WHO guidelines for indoor air quality [15] and ambient air quality standards for USA [16] and India [17].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5511",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Properties and Uses of Microemulsions",title:"Properties and Uses of Microemulsions",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Properties and Uses of Microemulsions is intended to provide the reader with some important applications and features of these systems. The intricate composition of microemulsions has made them applicable in many areas such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food, agriculture, oil recovery, chemical synthesis of nanoparticles, and catalysts. An introductory chapter starts off with the description of these applications followed by methods of characterization. Thereafter, a few practical applications of microemulsions focusing on drug delivery, oil recovery, and formation of nanocatalysts are described followed by the third section discussing the theoretical and physical parameters predicting microemulsion properties. The use of spin-polarized paramagnetic probes, bending energetics, and study of self-propelled motion are some of the physical parameters employed to characterize the microemulsions.",isbn:"978-953-51-3172-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3171-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4825-8",doi:"10.5772/63187",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"properties-and-uses-of-microemulsions",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"436fa0c17615c3b878c09027cff43e39",bookSignature:"Desiree Nedra Karunaratne, Geethi Pamunuwa and Udayana Ranatunga",publishedDate:"May 24th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5511.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13752,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:35,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 24th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 28th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 26th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 26th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"130501",title:"Prof.",name:"Desiree Nedra",middleName:null,surname:"Karunaratne",slug:"desiree-nedra-karunaratne",fullName:"Desiree Nedra Karunaratne",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/130501/images/3415_n.jpg",biography:"Obtained Ph.D from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. Presently Professor of Chemistry at the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Currently researching on the applications of carbohydrate liquid crystals in emulsion stabilization, drug delivery through nanoencapsulation with polymers and liposomes. Authored 9 book chapters, 22 research articles in peer reviewed journals and obtained 6 US patents and 3 provisional US patent applications.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Peradeniya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sri Lanka"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"194276",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethy",middleName:null,surname:"Pamunuwa",slug:"geethy-pamunuwa",fullName:"Geethy Pamunuwa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194276/images/5630_n.jpg",biography:"Geethi Pamunuwa obtained her BSc degree (Chem. Hons.) from the University of Peradeniya in 2006, MA degree (Chemistry) from Wayne State University, USA, in 2010, and PhD degree (Chemical Sciences) from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, in 2015. Her research interests include transdermal delivery of bioactive agents, liposomes, polymer nanoparticles, food formulation and preservation, and biopesticides. She currently works as a senior lecturer in food science and technology at the Department of Horticulture and Landscape Gardening, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka.\nShe has published 5 articles in peer-reviewed journals and made 7 presentations at various conferences.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Peradeniya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sri Lanka"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"207362",title:"Dr.",name:"R. J. K. U.",middleName:null,surname:"Ranatunga",slug:"r.-j.-k.-u.-ranatunga",fullName:"R. J. K. U. Ranatunga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207362/images/5631_n.png",biography:"Udayana Ranatunga obtained his bachelor’s degree from the University of Peradeniya in 2006 and his doctoral degree in Chemistry from the University of Texas at Dallas in 2012. His research is focused on the theoretical description of interfaces and nanomaterials and is trained in computational chemistry techniques. He has several publications to his credit and is currently working as a senior lecturer of chemistry, at the Department of Chemistry, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Peradeniya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sri Lanka"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"513",title:"Supramolecular Chemistry",slug:"supramolecular-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"55232",title:"Introductory Chapter: Microemulsions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68823",slug:"introductory-chapter-microemulsions",totalDownloads:2687,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"D. Nedra