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Raji",authors:[{id:"179159",title:"Dr.",name:"Atanda Kamoru",middleName:null,surname:"Raji",fullName:"Atanda Kamoru Raji",slug:"atanda-kamoru-raji"}]},{id:"55986",title:"Resource Planning to Service Restoration in Power Distribution Systems",slug:"resource-planning-to-service-restoration-in-power-distribution-systems",signatures:"Magdiel Schmitz, Maria Clara Ferreira Almeida da Silva, Vinícius\nJacques Garcia, Daniel Bernardon, Lynceo Favigna Braghirolli and\nJúlio Fonini",authors:[{id:"180154",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"P",surname:"Bernardon",fullName:"Daniel Bernardon",slug:"daniel-bernardon"},{id:"180657",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius Jacques",middleName:"Jacques",surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Vinicius Jacques Garcia",slug:"vinicius-jacques-garcia"},{id:"206560",title:"Mr.",name:"Magdiel",middleName:null,surname:"Schmitz",fullName:"Magdiel Schmitz",slug:"magdiel-schmitz"},{id:"206572",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynceo Falavigna",middleName:null,surname:"Braghirolli",fullName:"Lynceo 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Systems",slug:"a-decision-support-system-for-planning-and-operation-of-maintenance-and-customer-services-in-electri",signatures:"Carlos Henrique Barriquello, Vinícius Jacques Garcia, Magdiel\nSchmitz, Daniel Pinheiro Bernardon and Júlio Schenato Fonini",authors:[{id:"180154",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"P",surname:"Bernardon",fullName:"Daniel Bernardon",slug:"daniel-bernardon"},{id:"180657",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius Jacques",middleName:"Jacques",surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Vinicius Jacques Garcia",slug:"vinicius-jacques-garcia"},{id:"206560",title:"Mr.",name:"Magdiel",middleName:null,surname:"Schmitz",fullName:"Magdiel Schmitz",slug:"magdiel-schmitz"},{id:"203699",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Barriquello",fullName:"Carlos Barriquello",slug:"carlos-barriquello"},{id:"206562",title:"BSc.",name:"Júlio",middleName:null,surname:"Schenato Fonini",fullName:"Júlio Schenato Fonini",slug:"julio-schenato-fonini"}]},{id:"58122",title:"Optimum Maintenance Policy for Equipment over Changing of the Operation Environment",slug:"optimum-maintenance-policy-for-equipment-over-changing-of-the-operation-environment",signatures:"Ibrahima dit Bouran Sidibe and Imene Djelloul",authors:[{id:"220831",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ibrahima dit Bouran",middleName:null,surname:"Sidibe",fullName:"Ibrahima dit Bouran Sidibe",slug:"ibrahima-dit-bouran-sidibe"},{id:"222503",title:"Dr.",name:"Djelloul",middleName:null,surname:"Imene",fullName:"Djelloul Imene",slug:"djelloul-imene"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2020",title:"New Technologies",subtitle:"Trends, Innovations and Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"170d84903f390df23023d0623d8577d3",slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10548",title:"Lean Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7409b2acd5150a93004300800918b736",slug:"lean-manufacturing",bookSignature:"Karmen Pažek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10548.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7529",title:"Industry 4.0",subtitle:"Impact on Intelligent Logistics and Manufacturing",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a750fbddad49434288a89b9eb40a893",slug:"industry-4-0-impact-on-intelligent-logistics-and-manufacturing",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai, Antonella Petrilloand Fabio De Felice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7529.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"2020",title:"New Technologies",subtitle:"Trends, Innovations and Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"170d84903f390df23023d0623d8577d3",slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81121",title:"Molecular Contribution of Fatty Acid Esters in Biodiesel Fueled CI Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102956",slug:"molecular-contribution-of-fatty-acid-esters-in-biodiesel-fueled-ci-engines",body:'Use of biodiesel in CI engines for commercial and industrial purposes has been increasing steadily, very soon after various government policies stressed on the shift to renewable energy resources [1]. This paved progressive pathway for many researchers to focus on improvising the performance of these biodiesel in CI engines; and also, simultaneously monitoring for controlled levels of exhaust emissions. Hence, numerous suggestions have been proposed for enhancing these engine characteristics which includes introducing blends [2, 3], adding fuel or chemical additives [4, 5], dual fuel mode [6, 7], fuel preheating [8]; and even modifying engine parameters like varying injection pressure, injection timing and introducing exhaust gas recirculation [9, 10]. However, operating engine on biodiesel blended with neat diesel is regarded as most economic and efficient technique; and in general, report increased rate of fuel consumption, carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx)emissions, and reduced thermal efficiencies and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions [11, 12, 13]. Though, many biodiesel report similar trends; variation in their results arises with differences in the fuel properties, besides their testing conditions. Hence, one requires fundamental understanding of various factors influencing the performance of biodiesel in CI engine; especially the role of fuel and its properties in deciding these parameters. In fact, these fuel properties are macroscopic entities; and in turn are governed by the chemical compounds available in it, along with their molecular properties. In other words, these parameters are primarily influenced by the fatty acid esters available in the biodiesel [14]; and supporting this, Srinivasan et al. [15] reported that engine characteristics of any biodiesel is an outcome of coordinated behavior of its FAE molecules in CI engine, especially contributed by its dominant FAEs [15].
