulraheim-m.a.-hasan",fullName:"Abdulraheim M.A. Hasan"}],corrections:null},{id:"78298",title:"Technologies Involved in the Demulsification of Crude Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99743",slug:"technologies-involved-in-the-demulsification-of-crude-oil",totalDownloads:146,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the use of enhanced recovery processes that necessitate the use of a considerable amount of water, mature petroleum reservoirs generate crude oil with huge amounts of water. The majority of this water gets emulsified into crude oil during production, increasing viscosity and making flow more difficult, resulting in production, transportation, and refining operational challenges that have an influence on corporate productivity. Natural surfactants with a strong potential to create stable emulsions are naturally mixed with crude oils. Because crudes with a high amount of stable emulsion have a lower value, the stable emulsion must be adequately processed to meet industrial requirements. As a result, basic research on natural surfactants that contribute to emulsion stability is examined in order to effectively separate emulsions into oil and water. This would need a review of various emulsification methods as well as the proper formulation for effective demulsification. The petroleum industry recognizes the importance of an efficient demulsification procedure for treating emulsions. Numerous studies on the mechanisms of emulsification and demulsification have been undertaken for decades. To guarantee optimal hydrocarbon output, effective treatment is required. The present paper is to review reported works on the formation of petroleum emulsions, demulsification treatments, and characteristics of fit-for-purpose demulsifiers as well as research trends in emulsion treatment.",signatures:"Karthika Rajamanickam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78298",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78298",authors:[{id:"351896",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Karthika",surname:"Rajamanickam",slug:"karthika-rajamanickam",fullName:"Karthika Rajamanickam"}],corrections:null},{id:"79852",title:"Bioremediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100220",slug:"bioremediation-of-petroleum-contaminated-soil-1",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Petroleum is not only an important energy resource to boost economic development but also a major pollutant source of soil. Petroleum toxicity can cause an adverse impact on the environment, as well as has negative effects for both animals and humans due to its carcinogenic nature. Therefore, its removal from the environment becomes a matter of concern. Although a lot of techniques are in use for remediation of petroleum-contaminated soil, exploitation of fungal ability provides a sustainable solution for this due to their ability to survive in harsh environmental conditions. Mycoremediation is the bioremediation technique employed for the removal of toxic compounds using fungal biomass. The fungi have been proved as a potential biomass degrader for complex organic compounds, resulting in the production of versatile extracellular enzymes. In this chapter, we have highlighted the basic concept of mycoremediation, the enzymatic system involved in the degradation process, the mechanism of fungal degradation, and factors affecting the degradation process. The chapter also provides useful insight for greater future understanding and improvement of the technique towards solving the problem of petroleum-contaminated soils.",signatures:"Raman Kumar Ravi, Shalini Gupta and Reeta Verma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79852",authors:[{id:"354139",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Raman",surname:"Kumar Ravi",slug:"raman-kumar-ravi",fullName:"Raman Kumar Ravi"},{id:"435934",title:"Dr.",name:"Shalini",surname:"Gupta",slug:"shalini-gupta",fullName:"Shalini Gupta"},{id:"435935",title:"Dr.",name:"Reeta",surname:"Verma",slug:"reeta-verma",fullName:"Reeta Verma"}],corrections:null},{id:"77633",title:"Biotechnological Potentials of Microbe Assisted Eco-Recovery of Crude Oil Impacted Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98808",slug:"biotechnological-potentials-of-microbe-assisted-eco-recovery-of-crude-oil-impacted-environment",totalDownloads:161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Globally, the environment is facing a very challenging situation with constant influx of crude oil and its derivatives due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. The release of this essential energy source has caused tremendous consequences on land, water, groundwater, air and biodiversity. Crude oil is a very complex and variable mixture of thousands of individual compounds that can be degraded with microbes with corresponding enzymatic systems harboring the genes. With advances in biotechnology, bioremediation has become one of the most rapidly developing fields of environmental restoration, utilizing microorganisms to reduce the concentration and toxicity of various chemical pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalate esters, nitroaromatic compounds and industrial solvents. Different remediation methods have been introduced and applied with varied degrees of success in terms of reduction in contamination concentration without considering ecotoxicity and restoration of biodiversity. Researchers have now developed methods that consider ecotoxicology, environmental sustainability and ecorestoration in remediation of crude oil impacted sites and they are categorized as biotechnological tools such as bioremediation. The approach involves a natural process of microorganisms with inherent genetic capabilities completely mineralizing/degrading contaminants into innocuous substances. Progressive advances in bioremediation such as the use of genetically engineered microbes have become an improved system for empowering microbes to degrade very complex recalcitrant substances through the modification of rate-limiting steps in the metabolic pathway of hydrocarbon degrading microbes to yield increase in mineralization rates or the development of completely new metabolic pathways incorporated into the bacterial strains for the degradation of highly persistent compounds. Other areas discussed in this chapter include the biosurfactant-enhanced bioremediation, microbial and plant bioremediation (phytoremediation), their mechanism of action and the environmental factors influencing the processes.",signatures:"Chioma Bertha Ehis-Eriakha, Stephen Eromosele Akemu, Simon Obgaji Otumala and Chinyere Augusta