Karunaratne, Geethi Pamunuwa and Udayana Ranatunga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55232",authors:[{id:"130501",title:"Prof.",name:"Desiree Nedra",surname:"Karunaratne",slug:"desiree-nedra-karunaratne",fullName:"Desiree Nedra Karunaratne"}],corrections:null},{id:"54135",title:"Development of Microemulsion Dermal Products Based on Avocado Oil for Topical Administration",doi:"10.5772/66077",slug:"development-of-microemulsion-dermal-products-based-on-avocado-oil-for-topical-administration",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The research described in this study aimed at developing microemulsions for dermal application using avocado oil. Due to its composition, avocado oil helps maintaining the barrier function of the skin. It has a nutritional effect on the skin, and it reduces the intensity of the process of skin peeling. Various surfactant:cosurfactant systems were tested in the conducted studies. There were no significant differences between the diagrams generated by Tween 20 and the surfactant:cosurfactant system, Tween 20:PEG400, at a ratio of 1:1. Six formulations were selected from the dilution line 7 of the ternary phase diagrams obtained by using as a surfactant Tween 20 and Tween 20:PEG 400, respectively. The formulations were characterized by determining physicochemical properties specific. In the next phase of study, these six formulations were used as a vehicle for incorporating erythromycin in order to develop erythromicyn incorporated formulations for topical administration. The quality control of microemulsions with erythromycin was performed by evaluating the physical chemical, organoleptic and sensorial properties. Microemulsions were pharmacotechnically characterized by assessing the in vitro and ex vivo release kinetics of erythromycin.",signatures:"Lacramioara Ochiuz and Manuela Hortolomei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54135",authors:[{id:"171636",title:"Dr.",name:"Lacramioara",surname:"Ochiuz",slug:"lacramioara-ochiuz",fullName:"Lacramioara Ochiuz"}],corrections:null},{id:"52924",title:"Microemulsion Applications in Carbonate Reservoir Stimulation",doi:"10.5772/65973",slug:"microemulsion-applications-in-carbonate-reservoir-stimulation",totalDownloads:2050,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbonate reservoir stimulation involves the injection of reactive fluids, most commonly hydrochloric acid (HCl), into the porous media to enhance the permeability and increase hydrocarbon production. This process results in the formation of highly conductive flow channels, or wormholes, and relies on the deep penetration of reactive fluids into the formation to maximize stimulation success. However, the rapid rate of reaction of HCl with the carbonate rock often limits the depth of live acid penetration. The reaction is mass transfer limited under typical reservoir conditions. As a result, the acid diffusion and convection rates significantly influence the success of the treatments. Microemulsions prepared with HCl as the dispersed phase offer a solution to significantly reduce the effective diffusivity and, hence, increase the depth of stimulation. This chapter presents the results of laboratory studies of carbonate dissolutions using acid microemulsions and highlights case histories of industry applications using macroemulsions for carbonate reservoir stimulation.",signatures:"Christopher N. Fredd, Mark L. Hoefner and H. Scott Fogler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52924",authors:[{id:"190998",title:"Prof.",name:"H Scott",surname:"Fogler",slug:"h-scott-fogler",fullName:"H Scott Fogler"},{id:"191170",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",surname:"Fredd",slug:"christopher-fredd",fullName:"Christopher Fredd"},{id:"191171",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Hoefner",slug:"mark-hoefner",fullName:"Mark Hoefner"}],corrections:null},{id:"53429",title:"Microemulsion Route for the Synthesis of Nano-Structured Catalytic Materials",doi:"10.5772/66183",slug:"microemulsion-route-for-the-synthesis-of-nano-structured-catalytic-materials",totalDownloads:1692,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Owing to their unique properties, use of microemulsion‐based synthetic techniques for the generation of shape‐controlled nanocatalyst is an area of great current interest. Nanocatalysts of any specific shape, morphology, surface area, size, geometry, homogeneity and composition are widely being prepared using the soft techniques of microemulsion. Easy handling, inexpensive equipment and mild reaction conditions make microemulsion an attractive reaction medium. Herein, a nanosized precursor reactant can be incorporated, leading to the formulation of a highly monodispersed metal nanoagglomerate with controlled size, shape and composition. Several factors such as presence of electrolyte, molar ratio of water to surfactant, nature and concentration of surfactant and solvent, size of water droplets and concentration of reducing agents influence the size of the nanoparticles. The reverse micelle method can be used for the fabrication of several nanosized catalysts with a diverse variety of suitable materials including silica, alumina, metals (e.g. Au, Pd, Rh, Pt), metal