However, one requires better understanding of these FAEs in order to study their influence and contribution in CI engine. To begin with, FAEs are the fundamental units of biodiesel, and are made up of commonly known fatty acids, in form of carboxylates at one end and an alkyl chain at its alcohol moiety bridged through an Ester functional group [16]. In general, palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid and myristic acid are the most frequently reported fatty acids [17]; whilst, alcohol includes methanol, ethanol, isopropanol and butanol, etc. [18, 19]. Furthermore, palmitic acid and oleic acid are the most commonly occurring saturated and unsaturated FAs, respectively, followed by linoleic acid (unsaturated) and stearic acid (saturated) [20].
Moreover, these fatty acid esters collectively constitute to molecular structure of the biodiesel and contribute to the overall fuel properties of biodiesel based on their molecular properties [21, 22]. Moving further, long chain saturated FAEs, predominantly produced from saturated triglycerides report, increased kinematic viscosity, cetane number, calorific value in addition to reduced density than compared to their counterpart unsaturated FAEs. As a result, these FAEs has tendency to produce higher thermal efficiencies and reduced concentration of incomplete combustion products as a result of its complete oxidation [11, 21, 23, 24, 25]. On the other hand, unsaturated FAEs, with single or multiple unsaturated bonds in their FA moieties report lower cetane number and calorific value, thereby resulting in poor thermal efficiencies, in-cylinder pressure and heat release rates. Adding to this, high exhaust gas temperatures (EGTs) followed by increased concentration of NOX emission [14, 26, 27], are also contributed by these unsaturated FAEs; especially by the alkyl esters of oleic acid and linoleic acid. In specific, NOX emission of any biodiesel increases with addition of unsaturated bonds in their FA moiety; and is accounted by the increased adiabatic flame temperature upon combustion inside the cylinder [28]. Besides, adding an aliphatic (–CH2) group to the alcohol moiety simply enhanced the cetane number of the biodiesel; however, the concentration of particulate matter increased by two fold [29].
From these studies it is clearly evident that, FAEs have a significant role in deciding the overall engine characteristics of its biodiesel; yet, it lacks sufficient results necessary for explaining the contribution of FAEs, in case of a multiple feedstock based biodiesel. With these understandings of FAEs and necessity for this underdone work, this present chapter focus on studying the influence of dominant fatty acids esters in deciding the overall engine characteristics of a biodiesel produced from the homogeneous mixture of different waste animal fats and fish oil, blended in equivalent proportion.
Waste animal fats and oil used in this study includes beef tallow, chicken fat, mutton suet and pork lard, and fish fat oil; and were rendered from wide variety of animal wastes. For instance, beef tallow was rendered from tannery fleshing and meat processing wastes; while, chicken fat, mutton suet and pork lard were rendered from their respective wastes collected from different slaughter house units. Besides, waste fish fat oil was directly procured from the leather tanneries associated with oil tanning process; in its existing form. Here, waste fats (tallow, suet, lard and chicken fat) were rendered from their respective wastes using dry rendering technique; which involved with autoclaving each waste individually, at 120
Post refining, tallow, suet, lard, chicken fat and fish fat oil were mixed in equivalent proportion; and was blended into a homogeneous feedstock (WaFO). The blended waste Fat-oil (WaFO) was esterified by refluxing it with ethanol and 1 wt.% of concentrated sulfuric acid (conc. H2SO4), in order to reduce its overall free fatty acid (FFA) content so as to avoid formation of soap during transesterification. For the production of WaFO biodiesel, the WaFO sample was transesterified by following the under mentioned reaction parameters: (i) oil to ethanol molar ratio: 1:8; (ii) catalyst concentration: 0.75 wt.% of potassium hydroxide (KOH); (iii) reaction temperature: 72°C; (iv) reaction time: 150 mins. Here, the volume of ethanol was calculated from the optimized molar ratio using a simple equation Eq. (1), which correlates the molecular weight and density of triglycerides and ethanol [30].
Completing the reaction, resultant mixture was decanted in a separating funnel for 24 h; when the residual glycerol got separated from the WaFO biodiesel and settled down at the bottom. Lastly, the separated biodiesel was washed with hot distilled water successively to remove residual ethanol and glycerol, soaps, and salts; and was dried at 110°C to remove moisture content from it.