Ajuzieogu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77633",authors:[{id:"354336",title:"Dr.",name:"Chioma Bertha",surname:"Ehis-Eriakha",slug:"chioma-bertha-ehis-eriakha",fullName:"Chioma Bertha Ehis-Eriakha"},{id:"420201",title:"Mr.",name:"Simon",surname:"Obgaji Otumala",slug:"simon-obgaji-otumala",fullName:"Simon Obgaji Otumala"},{id:"421127",title:"Mr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Eromosele Akemu",slug:"stephen-eromosele-akemu",fullName:"Stephen Eromosele Akemu"},{id:"421198",title:"Mr.",name:"Chinyere",surname:"Augusta Ajuzieogu",slug:"chinyere-augusta-ajuzieogu",fullName:"Chinyere Augusta Ajuzieogu"}],corrections:null},{id:"78507",title:"Actinomycetes as An Environmental Scrubber",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99187",slug:"actinomycetes-as-an-environmental-scrubber",totalDownloads:173,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biotechnological tools engaged in the bioremediation process are in reality, sophisticated and dynamic in character. For specialized reasons, a broad variety of such devices are employed to produce a safe and balanced environment free of all types of toxins and so make life simpler for humans on planet Earth. Actinomycetes is one of these extremely important and functionally helpful groups. They can be used for a variety of bioremediation objectives, including biotransformation, biodegradation, and many more. Actinomycetes are one of the most varied groups of filamentous bacteria, capable of prospering in a variety of ecological settings because to their bioactive capabilities. They’re famous for their metabolic diversity, which includes the synthesis of commercially useful primary and secondary metabolites. They produce a range of enzymes capable of totally destroying all of the constituents. They are well-known for their ability to produce bioactive secondary metabolites. Members of various genera of Actinomycetes show promise for application in the bioconversion of underutilized urban and agricultural waste into high-value chemical compounds. The most potential source is a wide range of important enzymes, some of which are synthesized on an industrial scale, but there are many more that have yet to be discovered. Bioremediation methods, which use naturally existing microbes to clear residues and contaminated regions of dangerous organic chemicals, are improving all the time. In the realm of biotechnological science, the potential of actinomycetes for bioremediation and the synthesis of secondary metabolites has opened up intriguing prospects for a sustainable environment.",signatures:"Sutaria Devanshi, Kamlesh R. Shah, Sudipti Arora and Sonika Saxena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78507",authors:[{id:"350257",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sutaria",surname:"Devanshi",slug:"sutaria-devanshi",fullName:"Sutaria Devanshi"},{id:"357526",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamlesh R.",surname:"Shah",slug:"kamlesh-r.-shah",fullName:"Kamlesh R. Shah"},{id:"420019",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonika",surname:"Saxena",slug:"sonika-saxena",fullName:"Sonika Saxena"},{id:"426335",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipti",surname:"Arora",slug:"sudipti-arora",fullName:"Sudipti Arora"}],corrections:null},{id:"79932",title:"Gasoline Lubricity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101302",slug:"gasoline-lubricity",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is concluded that the lubricity of gasoline is the least well understood of all three fuels due largely to the lack of a reliable test method for measuring the lubricity of such a very volatile and contamination-sensitive material. To overcome this limitation, the development of a simple and easy methodology based on the general standard ASTM G-133 have been produced. This method is first used to investigate the lubricity of commercial gasolines to obtain some baseline data for further study. A comparison of the overall lubricity level of diesel fuel and gasoline fuel indicates that additive-free gasolines have significantly poorer lubricity than highly-refined, Swedish Class I diesel fuel, while commercial, detergent-containing gasolines range from slightly better to significantly poorer than a Swedish Class I diesel fuel. Especially LRP (lead replacement) gasolines developed a tests on refinery streams used to blend gasoline also show quite varied wear behaviour. Gasoline lubricity can be significantly improved by adding small amount of diesel lubricity additives. The results indicate that the type of fuel is a significant factor for discriminating the lubrication properties of each type of gasoline fuel and that lubricity is affected by bulk and trace composition characteristics of the fuel.",signatures:"Panagiotis Arkoudeas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79932",authors:[{id:"326550",title:"Dr.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Arkoudeas",slug:"panagiotis-arkoudeas",fullName:"Panagiotis Arkoudeas"}],corrections:null},{id:"77067",title:"Oil Losses Problem in Oil and Gas Industries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97553",slug:"oil-losses-problem-in-oil-and-gas-industries",totalDownloads:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oil losses is a problem that often arises in oil and gas industries either in onshore or offshore area. There is a loss discrepancy between total quantities from shippers and measurement in the storage tanks; the total sending volume is lower than the measured volume in the mixing tank in a gathering station; this is known as oil losses. When this occurs, an agreement to determine a fair share of the losses must be made. There are two categories of oil losses, they are individual and group losses. Individual loss occurs when oil from one shipper has not been mixed yet with other oils. This includes emulsion and evaporative losses. Group loss occurs during mixing oils in the same storage tank or pipeline. Furthermore, by knowing the causes of oil losses, a way to minimize oil losses can be determined.",signatures:"Yulius Deddy Hermawan, Dedy Kristanto and Hariyadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77067",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77067",authors:[{id:"343655",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulius Deddy",surname:"Hermawan",slug:"yulius-deddy-hermawan",fullName:"Yulius Deddy Hermawan"},{id:"344150",title:"Dr.",name:"Dedy",surname:"Kristanto",slug:"dedy-kristanto",fullName:"Dedy Kristanto"},{id:"419548",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Hariyadi",slug:"hariyadi",fullName:"Hariyadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"81472",title:"Improving