oxides, etc. The morphology, size distribution and shape of the nanocatalysts make them useable for a wide range of applications, for example, fuel cells, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, environmental protection, etc. The recovery of nanoparticles from the reaction mixture is a challenge for the researchers. This chapter discusses the preparation of nanoparticles using microemulsion techniques, widely being used for the synthesis of nanocatalysts from a wide range of materials.",signatures:"Tajamal Hussain and Rabia Batool",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53429",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53429",authors:[{id:"191381",title:"Dr.",name:"Tajamal",surname:"Hussain",slug:"tajamal-hussain",fullName:"Tajamal Hussain"},{id:"192266",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",surname:"Batool",slug:"rabia-batool",fullName:"Rabia Batool"}],corrections:null},{id:"54584",title:"Investigation of Liquid‐Phase Inhomogeneity on the Nanometer Scale Using Spin‐Polarized Paramagnetic Probes",doi:"10.5772/67463",slug:"investigation-of-liquid-phase-inhomogeneity-on-the-nanometer-scale-using-spin-polarized-paramagnetic",totalDownloads:1492,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The concept, basic physics, and experimental details of time‐resolved electron paramagnetic resonance (TREPR) spectroscopy for the study of spin‐correlated radical pairs (SCRPs) in heterogeneous media are presented and discussed. The delicate interplay between electron spin wave function evolution (governed by magnetic interactions such as the isotropic electron spin‐spin exchange interaction and the electron‐nuclear hyperfine interaction) and diffusion (governed by the size and microviscosity of the medium) provides a mechanism for assessing molecular mobility in confined spaces on the nanoscale (e.g., micelles, vesicles, and microemulsions). Experimental examples from micellar SCRPs are used to highlight the dominant features of the TREPR under different degrees of confinement and microviscosity, and spectral simulation methods are described to show how molecular mobility can be quantified.",signatures:"Valery F. Tarasov and Malcolm D.E. Forbes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54584",authors:[{id:"191355",title:"Dr.",name:"Valery",surname:"Tarasov",slug:"valery-tarasov",fullName:"Valery Tarasov"},{id:"192242",title:"Prof.",name:"Makcolm",surname:"Forbes",slug:"makcolm-forbes",fullName:"Makcolm Forbes"}],corrections:null},{id:"54167",title:"Thermodynamics and Bending Energetics of Microemulsions",doi:"10.5772/67369",slug:"thermodynamics-and-bending-energetics-of-microemulsions",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A comprehensive, yet simple, theoretical model for droplet microemulsions is presented. The model combines thermodynamics of self-assembly with bending elasticity theory and relates microemulsion properties, such as average droplet size, polydispersity, interfacial tension and solubilisation capacity with the three bending elasticity constants, spontaneous curvature (H\n0), bending rigidity (kc) and saddle-splay constant (k¯c). In addition, the self-association entropy constant (ks) explicitly determines various microemulsion properties. The average droplet size is shown to increase with increasing effective bending constant, defined as keff=2kc+k¯c+ks, as well as with decreasing magnitudes of H0. The polydispersity decreases with increasing values of keff, but does not at all depend on H0. The model predicts ultra-low interfacial tensions, the values of which decrease considerably with increasing droplet radius, in agreement with experiments. The solubilisation capacity increases as the number of droplets is increased with increasing surfactant concentration. In addition, an enhanced solubilisation effect is obtained as the size of the droplets increases with increasing surfactant concentration, as a result of self-association entropy effects. It is demonstrated that self-association entropy effects favour smaller droplet size as well as larger droplet polydispersity.",signatures:"L. Magnus Bergström",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54167",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54167",authors:[{id:"191948",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magnus",surname:"Bergström",slug:"magnus-bergstrom",fullName:"Magnus Bergström"}],corrections:null},{id:"53951",title:"Self-Propelled Motion of Micrometer-Sized Oil Droplets in Aqueous Solution of Surfactant",doi:"10.5772/67249",slug:"self-propelled-motion-of-micrometer-sized-oil-droplets-in-aqueous-solution-of-surfactant",totalDownloads:1526,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"When an immiscible oil is dispersed in an aqueous solution of a surfactant, emulsions consisting of various-sized oil droplets are generated. Micrometer-sized oil droplets exhibit exotic dynamics such as self-propelled motion in the surfactant solution. Transfer of the surfactant from the aqueous solution phase to the oil droplets through their interface leads to the self-propelled motion in a far-from-equilibrium condition. In this chapter, we demonstrate the observation methods of the self-propelled motion of micrometer-sized oil droplets using phase-contrast, polarized, and fluorescence