For the purpose of Characterization of fatty acids, the WaFO was processed into test sample as per the standard preparation technique [31], while, the WaFO biodiesel was tested directly, in a Gas chromatography-Mass Spectrometer (GC–MS); and was studied from their spectral data. Accordingly, WaFO reported oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid as its dominant FAs; with their concentration as 35.41%, 24.24% and 16.15%, respectively. In the same way, WaFO biodiesel reported the ethyl esters of characterized dominant FAs, with their concentration as 35.63%, 27.73% and 18.34%, respectively. Summing up, WaFO Biodiesel was made up of 51.4% of saturated FAEs and 49.18% of unsaturated FAEs; and suggested that the resultant biodiesel was evenly balanced with both saturated and unsaturated FAEs, which reflected in its molecular formula (C19H37O2).
Following that, the WaFO biodiesel was assessed for its fuel compatibility with neat diesel, and suitability in CI engines by evaluating its fuel properties in accordance with ASTM D6751 standards. To begin with, Density of WaFO biodiesel was measured using a simple hydrometer, as specified in ASTM D1298 method; and was reported to be 4.14% higher than neat diesel. Next up, ASTM D445 method was followed to measure the kinematic viscosity of WaFO biodiesel using a calibrated glass-viscosity tube, and was found to be 27.96% higher than neat diesel. Again, flash and fire point of WaFO biodiesel were reported to be 80 and 81OC higher than neat diesel, respectively; and were tested in Pensky Martens closed-cup apparatus as described in ASTM D93–16 method. And, cetane number of WaFO biodiesel, evaluated according to ASTM D613 method, was found to be 27.74% greater than neat diesel. Here, higher density, kinematic viscosity, flash point and cetane number for WaFO biodiesel than neat diesel were contributed by the long carbon chained FAEs like ethyl oleate, ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate; yet, remained significantly lower due to the presence of unsaturated ethyl oleate in it [21, 25, 30, 32].
In contrast, calorific value of WaFO biodiesel was reported 11.1% lesser than neat diesel, upon tested inside a bomb calorimeter as per ASTM D240 method; and this reduction was clarified by its fuel bound oxygen molecules and absence of sulfur content, which fails to contribute a significant share towards its calorific value [33]. Looking into its chemical properties, saponification value and iodine vale of WaFO biodiesel was found to be 191.38 mg KOH/gm and 53.26 g I2/100 gm, on account of its increased concentration of unsaturated FAEs. Meanwhile, the acid value of WaFO biodiesel was estimated as 0.11% by using ASTM D664 method, which acknowledged the effective conversion of FFAs and monoglycerides into fatty acid esters. Lastly, analytical data related to chemical composition of WaFO biodiesel stated its average molecular weight to be 35% higher than neat diesel; whose carbon and hydrogen content was estimated to be 9.92 and 12.06% lesser than the latter fuel. Moreover, WaFO biodiesel exhibited 10.75% of oxygen content available in it; and is regarded as an oxygenated biofuel in view of this fuel bound oxygen content. Table 1 summarizes the fuel properties of WaFO biodiesel and neat diesel evaluated as per ASTM standards, along with their permissible range and testing methods.
Properties | Diesel | WaFO biodiesel | ASTM standards | Permissible range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Density, kg/m3 | 837 ± 7.6 | 871.68 ± 5.12 | D1298 | — |
Specific gravity | 0.84 ± 0.008 | 0.872 ± 0.006 | D1298 | 0.86–0.90 |
Kinematic viscosity, mm2/s | 3.72 ± 0.24 | 4.76 ± 0.21 | D445 | 1.90–6.0 |
Flash point, °C | 64 ± 2.5 | 144 ± 2.6 | D93-16 | 130 min |
Fire point, °C | 72 ± 2.2 | 153 ± 2.45 | D93-16 | — |
Cloud point, °C | 0 ± 1 | 1.5 ± 1 | D2500 | −3 to 12 |
Pour point, °C | −15 ± 1.5 | −2.7 ± 1.5 | D7346-15 | −15 to 10 |
Cetane Number | 50 ± 1.4 | 63.87 ± 1.6 | D613 | 47 (min) |
Calorific value, MJ/kg | 42.6 ± 0.1 | 37.87 ± 0.1 | D240 | 35 to 43 |
Saponification value, mg KOH | — | 191.38 ± 1.1 | D5558 | — |
Acid Value, % | — | 0.11 ± 0.02 | D664 | 0.80 max |
Iodine value, g I2 | — | 53.26 ± 0.92 | D5554 | 120 max |
Carbon, wt.% | 85.16 ± 1.14 | 76.71 ± 1.08 | D5291 | — |
Hydrogen, wt.% | 14.26 ± 0.75 | 12.54 ± 0.73 | D5291 | — |
Oxygen, wt.% | 0 | 10.75 ± 0.52 | D5291 | — |
Sulfur, wt.% | 9.87 ± 0.48 | 2.67 ± 0 .22 | D5453 | — |
Phosphorus, wt.% | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 0.001 | D4951 | — |
Molecular formula | C16H28 | C19H37O2 | — | — |
Molecular weight, g/mol | 220.39 | 297.5 | — | — |
Fuel properties of WaFO biodiesel evaluated as per ASTM standards along with neat diesel and their permissible range.