Reserves and Well Productivity Using Modern Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102897",slug:"improving-reserves-and-well-productivity-using-modern-technologies",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The oil trapped in a reservoir rock through geological processes over millions of years is called the Original Oil in Place (OOIP). Oil recovery factor (RF) represents the recoverable fraction of OOIP. We do not have any control on the quantity of OOIP. However, the volume that we can recover is partly in our control. Through proper well placement, engineering, and production technologies, we can recover anywhere from 5 to 70% of OOIP. Exactly how much we will recover depends on the techniques employed and the nature of the reservoir. The economically recoverable oil is called the reserves. In this chapter, we will talk about various oil field technologies that can be employed to maximize petroleum reserves. We will explore some emerging technologies and processes that have helped some fields achieve 70% recovery factor while others are trailing behind, stuck at an average of 35% recovery factor, some as low as 10%. Despite all the hype, and many decades of research, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is contributing just about 4% of total world production, and most of it is from thermal EOR. We need a profound shift in the EOR technology application required to make it simple and widely applicable.",signatures:"Haq Minhas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81472",authors:[{id:"351477",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Haq",surname:"Minhas",slug:"haq-minhas",fullName:"Haq Minhas"}],corrections:null},{id:"76907",title:"Connect Two Crude Oil Distillation Units with One Crude Oil De-Salter in Dewania Refinery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98182",slug:"connect-two-crude-oil-distillation-units-with-one-crude-oil-de-salter-in-dewania-refinery",totalDownloads:120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Crude oil, which exported to refineries, already contains salt, water, and fouling crude oil received with salt content not less than 50 ppm. Dewania refinery with a capacity of 20,000 BPSD, which serves with two crude distillation units, each unit with a capacity of 10,000 BPSD, which operate without crude desalter. In an aim to reduce the effects of salts, water and, fouling associated with crude oil, two crude distillation units connected with one crude oil desalter with a capacity of 20,000 BPSD (one desalter). crude oil desalter transferred from (Daura Refinery) to Dewania refinery, in aim to reduce salt content from 50ppm to 5 ppm and mitigate water and other fouling. Crude oil desalter installed in the middle distance between two crude distillations units (90 m from each unit isometric piping). Crude oil, which is pumped by a charge pump to preheated in crude oil distillation unit with a train of heat exchangers. When the pipeline size increased from 4″ to 6″, which reduces the pressure dropped from 0.946 to 0.15 bar for each transfer pipeline and in consequence, the total pressure drop reduces from 11.011 to 10.215 bar for the whole unit. In an aim to reduce the heat dissipated from surface of transfer pipeline. Each transfer pipeline insulated with calcium silicate insulator, the thickness of insulator increased from 38mm to 50mm in an aim to reduce heat loss from −101.56 watts/m to −84.282 watts/m, which reduced temperature difference between the surface pipeline and environment from 13 to 10°C.",signatures:"Omar Mahmoud Waheeb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76907",authors:[{id:"341583",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Omar",surname:"Mahmoud Waheeb",slug:"omar-mahmoud-waheeb",fullName:"Omar Mahmoud Waheeb"}],corrections:null},{id:"77342",title:"Green Technology for Crude Oil Processed Water Treatment: A Practical Approach for Nigeria Petroleum Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98770",slug:"green-technology-for-crude-oil-processed-water-treatment-a-practical-approach-for-nigeria-petroleum-",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cleaner production is the key to environmental sustainability. Conversion of crude oil to various beneficial products is responsible for the contamination of air, water, and soil which are harmful to human, plants, animals, public health and the environment. Adequately treating produced water is beneficial for irrigation, wildlife consumption, industrial water and for domestic purposes. Therefore, green technology for treatment of crude oil processed water would provide the environmental friendliness needed for prolong utilization of our natural resources. Hence, the aim of this book chapter is to investigate the potentials of constructed wetland as a promising, effective and environmentally friendly alternative for secondary petroleum refinery wastewater treatment. Planted and unplanted mesocosm scale experiment with real secondary refinery wastewater was used for the purpose of the study. The parameters investigated were temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, total suspended solids, carbon oxygen demand, total petroleum hydrocarbon and oil and grease. The results revealed that Typha latifolia planted VSSF CWs effectively treated organic contaminants in secondary refinery wastewater with a better performance than the unplanted control VSSF CWs. The chromatographs for wastewater and T. latifolia samples showed a hydrocarbon distribution between n-C9 to n-C24 indicating abundance of lower weight hydrocarbon contamination.",signatures:"Hassana Ibrahim Mustapha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77342",authors:[{id:"249994",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Hassana Ibrahim",surname:"Mustapha",slug:"hassana-ibrahim-mustapha",fullName:"Hassana Ibrahim Mustapha"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2288",title:"Crude Oil Emulsions",subtitle:"Composition Stability and Characterization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d237bdec7bb1475639149b044fac69f5",slug:"crude-oil-emulsions-composition-stability-and-characterization",bookSignature:"Manar El-Sayed Abdel-Raouf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2288.