microscopes and discuss their motion mechanism. Since the generated self-assemblies in micrometer-sized droplet systems are difficult to be identified by spectroscopic methods, the mechanisms of their self-propelled motion have not been clarified. When they are fully understood from nano- to microscale, these findings may be useful to develop not only more stable emulsion systems but also droplet-type analysis systems at the micrometer scale that can carry out reaction, analysis, and detection automatically without the need for an external force.",signatures:"Taisuke Banno, Taro Toyota and Kouichi Asakura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53951",authors:[{id:"192138",title:"Dr.",name:"Taisuke",surname:"Banno",slug:"taisuke-banno",fullName:"Taisuke Banno"},{id:"192400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kouichi",surname:"Asakura",slug:"kouichi-asakura",fullName:"Kouichi Asakura"}],corrections:null},{id:"53579",title:"Influence of Amphiphiles on Percolation of AOT-Based Microemulsions Prediction Using Artificial Neural Networks",doi:"10.5772/66766",slug:"influence-of-amphiphiles-on-percolation-of-aot-based-microemulsions-prediction-using-artificial-neur",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the ability of artificial neural networks was evaluated to predict the influence of amphiphiles as additive upon the electrical percolation of dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (AOT)/isooctane/water microemulsions. In particular, water/AOT/isooctane microemulsion behaviour has been modelled. These microemulsions have been developed in presence of 1-n-alcohols, 2-n-alcohols, n-alkylamines and n-alkyl acids. In all cases, a neural network has been obtained to predict with accuracy the experimental behaviour to identify the physico-chemical variables (such as additive concentration, molecular mass, log P, pKa or chain length) that exert a greater influence on the model. 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In modern cooking practices, people across the globe are using various cookstoves with fuels such as biomass, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)/ Piped Natural Gas (PNG), kerosene, Charcoal, biogas etc. Other cooking devices such as electric, solar and induction are also being used. About one third of global population does not have access to clean energy mainly due to issue of affordability. The most commonly used cookstoves in the developing nations are the biomass cookstoves. Traditional versions of these cookstoves are highly polluting and very inefficient which results in severe health issues and millions of premature deaths globally.
According to International Energy Agency, in 2018, the global consumption of energy in residential sector was about 88 EJ (1 EJ = 1018 J) which was about 23.3% of the total energy consumption [1]. The components of residential energy are: 32% combustion of bio-fuels & waste, 24% combustion of gas, 21% combustion of coal, 4% combustion of oil and the remaining 26% energy for generation of residential electricity [1]. Since year 2000 till 2019, there is about 48% rise in global energy consumption [2]. The cost of cooking energy is also rising day by day. For example, in India the price of LPG cylinder has been doubled in last 7 years from Rs. 410.0 in 2014 to Rs. 819.0 in 2021 [3]. These statistics indicate that there is an urgent need for conservation of residential cooking energy by using energy efficient cookstoves.
Primitive humans started cooking with fire nearly 2 million years ago [4, 5]. The first method of cooking was probably roasting of a fish or a bird by holding it over an open fire [6]. The different stages of evolution in cooking process as reported in literature are: Prehistoric cooking, ancient cooking, medieval cooking, renaissance cooking, modern cooking and twentieth century cooking [6]. Since prehistoric era till present days, human beings have continued using open fires for cooking purpose. In present days, commonly used domestic cookstoves in different parts of the world can be broadly classified into two groups
According to International Energy Agency (IEA) [12], about 2.6 billion people globally (i.e. about 34% of the global population) do not have access to clean cooking energy. They still rely on solid biomass as the only cooking fuel. According to World Health Organization (WHO) [13], every year about 4 million premature deaths occur from the illnesses resulting from household air pollution due to inefficient cooking practices using solid biomass and kerosene cookstoves.
Over a long period of time, the evolutions in design and operation of cookstoves have occurred. The developments in combustion cookstoves are attributed to increase in their overall efficiencies due to improved thermal and emission performance. Also attention is being provided on user friendly designs of the cookstoves.
The present chapter reports parameters affecting thermal and emission performance of biomass cookstoves. It reports emission norms set by national and international agencies for cookstoves using biomass and fossil fuels. It reports the advancements in technologies of biomass cookstoves. It also reports factors affecting adoption of biomass cookstoves. Recommendations are also given on promotion of clean cooking energy options.