The evaluation of performance, emission and combustion characteristics of WaFO biodiesel was carried out in a Kirloskar TV1 single cylinder CI engine equipped with in-built water cooling system, with Table 2 consolidates the product specifications of the test engine and flue gas analyzer used in this present study [15, 32]. Here, the parameters tested for this present study includes performance characteristics (specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency), emission characteristics (mon- and di- oxides of carbon and nitrogen, unburnt Hydrocarbon emission, and exhaust gas temperature), and combustion characteristics (maximum in-cylinder pressure, ignition delay, heat release rate). For purpose of testing, two different types of samples have been used in this study and are named as follows: blend samples and ester samples. In specific, blend samples consist of B10, B20 and B30 samples, with 10%, 20% and 30% of biodiesel blended in neat diesel, respectively; and will be used for assessing the trends of biodiesel’s performance in engine. On the other hand, ester samples consist of characterized dominant FAEs, ethyl oleate, ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate, blended in the concentration with respect to B20 blend; and are named as oleate blend, palmitate blend, stearate blend. For better understanding, the blending of blend and ester samples are represented in form of mathematical correlations Eqs. (2) and (3) [15]; and are used for calculating the volume of diesel and biodiesel/ester required for making the necessary blends.
Kirloskar engine TV 1 specifications | AVL DI GAS 444 N (five gas analyzer) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Type: four stroke, single cylinder water cooled | Measurement | Resolution | |
Rated power | 5.2 kW | CO [0–15% Vol] | 0.0001% Vol |
Rated speed | 1500 rpm | HC [0–20000 ppm Vol] | 1 ppm/10 ppm |
Bore diameter (D) | 87.5 mm | CO2 [0–20% Vol] | 0.1% Vol |
Stroke (L) | 110 mm | O2 [0–25% Vol] | 0.01% Vol |
Compression ratio | 17.5:1 | NOX [0–6000 ppm Vol] | 1 ppm Vol |
Here, B20 blend was identified as ideal proportion for understanding the influence of FAEs in deciding the engine characteristics of WaFO biodiesel; and was acknowledged due to the increased performance of any biodiesel at their 20% blend [34]. In addition, blending ester samples reduced the technical challenges associated with low temperature crystallization and increased viscosity, besides their cost. Table 3 reports the overall engine characteristics of WaFO biodiesel blends, along with neat diesel averaged over their engine loads. For ensuring accuracy in results, all the experimental runs were performed in triplicates and are reported in form of mean ± standard error, wherever applicable.
Parameters | Unit | Diesel sample | B10 blend | B20 blend | B30 blend |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pmax | Bar | 51.6 ± 1.24 | 56.8 ± 1.19 | 58 ± 1.22 | 59.4 ± 1.32 |
iHRR | kJ/m3.deg | 56.3 ± 1.58 | 62.28 ± 1.62 | 63.1 ± 1.72 | 64.4 ± 1.64 |
ID | °CA | 19.2 ± 0.52 | 16.8 ± 0.57 | 16.2 ± 0.56 | 15.6 ± 0.6 |
SFC | kg/kW-hr | 0.31 ± 0.02 | 0.36 ± 0.03 | 0.38 ± 0.02 | 0.4 ± 0.02 |
BTE | % | 32.3 ± 0.47 | 30 ± 0.51 | 28.1 ± 0.49 | 27.3 ± 0.48 |
CO Emission | % | 0.25 ± 0.03 | 0.17 ± 0.02 | 0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.13 ± 0.03 |
CO2 Emission | % | 5.8 ± 0.57 | 6.8 ± 0.59 | 7.3 ± 0.62 | 7.7 ± 0.61 |
NOX Emission | PPM | 581.3 ± 10.3 | 703.8 ± 11.4 | 734.9 ± 11.2 | 771.1 ± 10.6 |
HC Emission | PPM | 57.8 ± 2.5 | 49.6 ± 3.11 | 52.4 ± 2.97 | 55 ± 3.2 |
EGT | °C | 208.8 ± 5.16 | 252.2 ± 6.07 | 263.8 ± 4.27 | 273.6 ± 7.12 |
Engine characteristics of blend samples, averaged over the engine load.