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tThis book on insecticides addresses aspects of types or groups of insecticides, history of insecticides, impact on beneficial fauna of insects and mites used in the biological control of pests, effect on pollinating insects, effect on fish and birds and other vertebrate animals, effect on man and his settlements, as well as aspects such as resistance of pests to insecticides and resistance of biological control to insecticides. It also deals with the regulation of pesticides in world food exports, addresses how pesticide toxicity studies are carried out, mean lethal dose, mean lethal concentration, maximum residue limits, residual effect and tolerance, among others. It is intended for university and government professionals, undergraduate and graduate students as well as the general public.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims to fill an important gap on insecticides, a very fashionable topic in recent times due to the negative impacts that they can cause when applied more. The text will address aspects of the benefits they have brought to humanity and the importance of responsibility in its correct and responsible application. Due to the above, this book is born, which seeks for society to understand how it develops and why insecticides are important for a safe and sustainable diet.
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He has participated in 15 research projects and presented more than 100 works in scientific congresses in these research areas, both inside and outside of Chile.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193813/images/system/193813.png",biography:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz received an Agricultural Engineering degree from the Austral University of Chile in 1986 and a Doctor of Agricultural Engineering with a mention in Plant Protection from the Polytechnic University of Madrid in 1994. He has worked on more than seventeen research projects on agricultural entomology, biodiversity, and beekeeping. He has published eighty-five scientific articles in national and foreign specialty journals. He has written one book and five book chapters in his specialty. In addition, he has been editor of four books on applied entomology. He has presented more than 100 works in different national and international scientific congresses on entomology and beekeeping. He has directed more than eighty undergraduate and graduate degree theses. He is a member of the scientific communities of beekeeping and entomology and has continued to organize more than twenty scientific congresses and seminars in his specialty. He is a reviewer for scientific journals and books. He has been president and director of different scientific societies and advisor to the Chilean Beekeeping Network, where he is also a consultant to the Latin American Beekeeping Federation for the congresses held in different countries. He is also an advisor to private companies in the agricultural sector on beekeeping and pest control issues.",institutionString:"University of La Frontera",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of La Frontera",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"79719",title:"Effect of Insecticides on Natural-Enemies",slug:"effect-of-insecticides-on-natural-enemies",totalDownloads:87,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81769",title:"Biological Control of Agricultural Insect Pests",slug:"biological-control-of-agricultural-insect-pests",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"79231",title:"Review of Insecticide Resistance and Its Underlying Mechanisms in Tribolium castaneum",slug:"review-of-insecticide-resistance-and-its-underlying-mechanisms-in-tribolium-castaneum",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"78683",title:"The Effect of Neonicotinoid Insecticides on the Structure and Stability of Bio-Macromolecules",slug:"the-effect-of-neonicotinoid-insecticides-on-the-structure-and-stability-of-bio-macromolecules",totalDownloads:139,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"79029",title:"Insecticide’s Disappearance after Field Treatment and during Processing into Byproducts",slug:"insecticide-s-disappearance-after-field-treatment-and-during-processing-into-byproducts",totalDownloads:71,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80559",title:"Insecticide Use and Application in Cameroon",slug:"insecticide-use-and-application-in-cameroon",totalDownloads:47,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80586",title:"Determination of Pesticides Residues in Bee Products: An Overview of the Current Analytical Methods",slug:"determination-of-pesticides-residues-in-bee-products-an-overview-of-the-current-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"191583",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Mejias",slug:"enrique-mejias",fullName:"Enrique Mejias"},{id:"193079",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Garrido",slug:"tatiana-garrido",fullName:"Tatiana Garrido"}]},{id:"79709",title:"Nano-Biopesticides as an Emerging Technology for Pest Management",slug:"nano-biopesticides-as-an-emerging-technology-for-pest-management",totalDownloads:243,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81746",title:"Effect of Biodegradable Multiple Pesticides on Aquatic Biospecies",slug:"effect-of-biodegradable-multiple-pesticides-on-aquatic-biospecies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80329",title:"Insecticide Resistance in Whiteflies Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius): Current Global Status",slug:"insecticide-resistance-in-whiteflies-bemisia-tabaci-gennadius-current-global-status",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80129",title:"Chemical Pesticides and Food Safety",slug:"chemical-pesticides-and-food-safety",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80128",title:"Revolutionizing Integrated Pest Management Using Nanobiotechnology: A Novel Approach to Curb Overuse of Synthetic Insecticides",slug:"revolutionizing-integrated-pest-management-using-nanobiotechnology-a-novel-approach-to-curb-overuse-",totalDownloads:66,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"79339",title:"Insect Resistance to Neonicotinoids - 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Of all the plastics ever produced it is estimated that 10% has been released into the ocean [1]. Furthermore about 33% of the plastic produced every year is designed to be single use and is discarded within a year [2]. Plastic waste has become a major issue in the last century, mostly damaging marine environments, and activists have taken action to neutralize this problem. Although microplastics are yet not considered as threatening as larger plastics, they are growing in importance. It is extremely important that both plastics and microplastics are collected from rivers, oceans and waste waters to be recycled to block the environmental disaster these are causing.