In biomass cookstoves, conversion of chemical energy into thermal energy takes place due to combustion of solid biomass. The parameters which affect performance of biomass cookstoves are of two types
The amount of thermal energy produced (kJ) per unit time (s) is known as fire power (kW). Mathematically fire power is defined as follows:
Fire power is the total amount of energy available for cooking the food per unit time. The energy actually used for cooking the food will be very small as compared to that of the fire power due to various losses. Figure 1 shows energy balance for a biomass cookstove. Out of the total energy available in the form of fire power (a), some of the energy is absorbed by the cookstove body in the form of an internal energy and some energy is lost form the cookstove body to the surroundings through convection, radiation and to the ground through conduction (b). Heavier cookstoves absorb more energy in the form of the internal energy. Hence, traditional cookstoves as well as modified biomass cookstoves made of mud and brick are found to have poor efficiencies as compared to the metal biomass cookstoves. Some of the energy in the fire is absorbed by the pot and the pot contents (c). During this transfer of energy, some of the energy is lost to the atmosphere with flue gases and some energy is lost in the form of direct radiation and convection (d). Vessel walls also lose some heat to the atmosphere in the form of convection (e). From the top portion of the pot, there will always be evaporative (f) and convective energy losses (g).
Schematic of energy balance of a cookstove [
From Figure 1, it is clear that actual energy used per unit time for cooking the food (Pu) = {(c)−[(e) + (f) + (g)]}/t. Now, thermal efficiency (η) of biomass cookstove is defined as the ratio of actual energy used by the pot and the pot contents for cooking the food per unit time to the fire power available due to combustion of fuel. Mathematically, thermal efficiency is defined as follows:
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the mass of dry fuel required (g) to produce a unit output. Here, the unit output is a mass of water remaining in the pot at the end of the test (kg). SFC is expressed in terms of g/kg [14]. Turn down ratio is the ratio of maximum and minimum power between which the cookstove can be operated satisfactorily [9].
Emission factor (g/kg or g/kJ or g/MJ) of a particular pollutant is mass of that pollutant emitted (g) per kilogram of the fuel burnt or per kJ or per MJ of energy released during the cooking task [9]. Indoor concentration of a particular pollutant (ng/m3 or μg/m3 or mg/m3 or g/m3) is defined as the amount of exposure of that pollutant (ng or μg or mg or g) to the user per m3 of the air in the room or cooking space [9].
According to WHO guidelines [15], carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter of size less than 10 μm (PM10) and of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), formaldehyde, naphthalene, benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are found to be major indoor air pollutants. Considering global warming potential of these pollutants, it is very important for the researchers to know the safer limits of these pollutants in ambient air as recommended by the national and international agencies. Table 1 report WHO guidelines on indoor air pollutants resulting from combustion of fuels and also ambient air quality standards set by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for USA [16] and by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for India [17]. For a given pollutant, with increase in averaging time, values of its safe limit decrease. For example, as per WHO guidelines, permissible limit of exposure to CO emissions for 1 hour is 35 mg/m3, for 8 hours it is 10 mg/m3, and for 24 hours this limit is 7 mg/m3.
Pollutant | Averaging time | WHO [15] | USEPA [16] | CPCB India [17] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Value | Unit | Value | Unit | Value | Unit | ||
CO | 24 hours | 07 | mg/m3 | — | — | — | — |
8 hours | 10 | mg/m3 | 09 | ppm | 02 | mg/m3 | |
1 hour | 35 | mg/m3 | 35 | ppm | 04 | mg/m3 | |
— | — | ||||||
PM10 | Annual | 20 | μg/m3 | — | — | 60 | μg/m3 |
24 hours | 50 | μg/m3 | 150 | μg/m3 | 100 | μg/m3 | |
PM2.5 | Annual | 10 | μg/m3 | 12 | μg/m3 | 40 | μg/m3 |
24 hours | 25 | μg/m3 | 35 | μg/m3 | 60 | μg/m3 | |
NO2 | Annual | — | — | 53 | ppb | 40 | μg/m3 |
24 hours | — | — | — | — | 80 | μg/m3 | |
1 hour | 200 | μg/m3 | 100 | ppb | — | — | |
SO2 | Annual | — | — | — | — | 50 | μg/m3 |
24 hours | — | — | — | — | 80 | μg/m3 | |
1 hour | — | — | 75 | ppb | — | — | |
Formaldehyde | 30 minutes | 0.1 | mg/m3 | — | — | — | — |
Naphthalene | Annual | 0.01 | mg/m3 | — | — | — | — |
Benzene | Annual | Unit risk of leukemia: 6 × 10−6 per μg/m3 of air. | — | — | 05 | μg/m3 | |
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) | Annual | Unit risk for lung cancer: 8.7 × 10−5 per ng/m3 of B[a]P. | — | — | 01 | ng/m3 |
Figure 2(a and b) shows images of traditional biomass cookstove and improved mud cookstove. Average efficiency and CH4 emissions of traditional biomass cookstoves used in Asian countries were reported to be about 11% and 0.52 g/MJ of energy delivered by wood fuel [18]. Since early 1980s, some researchers reported ways of improving thermal performance of the traditional biomass cookstoves by modifying their designs [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. These ways include: use of metals as cookstove materials, provision of grate for better air circulation, air preheating, provision of swirl and secondary air, provision of insulation, use of chimney and baffles [18]. Average efficiency and CH4 emissions of improved biomass cookstoves used in Asian countries were reported to be about 24% and 0.408 g/MJ of energy delivered respectively with the wood fuel [18]. Thermal performance of improved biomass cookstoves was found to be better than the traditional cookstoves; but there was not much improvement in their emission performance as compared with traditional ones. Researchers have found that improvement in efficiency of biomass cookstove does not always ensure reduction in emissions. There exists a certain range of power levels where the correlation between efficiency and emissions is positive, while elsewhere it will be negative [18].