In general, in-cylinder pressure inside the cylinder signifies the degree of homogenous mixing of injected fuel with air, and helps in enhancing the rate of combustion. From Table 3 and Figure 1, both blend and ester samples reported higher in-cylinder pressure against neat diesel sample owing to their higher cetane number, which shortened their ignition delay (ID), thereby allowing them to get combusted using their fuel bound oxygen content [32, 35, 36]. Accordingly, B10 blend reported 10.33%, B20 blend reported 12.64% and B30 blend reported 15.46%, higher peak in-cylinder pressure than compared to neat diesel. Likewise, stearate blend reported 3.27%, palmitate blend reported 5.1% and oleate blend reported 6.75%, higher peak in-cylinder pressure than compared to neat diesel.
Maximum in-cylinder pressure of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Upon comparing ester samples with Biodiesel (B20) blend, oleate blend reported minimal variation in peak in-cylinder pressure by 5.52%, followed by palmitate blend and stearate blend reporting 6.72% and 8.3%, respectively. Here, the reduced peak pressure for palmitate and stearate blend signifies their early start of combustion (SOC) citing their shortened ID, besides their reduced concentration. In contrast, oleate blend reported marginal reduction in peak pressure, citing its unsaturation, which reduced its cetane number and prolonged its ID. This prolonged time delay accumulated a significant amount of fuel during premixed burn phase, and got combusted using the available fuel bound oxygen during the diffusion combustion phase [37]. Correlating this, presence of saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) in WaFO biodiesel initiated the early SOC during the premixed combustion phase, because of their higher cetane number; and provided sufficient activation energy for initiating the combustion of unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate, etc.) during the controlled combustion phase. Moreover, in-cylinder pressure increased with engine load for both blend and ester samples, considering the increasing amount of fuel combusted, intending to meet the energy demand of the engine.
More often, heat release rate curve briefs out about the time line of the combustion stroke, indicating the Start Of Injection (SOI), Ignition Delay (ID), Start of Combustion (SOC); and ultimately, the amount of heat released during the combustion of fuel [38]. From Table 3 and Figure 2, both blend and ester samples happened to report higher iHRR than neat diesel citing their early initiation of combustion and its prolonged duration, which provided adequate time for the accumulated low volatile fuel to undergo combustion during both premixed phase and diffusion combustion phase [39]. In addition, fuel bound oxygen played a crucial role in ensuring the complete oxidation of these FAEs in blend and ester samples. Comparatively, B10 blend reported 11.36%, B20 blend reported 12.97% and B30 blend reported 15.47%, higher heat release rate than compared to neat diesel. In like manner, stearate blend reported 3.75%, palmitate blend reported 5.73%, and oleate blend reported 6.82%, higher heat release rate than compared to neat diesel.
Instantaneous heat release rate of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Relative to Biodiesel (B20) blend, oleate blend reported minimal variation in iHRR (by 5.39%), followed by palmitate blend (6.41%) and stearate blend (8.12%), respectively. From above comparison, it was evident that HRR of oleate blend remained higher owing to its unsaturation content, resulting in prolonged ID and reduced premixed combustion phase; helping the accumulated low volatile fuel to oxidize completely using its fuel bound oxygen during the diffusion combustion phase. In contrast, palmitate blend exhibited higher iHRR because of its saturation content, which required less activation energy, and minimal ID; thereby initiating early combustion and providing enough energy for the progressing combustion. Similar trend was reported for stearate blend; however, it remained lower than all other ester samples due to the reduced concentration of ethyl stearate in the diesel blend. Collectively, it can be inferred that saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) were responsible for the activities during the premixed combustion phase, especially the early ignition of WaFO biodiesel. Following this, unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate) were found to be playing crucial role in enhancing the overall HRR through their delayed combustion during diffusion combustion phase, thereby liberating high amount of heat energy. Like Pmax, HRR also increased with engine load for both blend and ester samples, considering the increasing amount of fuel combusted, in order to meet the energy demand of the engine.
Ignition delay of the fuel signifies the delay period noted between the SOI and SOC; and is always represented in terms of crank shaft angle. From Table 3 and Figure 3, both blend and ester samples reported reduced ID due to their high cetane number; and played a significant role in initiating the combustion well before the neat diesel. As a matter of fact, this ID is widely influenced by both physical and chemical delay; but is predominantly influenced by chemical delay [40]. Accordingly, variation in ID between neat diesel and B10 blend, B20 blend and B30 blend were found to be 2.4°, 3° and 3.6° CA BTDC, lower than the former. In the same manner, variation in ID between neat diesel and oleate, stearate and palmitate blend were reported to be 0.4°, 1° and 1.2° CA BTDC, lower than the diesel sample.