Microplastics are the product of mechanical, chemical and thermal degradation of plastic objects, varying in size between 1 μm and 5 mm [3]. These particles can be found on surface waters and land, and from fresh-water to deep ocean sediments, making them susceptible to environmental factors such as heat, erosion and extreme pressures that may degrade them at rates not yet well established [4]. Through degradation they can assume many different shapes and sizes that fall into the following 5 categories [3] (Table 1).
Abbreviation | Type | Definition | Size |
---|---|---|---|
PT | Pellet | A small spherical piece of plastic. | 2–5 mm [5] |
FR | Fragment | An irregular shape piece of plastic. | 0.2–5 mm [6] |
FB | Fiber | A strand of filament of plastic. | 1–5 mm [7] |
FI | Film | A thin sheet or membrane piece of plastic. | 1–5 mm [3] |
FM | Foam | A piece of sponge, foam or foam like plastic. | 1–5 mm [3] |
5 categories of degradation characteristics for microplastics found in the environment.
The density of microplastics can vary significantly from (10–2300 kg/m3). The most common plastics like ABS (1030–1210 kg/m3), PET (1300–1500 kg/m3) and PVC (1150–1700 kg/m3) are all denser than fresh and sea waters (997–1025 kg/m3), this allows for most of the microplastics present in water to be separated using gravity. Physical and chemical hazards related to ingestion of microplastics across a diverse range sizes and types have generated ecological concerns. Further, the impacts on human health of the chemical exposure to plastic debris from seafood consumption, and toxins that adsorb onto microplastic debris from the surrounding water, are currently unknown.
This paper proposes to use hydro cyclones to separate them from fresh and seawaters. Firstly, the paper briefly summarizes the functioning of hydro cyclones, secondly applies them to the microplastics separation, through mathematical and CFD models. And finally concludes that they could be very effective in separating up to 98% of the microplastics from the water.
Cyclones are used in industry as dust separators; they isolate the dust from air using differential centripetal forces generated by fast circular flow in a cylinder that allow the denser material to flow outward and downward, while the lighter material to flow inward and upward. Hydro cyclones work by using the same principles as the normal cyclone. Hydro cyclones have a cylinder-conical shape which have a tangential feed inlet into the upper cylindrical section and two outlets along the axis at the top and bottom. Hydro cyclones operate vertically: the fluid enters horizontally through an inlet, tangential to the cylinder, that creates a circular flow into the cyclone. This, in turn, produces a vortex effect, where the denser particles circulate around the outer edge of the chamber reducing their kinetic energy through friction along the cylinder and cone walls and, thus, sinking downward and leaving through the spigot. The lighter particles, due to the small area of the spigot, are taken into the inner part of the vortex that flows upward exiting at the top of the cyclone. These two downward and upward cyclonic flows are called, respectively, underflow and overflow [8]. The product of the separation is at the underflow where the denser microplastics exit as a slurry (Figure 1).
Diagram of the behavior and characteristics of a hydro cyclone [
Theoretical Advantages of using hydro cyclones to separate microplastics are [4]:
Optimum separation characteristics at varying operation parameters.
Long life time for appropriate material selection for each application.
Simple operation.
Modular design through basic connections and adaptors.
Low weight.
FDA approval.
Latest investigations classify hydro cyclones based on the particle size of which 50% reports to the overflow and 50% to the underflow, or the so-called D50c point [9]. All equations used in Sections 3 and 4 have been taken from Richard A. Arterburn et al. [9]. Studies have shown that this classification remains persistent through a range of cyclone diameters and applications. The separation a cyclone can achieve can be approximated using the Eq. (1). The D50c (base) for a given diameter cyclone is multiplied by a series of correction factors designated by C1, C2, and C3 (Eq. (1)).
where D50c (base) is the micron size that a standard cyclone can achieve under baseline conditions and D50c (application) is the filtering potential for a particular application.
where D is the cyclone diameter in centimeters.