Images of traditional biomass cookstove and improved mud cookstove.
Improved biomass cookstoves are known as fuel efficient cookstoves as they reduce fuel consumption by 20–50% as compared with the traditional biomass cookstoves [25]. Some of the examples of improved biomass cookstoves are:
To improve thermal and emission performance of metal biomass cookstoves, efforts have been made by the researchers which include: application of scientific principles for designing the cookstoves, insulating the combustion chamber, supplying correct amount of primary and secondary air at right place into the combustion chamber, use of fan to create draft, use of gasification techniques, use of high density pellets as fuel etc. [31, 32, 33, 34]. Such efforts have helped in accelerating the process of design of advanced metal biomass cookstoves, both in natural and forced draft versions, across the globe.
According to method of combustion of biomass fuel into combustion chamber, advanced biomass cookstoves can be classified into two types
During normal combustion mode, the biomass is fed in terms of small batches to the combustion chamber (oven). The pyrolysis products burn near the top of the combustion chamber using secondary air whereas the char combustion occurs using primary air at the bottom of the oven. During gasification mode, the whole combustion chamber is filled with the biomass fuel. The cookstove is lit at the top and the fire slowly passes to the bottom of the combustion chamber. Unlike the combustion mode, no fuel is added to the cookstove until the fire goes off. This gasification mode of operation of cookstove is also known as Top Lit Up Draft (TLUD) gasification, as the cookstove is lit at the top and the flow of both primary as well as secondary air goes in upward direction. Figure 3 shows schematic diagram of Philips forced draft cookstove.
Schematic diagram of Philips forced draft cookstove [
Jetter et al. [35] conducted experimental studies on 22 biomass cookstoves and reported that the efficiency of Philips forced draft cookstove was about 38% where as its CO and PM2.5 emissions were very small. The authors also reported that cookstove operating on TLUD mode showed the lowest CO and PM2.5 emissions. Some examples of TLUD gasifier cookstoves are rice husk gas cookstove [36], Oorja cookstove [37], pellet-fed gasifier cookstove [38] etc. The main advantages of using TLUD type of gasifier cookstoves are: highly efficient operation, clean combustion with negligibly small levels of emissions, use of densified pellets made up of crop residues and other biomass wastes for waste to energy conversion.
Research groups, non-government agencies and some government departments have developed protocols for testing the thermal and emission performance of biomass cookstoves. Comparative studies on testing protocols for biomass cookstoves are available in literature [9, 39]. An ISO technical committee comprising of experts from 45 countries and 8 international organizations published voluntary performance targets for biomass cookstoves in 2018 [40] in the form of a document called ISO Workshop Agreements (IWA) [41]. These targets cover five performance indicators
Tier | Thermal efficiency (%) | CO (g/MJd) | PM (mg/MJd) | Safety score | Durability score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | ≥ 50 | ≤ 3.0 | ≤ 5.0 | ≥ 95 | < 10 |
4 | ≥ 40 | ≤ 4.4 | ≤ 62 | ≥ 86 | < 15 |
3 | ≥ 30 | ≤ 7.2 | ≤ 218 | ≥ 77 | < 20 |
2 | ≥ 20 | ≤ 11.5 | ≤ 481 | ≥ 68 | < 25 |
1 | ≥ 10 | ≤ 18.3 | ≤ 1031 | ≥ 60 | < 35 |
0 | < 10 | > 18.3 | > 1031 | < 60 | > 35 |
Default values of voluntary performance targets for biomass cookstoves [40].