Ignition delay of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Amongst ester samples compared with B20 biodiesel blend, oleate blend reported 2.6° CA BTDC, stearate blend reported 2° CA BTDC, and palmitate blend reported 1.8° CA BTDC, higher ID. It follows that, both palmitate and stearate blends exhibited shortened ID owing to their higher cetane number because of their higher saturation. Yet, higher delay period than B20 (biodiesel) blend was explained by the reduced availability of ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate in their blend samples. On contrary, oleate blend reported longer ID than other ester samples due to their low cetane number, accounting its unsaturation and increased availability; besides its high viscosity. Eventually, WaFO biodiesel reported shortened ID because of its saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) which exhibited early SOC, and initiated the combustion of their unsaturated counterparts. Adding to this, the unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate) themselves had higher CN than diesel, which allowed it to initiate early SOC. Here, ID of test samples reduced with increasing engine load, citing the increased availability of fuel. Especially, both blend and ester samples reported lower ID in view of more amount of fuel injected, which indirectly signified increased cetane number.
In general, Specific fuel consumption reports about the fuel requirement of the engine, for producing 1 unit of power [41, 42]. From Table 3 and Figure 4, it can be noted that diesel sample reported lowest SFC amongst all test samples owing to its superior calorific value, and low density. As well, absence of long to very long carbon chained molecules in the diesel simply reduced its viscosity, which enhanced its rate of atomization and vaporization. Supporting this, B10 blend reported 18.77%, B20 blend reported 23.20% and B30 blend reported 29.87%, higher SFC than neat diesel; whereas, ester samples reported higher SFC by 5.8%, 9.66%, 13.67% for stearate blend, palmitate blend and oleate blend, respectively.
Specific fuel consumption rate of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
In comparison with B20 (biodiesel) blend, oleate blend reported 7.71%, palmitate blend reported 10.97%, and stearate blend reported 14.10%, lower SFC. Here, oleate blend reported highest SFC amongst other ester samples owing to its unsaturation, resulting in reduced calorific value, which demanded more fuel to meet the energy equivalence demand. Besides, increased density and kinematic viscosity favored poor atomization and vaporization, thereby leading to poor combustion; and again demanded surplus fuel to satisfy the energy demand. Meanwhile, both stearate blend and palmitate blend reported low SFC due to their slightly higher calorific value, which helped in deriving maximum heat energy output. Inspite of long carbon chains contributing to their increased density and viscosity, these samples reported low rate of fuel consumption citing their reduced availability in the blend sample and superior calorific value of diesel, itself. Summing up, both saturated (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate), and unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate) are responsible for the increased SFC of WaFO biodiesel, accounting their long carbon chains. Also, unsaturation in the WaFO biodiesel had negative impact on its overall calorific value, thus consuming more fuel to produce the equivalent work. Oddly, trend of SFC curve reduced with increasing engine load for all test samples, suggesting that the brake power increased along with engine load [43].
In common practice, the capability of the engine to produce actual mechanical work output by converting the stored chemical energy in the fuel is signified by its brake thermal efficiency; and correlates brake power with the fuel power [32]. From Table 3 and Figure 5, compared with neat diesel, lower BTE was reported for B10 blend by 10.29%, B20 blend by 13.05% and B30 blend by 15.5%; and, for stearate blend by 2.47%, palmitate blend by 4.68%, and oleate blend by 7.62%. Here, high BTE for diesel, inspite of low cetane number, was explained by its superior calorific value and low volatility, which allowed it to undergo complete combustion especially during its diffusion combustion phase; inspite of its lack of fuel bound oxygen content [44].
Brake thermal efficiencies of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Compared to B20 (biodiesel) blend, oleate blend reported 6.24%, palmitate blend reported 9.65%, and stearate blend reported 12.22%, higher BTE. Here, stearate blend exhibited highest BTE amidst other ester samples because of its increased calorific value; and reduced availability of ethyl stearate in the blend sample, which had a significant effect on its resultant viscosity. Moreover, shortened ID of ethyl stearate provided it sufficient time to get combusted during premixed combustion phase, and supply sufficient energy for the accumulated diesel to get combusted rapidly during the diffusion combustion phase; thereby resulting adequate amount of heat energy. Likewise, palmitate blend also reported similar phenomenon; however, reduced BTE was explained by its increased concentration than stearate blend. Unlike this, oleate blend reported lowest BTE amongst ester samples citing its unsaturation, inferior calorific value, and increased rate of viscosity; hence, requiring more amount of fuel for energy equivalence. However, higher BTE than B20 blend was explained by the reduced availability of ethyl oleate in the blend sample, and its efficacy to undergo complete oxidation using its fuel bound oxygen. Comparing these results, it can be inferred that saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) initiated combustion during the premixed phase, and provided sufficient activation energy for initiating the combustion of unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate) during the diffusion combustion phase. Besides, in view of early SOC due to shorted ID, FAEs in WaFO reported early ignition and underwent complete oxidation using its fuel bound oxygen content; thus, reporting similar BTE like neat diesel. Again, BTE of all test samples increased with engine load, considering the increasing amount of fuel combusted, in order to meet the energy demand of the engine [45].