The first correlation factor C1 in Eq. (3) refers to the influence of the concentration of solids contained in the feed. The higher the concentration the coarser the separation. This correlation is a factor of slurry viscosity and particle size and shape. Variables such as liquid viscosity also affect this correlation.
where %solids is the percent solid by volume of cyclone feed.
The second correlation C2 in Eq. (4) is for the influence of pressure drop in the cyclone, measured by taking the difference between feed pressure and overflow pressure. It is recommended that the pressure drop varies between 40 kPa and 70 kPa. This is to limit energy usage as well as equipment wear. As a result, a higher pressure drop would equate in finer separation.
where ΔP is the pressure drop in kPa.
The third correlation C3 in Eq. (5) corrects the influence of specific gravity on the solids and liquid inside the cyclone. Stoke’s law has been used to determine particle diameters which would produce the same terminal settling velocity for a particle of known specific gravity in a liquid.
where
D50c (application) may be formulated as the product of the selected minimum size of separation and the associated multiplier for the percentage of solids passing through the overflow (Eq. (6)).
where the multiplier is defined form the Table 2 below, taken from [9]. The result is that for a identified D50c (application) micron size, all the particles less than that will go into the overflow and all the particles bigger that that size will discharge to the underflow.
% of solids passing through overflow | Multiplier |
---|---|
98.8 | 0.54 |
95 | 0.73 |
90 | 0.91 |
80 | 1.25 |
70 | 1.67 |
60 | 2.08 |
50 | 2.78 |
% of solids passing through overflow and the correspondent multiplier.
Other cyclone geometric variables such as Di, Do, L and angle, have been found through the standard cyclone dimension relationships of the Rietema and Bradley hydro cyclones [8]. Table 3 shows the correspondent relations (Figure 2).
Standards | Di/D | Do/D | L/D | Angle |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rietema | 0.28 | 0.34 | 5.00 | 20° |
Bradley | 1/7 | 1/5 | 6.8 | 9° |
Rietema and Bradleys standard relations for hydro cyclone dimensions.
Hydro cyclone dimension nomenclature and position.
In order to create a model of a hydro cyclone that provides an good representation of its behavior and dimensions is critical. The minimum size of microplastics was assumed to be 5 μm; the density of the plastics going inside the hydro cyclone was assumed to be 1500 kg/m3 (which is the average of densities between the most common plastics and the % that are present in the environment); the % volume of solids (microplastics) in the fluid (water) going inside the hydro cyclone; the pressure drop was considered to be 50 kPa as it is standard for most hydro cyclones; the % of solids passing through the overflow which relates the multiplier; the Rietema standard cyclone dimension relations where chosen because considered a better fit for the application (Table 4).
Name | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|
Dsolids | 5 | μm |
ρsolids | 1500 | kg/m3 |
%solids | 1 | % |
%overflow | 50 | % |
ρwater | 997 | kg/m3 |
P | 101 | kPa |
Pdrop | 50 | kPa |
Multiplier | 2.78 | — |
1 | — |
First set of variables for average conditions for microplastic separation.
Initial variables were calculated using the subsequent equations:
Using the Rietema relations the rest of the hydro cyclone dimensions can be calculated.
The dimensions of the apex diameter (Da) are a result of investigations done by [8]. Which result in Da being the equivalent to Do. This is to optimize the flow in the hydro cyclone.
If the density of plastics going into the hydro cyclone is assumed to be 1200 kg/m3 (which is the average of densities between the most common plastics between 900 kg/m3 and 1400 kg/m3), to achieve the same performance as in the 1500 kg/m3 case, the dimensions of the hydro cyclone would have to increase as it would take longer to separate the particles. The results are shown in Table 5. These show an increase in size for the diameter (D) of 50% and of 30% for the length (L). Although this may seem like a large increase the design can still be manufactured, as the dimensions are relatively similar.
The CFD simulation was made for the purpose of understanding if the separation of microplastics could be achieved with a hydro cyclone, and in how much time this separation would happen.
Analysis though CFD was conducted assuming the dimensions indicated in the modeling section. Using Ansys Fluent software.
The CFD simulation was made for the purpose of understanding if the separation of microplastics could be achieved with a hydro cyclone, and in how much time the separation would happen. Figure 3 illustrates the flow of water inside the hydro cyclone. It can be observe that both underflow and overflow collect water but that most of that exits through the overflow. Also visible is the inner vortex that forms because of the pressure difference.
Water flow simulation in a hydro cyclone through time.
Figure 4 shows the velocity inside the centre plane of the hydro cyclone. The big red spot on the top left is the velocity at inlet. The two outlets have increased velocities because of the pressure difference. Finally the inner part of the hydro cyclone is under very low velocities because that is where the inner vortex flows and the velocities at the centre of it are close to 0 m/s.
Velocity gradient for water flow in a hydro cyclone.
Figure 5 shows the pressure inside the hydro cyclone and the difference that is created by the two outputs, where the pressure is negative.