MJd: Mega Joule of energy delivered.
On one side, the design and development of biomass cookstoves is being done by the researchers in research laboratories but on the other side, dissemination of these cookstoves to the end users is a very important task. For successful dissemination and adoption of a cookstove, it must be locally manufactured, easy to operate, durable and it must result in clean combustion [42].
Bielecki & Wingenbach [43] reported that adoption of improved cookstoves depends on three factors
Adane et al. [44] categorized the factors affecting adoption of biomass cookstoves into four types: (i) household and setting related factors, (ii) cookstove technology related factors, (iii) cookstove users’ knowledge and perception related factors, and (iv) financial and market development related factors. Household and setting related factors include: gender of the household head, educational level of the household head, family size of the household, house ownership, location of cooking quarter, and source of fuel. Cookstove technology related factors include: fuel processing requirement, durability of cookstove, fuel saving benefit of cookstove, health benefit of cookstove, time saving benefit of cookstove and safety benefit of improved cookstove. Cookstove users’ knowledge and perception related factors include: optimistic previous social interaction, traditional suitability of cookstove and live demonstration experience. Financial and market development related factors include price and availability of the cookstove.
Nzengya et al. [45] reported that cost of cookstove, availability of cookstove, cost of fuel, availability of fuel, design of cookstove, time required for starting the cookstove, and time required for cooking the food are the factors affecting adoption of a biomass cookstove.
According to Jan [46], following factors act as key barriers to the adoption of improved cook stoves: lack of education of the women, non-participation of women in household decision making processes, low family income, lack of knowledge of health and environmental impacts associated with inefficient use of biomass, insufficient funds allocated by governments and NGOs for such programs, and poor monitoring system for the long-term cookstove use.
Jauland et al. [47] reported the evidence of saving in cooking time and fuel saving in the households which started using improved cookstoves. The authors did not find any evidence of health benefits in these households.
Jana and Bhattacharya [48] reported sustainable cooking energy options for rural people in Bargaon block of Odisha, India. Assessment of different cooking options such as traditional biomass cookstoves, improved cookstoves, gasifier cookstoves, biogas cookstove, LPG cookstove, electric cookstove and kerosene cookstove was conducted in terms of levelized cost of each cooking device per unit of useful cooking energy. While calculating the levelized cost of cookstove, the factors such as its capital cost, maintenance cost, estimated life, efficiency, cost of fuel, interest rate and energy equivalent per unit of energy source were considered. The levelized costs of different cooking devices per MJ without subsidy were: 1.3- traditional cookstove, 0.87-improved cookstove, 3.49-briquette gasifier cookstove, 2.72-kerosene cookstove (1.06 with subsidy), 1.88-LPG cookstove (1.33 with subsidy), 2.49-electric heater and 1.92-biogas cookstove (1.65 with subsidy). The authors found that the cookstoves using kerosene, LPG, briquettes, electricity and biogas were beyond reach of the poor people due to their high levelized costs though they could become cleaner cooking options for traditional and improved cookstoves.
Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) [49] has given some guidelines for about 30% saving in LPG and kerosene fuels. These guidelines will be very useful for all types of cookstoves. These guidelines include: plan before you start actual cooking; use pressure cooker of capacity corresponding to the family size; use optimum quantity of water; reduce the flame when boiling starts; soak the rice and pulses for about 15 minutes prior to their actual cooking; use shallow, wide vessels while cooking the food; put the lid to avoid heat losses; use small burner which saves fuel; use ISO/ISI marked cooking devices.
Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), India has published a report on roadmap for access to clean cooking energy in India [50]. Recommendations given by the authors in this report will be very useful for promotion of clean cooking energy options among the end users. These recommendations given for different cooking energy options along with author’s own views are as reported here.
Advanced biomass cookstoves are tier 4 and tier 5 cookstoves which are very expensive and are beyond reach of the common people. Most of the improved cookstoves found today are of tier 2 or tier 3 which are cheaper than the advanced biomass cookstoves and can be affordable to the poor people. In such a case the government must encourage use of tier 3 improved cookstoves equipped with chimneys for adequate ventilation. Also, to encourage use tier 4 and 5 cookstoves, subsidies must be provided to them.
Labelling cookstoves with their efficiency and emissions rating will aid customer awareness and also will help them in taking decision on selection of cookstove for their family.