In general, CO emission is considered as secondary by-product during combustion; and its presence in exhaust gas signifies incomplete combustion of fuel inside engine cylinder. Infact, CO emission arises in case of poor atomization, improper air-fuel mixing, deprived oxygen content, insufficient time for completion of combustion, and even engine’s operating conditions; in addition to fuel’s molecular properties like unsaturation, C/H ratio, and even aromaticity [46]. From Table 3 and Figure 6, both blend and ester samples reported lower CO emission against neat diesel because of their fuel bound oxygen content, which was responsible for the completion of their oxidation; and, leaving behind only a small portion of partially combusted CO emissions. Relatively, CO emission remained reduced for B10 blend by 35.66%, B20 blend by 45.76% and B30 blend by 52.04%; and, for palmitate blend by 10.52%, stearate blend by 22.31%, than compared to neat diesel. In contrast, oleate blend reported higher CO emission (by 15%), than compared to neat diesel sample.
Carbon monoxide emission of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
As compared with B20 (biodiesel) blend, stearate blend reported 45.86%, palmitate blend reported 70.69%, and oleate blend reported 122.45%, higher CO emission. Here, both palmitate and stearate blends reported higher CO emissions; and was explained by their reduced availability and long carbon chained molecules, inspite of their shortened ID and fuel bound oxygen content. Furthermore, oleate blend reported highest CO emission amongst other test samples on account of its unsaturated double bond in its FA moieties [40, 47]. Besides, delayed combustion encouraged the rapid combustion of accumulated fuel during diffusion combustion phase, thereby increasing the CO concentration. Summarizing this, WaFO biodiesel reported reduced CO emission in view of its fuel bound oxygen molecules in their FAEs; yet, it reported significant traces of CO due to its unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate). To be noted, saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) ensured complete oxidation of WaFO biodiesel by providing sufficient activation energy for its unsaturated counterparts. Again, CO emissions of both blend and ester samples increased along with engine load, and were explained by the increasing amount of fuel injected into the cylinder to meet the energy demand of the engine.
Unlike CO emission, CO2 emission is considered as the primary product during combustion; and its presence in exhaust gas signifies the completion of fuel’s combustion inside the engine cylinder. Again, concentration of CO2 emission is influenced by the fuel’s molecular properties like unsaturation, C/H ratio, and even aromaticity; besides the operating condition of the engine [46]. From Table 3 and Figure 7, both blend and ester samples reported higher CO2 emission than diesel sample citing the presence of their fuel bound oxygen molecules and their higher cetane number; which prolonged its combustion duration for their complete oxidation. Equally important, higher concentration of CO2 emission was also contributed by the long carbon chains in their FAE molecules. Accordingly, B10 blend reported 23.59%, B20 blend reported 35.76% and B30 blend reported 45.58%, higher CO2 emission than compared to neat diesel. Likewise, stearate and palmitate blends reported increased CO2 emission by 6.23% and 15.41% higher CO2 emission, respectively; meanwhile, oleate blend reported lower CO2 emission by 6.97%.
Carbon dioxide emission of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Upon comparing ester samples with Biodiesel (B20) blend, palmitate blend reported 12.33%, stearate blend reported 18.72%, and oleate blend reported 28.32%, lower CO2 emission. As a matter of fact, both palmitate and stearate blends reported higher CO2 concentration than oleate blend on account of their reduced availability and saturation, which improvised their overall effectiveness of combustion. Especially, palmitate blend reported its CO2 emission closer to B20 blend, stating its higher concentration than stearate blend; and its ability to initiate early combustion, thereby providing sufficient time for the accumulated diesel to combust completely. Meanwhile, oleate blend reported lowest CO2 emission amongst all test samples on account of its unsaturation and increased availability, which reduced the effectivity of atomization thereby combusting poorly [48]. In addition, delayed SOC allowed it to combust rapidly which hindered its complete oxidation, thereby forming incomplete combustion products. Summing up, higher concentration of CO2 emission for WaFO biodiesel, inspite of its unsaturation was explained by the presence of its saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate), which initiated early SOC and ensured the progress of combustion of the unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate). Again, CO2 emissions increased along with engine load, and were also explained by the increasing amount of fuel injected into the cylinder to meet the energy demand of the engine.