Pressure gradient for water flow in a hydro cyclone.
Finally microplastic particles of the same physical characteristics where inserted inside a flow of water. Figure 6 shows the result of this study where less denser plastics exit through the overflow and plastics that have greater density flow through the underflow. On average for a flow of 2 m/s a particle takes 1.5 s to reach any two of the outlets.
Particle flow simulation in a hydro cyclone through time.
From CFD it can be seen that there is a lot of turbulence created near the inlet, where fluid coming inside disrupts the overflow vortex. To counteract this problem the design of the hydro cyclone would have to change to implement a sleave design for the overflow so that the inlet flow does not interact with the inner vortex.
Further studies were made to understand the behavior of some parameters used in the mathematical modeling using Rietema’s correlations. The influence of particle dimensions was studied to see the impact on the cyclone diameter (D). Figure 7 shows this relationship, and it can be deduced that the curve is close to exponential. This means that for particles smaller than 1 μm, the dimensions of the cyclone would be too small to be effective. If the minimum particle size is above 10 μm cyclone dimensions become exponentially bigger, which result in extremely big diameter (D) values. The problem is that Rietema’s model used to produce the dimensions is not consistent for larger particle dimensions.
Hydro cyclone Rietema model, solids dimensions study.
The second study related the % of solids inside the fluid, with the cyclone diameter (D) (Figure 8). The relation is linear for values of % solids between 1% and 21% and the change in diameter decreases as the particles increase.
Hydro cyclone Rietema model, %solids study.
The third study compered the solids density inside the fluid (Graph 3). The result, shown in Figure 9, conclude that for densities less then 1100 kg/m3, the dimension of the diameter (D) become unreliable. For bigger densities the diameter slightly decreases but the variation will become close to none. It can be seen that already from densities of 1200 kg/m3 the model starts to get defective.
Hydro cyclone Rietema model, particle density study.
The results obtained through analysis and modeling of microplastic filtering hydro cyclones, under standard operational conditions, allow the following conclusions to be drawn.
Rietema’s model offers the most consistent results throughout various tests, although becoming unreliable for values that exceed standard conditions. CFD models show that the correct design and dimensioning of the hydro cyclone can separate the flow consistently at a rate of 50% underflow and 50% overflow and the that on average particles take 1.5 s to reach any of the two outlets. The denser microplastics separate before and these reach the underflow in the least amount of time. Particles that reach instead the overflow could be captured by another hydro cyclone to be separated to a greater precision.
Future development could introduce an experimental apparatus to test the theories proposed in this paper. Implementation of this technology could be very useful in cleaning rivers and surface sea water from microplastics and other pollutants without damaging the aquatic flora and fauna. Hydro cyclones could be also mounted on water engine cooling and ballast water tank systems on cargo ships to purify water and prevent corrosion.
I wish to express my gratitude and sincere appreciation to the 2nd year students that participated in my group, to bring this idea forward (Benjamin Chesters and Josh McAree).
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Due to its inherently invasive nature, intravenous (IV) therapy is associated with a number of potential complications, many of which are directly relevant to patient safety (PS). PIV-related morbidity may be due to mechanical or nonmechanical factors. The most frequent nonmechanical peripheral venous catheterization adverse events (PVCAEs) include insertion site pain, phlebitis, hematoma formation, and infusate extravasation. The most common mechanical PVCAE is catheter obstruction/occlusion and dislodgement. Significant complications can also occur with the administration of incorrect type or wrong amount of IV fluids. Moreover, simultaneous infusion of incompatible medications can result in infusate precipitation. Finally, less frequent but significant complications have been reported, including bloodstream and local infections, air embolization, nerve damage, arterial puncture, skin necrosis associated with vasopressor infusions, and limb-threatening forgotten tourniquet events. Taken together, the above complications can lead to substantial patient discomfort, unnecessary or prolonged hospitalization, increased costs, and additional downstream morbidity. Efforts to prevent PVCAEs and improve patient outcomes should involve thorough provider education, clinical vigilance by all involved healthcare providers, health service level strategies, as well as the proactive participation of all stakeholders, including patients and their families.",book:{id:"7447",slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-4",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Vignettes in Patient Safety - Volume 4"},signatures:"Parampreet Kaur, Claire Rickard, Gregory S. Domer and Kevin R. Glover",authors:[{id:"265790",title:"Dr.",name:"Parampreet",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",slug:"parampreet-kaur",fullName:"Parampreet Kaur"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69876",title:"Leadership Styles in Nursing",slug:"leadership-styles-in-nursing",totalDownloads:2963,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Recent developments in the field of management-organization and organizational behavior and new concepts have also led to the emergence of new leadership styles in leadership. Leadership in health services is important for following innovations and adapting to current situations. Nurses working together with other health personnel in hospitals providing health services constitute an important group in leadership. Nursing, which is a key force for patient safety and safe care, is a human-centered profession, and therefore leadership is a key skill for nurses