Government shall provide subsidized training in pellet manufacturing and improved cookstove manufacturing, assembling, and marketing to local entrepreneurs and workers. This will help in enhancing local employment. It will reduce the cost of transportation and overhead charges. It will reduce the cost of pellets and initial cost of the cookstoves.
It is observed that two third of the households using LPG cookstoves for cooking also use traditional cookstoves for heating of water and for space heating due to freely available biomass fuel and to ensure long lasting of LPG cylinder due to its high refill price. Hence, to fully eliminate household air pollution, it is important to address space heating and water heating for bathing using biomass cookstoves.
Providing subsidy on the basis of socioeconomic characteristics will improve affordability of LPG among households.
The thermal efficiency of the LPG cookstoves is about 55–57%. Research and development with a focused target of improving efficiency of LPG burners by about 10% must be undertaken. It can be done by modifying burner size, burner material, number of ports in a burner and also by improving burner pot interaction. The spacing between burner top and pot bottom can also be optimized. For a particular family size and for a given cooking process, pot sizes can be standardized.
Sutar et al. [51] conducted preliminary experiments on domestic LPG stove to investigate the best combination of pot size for common cooking processes
In India, only 41% of rural households received LPG cylinders at their doorstep in 2018. Permitting local institutions to stock LPG and to supply directly to households will reduce the distance traveled by users to procure LPG cylinders.
The typical rural LPG distributor struggles for survival with low demand for LPG refills due to high cost of LPG and uncertainty of subsidies. In India, in 2016, over 80% of households that did not use LPG reported high recurring costs as a barrier [50].
The main hurdle in accelerating biogas use is the regular maintenance of biogas plants. If regular maintenance and servicing of a biogas plant is provided by an entrepreneur, households need not take on the hassle of operating, cleaning and maintaining the plant.
It is important to train users to operate biogas plants in a manner that minimizes the need for operation and maintenance.
A centralized toll-free helpline could be useful for people to lodge complaints regarding any issues with the biogas plants, which shall be immediately addressed by the local entrepreneur.
In rural areas, primary health centers and sub-centers are the closest access points to healthcare for the rural population, and thus could be effective venues for communication regarding the clean cooking technologies [50].
Reliable information on consumers’ willingness to pay for access to clean cooking energy will solve lot many issues. It will help the government agencies in providing the right cooking technology to right household [50].
Greater focus on technology development, stricter quality standards and awareness drives to increase usage of new cooking technologies will be very important steps for the adoption of clean cooking technologies [9].
Government must provide grants for the promotion of new technologies that are less effort intensive and/or more efficient e.g., advanced biomass cookstoves [9].
Fabrication of cookstoves must involve a stringent quality control to keep the critical dimensions as per the requirement otherwise performance of the cookstoves will be affected adversely during its actual use.
Performance of cookstove drastically affects due to changes in critical dimensions on account of lack of periodic maintenance [9].
If trained personnel required for periodic maintenance of advanced cookstoves is available locally, then adoption rate of such cookstoves will enhance.
Advanced biomass cookstoves generally require pellets or prepared fuels for their optimum performance. Availability and cost of the prepared fuel plays a very important role in the acceptance of the cookstove by the end user.
The probability of acceptance of the new designed cookstove will be higher if the users are made familiar with the operation or if its operation is very similar to the cookstove they were previously using.
While designing any clean cookstove, care must be taken that lower the capital as well as running cost of cookstove, higher is its acceptance among the users [50].
The present chapter reported four important aspects related to biomass cookstoves
The overall performance of biomass cookstoves is affected by two types of parameters
Various ways to convert traditional biomass cookstoves into improved biomass cookstoves are: use of metals as cookstove materials, provision of grate for better air circulation, air preheating, provision of swirl and secondary air, provision of insulation, use of chimney and baffles
Different techniques used by the researchers for development of advanced biomass cookstoves are: application of scientific principles for designing the cookstoves, insulating the combustion chamber, supplying correct amount of primary and secondary air at right place into the combustion chamber, use of fan to create draft, use of gasification techniques, use of high density pellets as fuel etc.
The factors affecting adoption of biomass cookstoves, reported in literature are also discusses. These factors are: social, functional, cultural, affordability, women education, availability of fuel, availability of cookstove, timely servicing help, training, subsidies and grants etc.
Recommendations on promotion of clean cooking energy options such as fuel saving guidelines, necessity of research and development in advanced cooking technologies, their promotion among the society, and financial support to the new clean cooking technologies etc. are given.
“The author declares no conflict of interest.”
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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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