at all levels. The leadership styles of nurse managers are believed to be an important determinant of job satisfaction and persistence of nurses. The need for nurses with leadership skills and the need for nurses to develop their leadership skills are increasing day by day. There are several leadership styles defined in nursing literature. These leadership styles are examined under the titles of relational leadership style, transformational leadership, resonant leadership, emotional intelligence leadership, and participatory leadership. The task-focused leadership style is explored under the headings of transactional and autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership, and instrumental leadership.",book:{id:"9047",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null},{id:"66183",title:"Introductory Chapter: Bio-Psychosocial Model of Health",slug:"introductory-chapter-bio-psychosocial-model-of-health",totalDownloads:2884,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"8583",slug:"psychology-of-health-biopsychosocial-approach",title:"Psychology of Health",fullTitle:"Psychology of Health - Biopsychosocial Approach"},signatures:"Simon George Taukeni",authors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",middleName:null,surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni"}]},{id:"76143",title:"Maternal Mortality in Rural Areas of Pakistan: Challenges and Prospects",slug:"maternal-mortality-in-rural-areas-of-pakistan-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:489,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Pakistan is one of the countries in South Asia ranking high in maternal mortality rate. Though, a signatory of Agenda 2030, the country still lags behind considerably in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The ratio of maternal mortality is, even higher in rural areas of the country. Lack of health care facilities, education, malnutrition, poverty, high prevalence of violence against women in rural areas, and socioeconomic factors are some of the major contributing elements for elevated levels of maternal mortality and morbidity rate in Pakistan. By making inclusive policies at the national level to improve the reach of the rural population to healthcare facilities, educating women and eliminating gender-based disparities, introducing family planning interventions, accountability, and continuity of democracy are essentially needed to improve maternal health in Pakistan’s rural areas. This chapter focuses on challenges to maternal health in rural areas and possible options to resolve these issues.",book:{id:"9810",slug:"rural-health",title:"Rural Health",fullTitle:"Rural Health"},signatures:"Muhammad Hanif, Siddra Khalid, Akhtar Rasul and Khalid Mahmood",authors:[{id:"212828",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hanif",slug:"muhammad-hanif",fullName:"Muhammad Hanif"},{id:"347008",title:"Ms.",name:"Siddra",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"siddra-khalid",fullName:"Siddra Khalid"},{id:"348685",title:"Dr.",name:"Akhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"akhtar-rasul",fullName:"Akhtar Rasul"},{id:"348686",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmood",slug:"khalid-mahmood",fullName:"Khalid Mahmood"}]},{id:"77622",title:"Demand for Health and Healthcare",slug:"demand-for-health-and-healthcare",totalDownloads:480,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Healthy human beings are the center of sustainable development, and human beings have long sought to maintain and improve their health by increasing their health reserves. In general, the use of services or the demand for medical services has a vital role in improving the level of health of each person. The demand for healthcare is a demand derived from the demand for health and is influenced by several factors, including price, income, population, etc.",book:{id:"10705",slug:"healthcare-access",title:"Healthcare Access",fullTitle:"Healthcare Access"},signatures:"Alireza Ghorbani",authors:[{id:"355041",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Ghorbani",slug:"alireza-ghorbani",fullName:"Alireza Ghorbani"}]},{id:"65572",title:"Dangers of Peripheral Intravenous Catheterization: The Forgotten Tourniquet and Other Patient Safety Considerations",slug:"dangers-of-peripheral-intravenous-catheterization-the-forgotten-tourniquet-and-other-patient-safety-",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Intravenous catheterization is a widely used invasive procedure, with applications in both ambulatory and hospital settings. Due to its inherently invasive nature, intravenous (IV) therapy is associated with a number of potential complications, many of which are directly relevant to patient safety (PS). PIV-related morbidity may be due to mechanical or nonmechanical factors. The most frequent nonmechanical peripheral venous catheterization adverse events (PVCAEs) include insertion site pain, phlebitis, hematoma formation, and infusate extravasation. The most common mechanical PVCAE is catheter obstruction/occlusion and dislodgement. Significant complications can also occur with the administration of incorrect type or wrong amount of IV fluids. Moreover, simultaneous infusion of incompatible medications can result in infusate precipitation. Finally, less frequent but significant complications have been reported, including bloodstream and local infections, air embolization, nerve damage, arterial puncture, skin necrosis associated with vasopressor infusions, and limb-threatening forgotten tourniquet events. Taken together, the above complications can lead to substantial patient discomfort, unnecessary or prolonged hospitalization, increased costs, and additional downstream morbidity. Efforts to prevent PVCAEs and improve patient outcomes should involve thorough provider education, clinical vigilance by all involved healthcare providers, health service level strategies, as well as the proactive participation of all stakeholders, including patients and their families.",book:{id:"7447",slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-4",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Vignettes in Patient Safety - Volume 4"},signatures:"Parampreet Kaur, Claire Rickard, Gregory S. Domer and Kevin R. 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