Often, NOX emission in exhaust gas is also regarded as secondary by-product during combustion; however, it arises when engine reports high operating temperatures, especially high exhaust gas temperatures. In relevance to that, NOX emissions due to high EGTs are explained by higher cetane number and fuel bound oxygen content inducing prolonged combustion; besides the viscosity of fuel [30, 32]. From Table 3 and Figure 8, both blend and ester samples reported higher NOx emission due to their shortened ID, and increased viscosity; which increased the overall duration of combustion, and liberate sufficient heat energy fairly enough for producing NOX emission. In addition, calorific value of these test samples also contributed to this harmful emission. Supporting this, NOX emission was increased by 22.17% for B10 blend, 28.2% for B20 blend and 36.06% for B30 blend; and 6.55% for stearate blend, 11.8% for palmitate blend, and 17.3% for oleate blend, than compared to neat diesel.
Nitrogen oxide emission of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
In comparison with B20 (biodiesel) blend, oleate blend reported 8.53%, palmitate reported 12.66% and stearate blend reported 16.57%, lower NOX emission. In specific, palmitic and stearate blend reported lower NOX emission than B20 blend signifying their early SOC due to shortened ID; and provided sufficient activation energy for initiating the combustion of diesel during diffusion combustion phase. Yet, these samples reported reduced NOX emission because of their volatility. On the other hand, oleate blend exhibited higher NOX emission owing to its increased availability, high viscosity, and reduced cetane number which led to its accumulation in event of its delayed SOC. Besides, rapid combustion of this accumulated fuel liberated high temperature inside the cylinder, and produced high NOX emission. Outlining these results, higher NOX emission of WaFO biodiesel was influenced by its unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate), which liberated very high temperatures inside the cylinder, thereby forming high NOX emissions. Interestingly, saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) also liberated very high temperatures during premixed phase, besides contributing activation energies to unsaturated FAEs, thus favoring NOX formation. Like other emissions, NOX emissions of both blend and ester samples increased with engine load on account of more fuel being combusted inside the engine to meet the energy demand, thereby delivering their equivalent work and heat.
EGT from the engine defines the progress of combustion inside the cylinder; and is dependent on the engine’s operating conditions and properties of fuel used. Conventionally, fuel reporting delayed SOC, with prolonged duration exhibits higher EGTs; and these high temperatures contribute to NOx emissions [49, 50]. From Table 3 and Figure 9, both blend and ester samples exhibited higher EGTs accounting their higher cetane number and fuel bound oxygen content; which favored higher rate of combustion and liberated large amount of heat. Moreover, viscosity and calorific value of these samples also contributed to their high EGTs. Supporting this, B10 blend reported 20.97%, B20 blend reported 26.49% and B30 blend reported 31.52%; and stearate blend reported 6.1%, palmitate blend reported 10.62%, and oleate blend reported 15.46%, higher EGTs than compared to neat diesel.
Exhaust gas temperature of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Amongst ester samples compared with B20 biodiesel blend, oleate blend reported 8.48%, palmitate blend reported 12.23% and stearate blend reported 15.76%, lower exhaust gas temperature. Especially, palmitate and stearate blends combusted earlier due to shortened ID, which forced the highly volatile, accumulated diesel to combust rapidly, and limiting the heat generation and EGT. In case of oleate blend, low cetane number allowed it to undergo prolonged combustion, and assisted the diesel for combustion during diffused combustion and after burning phase; thus liberating large amount of heat and increase its EGT. On the whole, WaFO biodiesel with significant amount of unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate) exhibited prolonged combustion accompanied with high rate of combustion using their fuel bound oxygen molecules; and liberated high EGTs [29]. Meanwhile, saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate) contributed to a minimal amount to EGT, accounting their early ignition and supplying of activation energy to the unsaturated FAEs; thus contributing minimal to EGTs. Like NOx emissions, EGT of both blend and ester samples increased with engine load on account of more fuel being combusted inside the engine to meet the energy demand, thereby delivering their equivalent work and heat.
Unburnt hydrocarbons in exhaust gas signifies the inability of the fuel to get completely combusted near the cylinder wall, owing to reduced flame temperatures near the fuel-rich zones and poor combustion kinetics and quenched flame [51]. From Table 3 and Figure 10, both blend and ester samples displayed reduced HC emission in event of complete oxidation using their fuel bound oxygen content. Adding to this, these oxygen molecules helped in liberating high flame temperatures, and propagated throughout the cylinder and combusted unburnt hydrocarbons. Unfortunately, neat diesel reported traces of HC emission as a consequence of its rapid combustion, owing to its high volatility which reduced the adiabatic flame temperature near the cylinder walls. In comparison with diesel blend, B10 blend reported 17.75%, B20 blend reported 10.91% and B30 blend reported 5.89%; and oleate blend reported 23.71%, palmitate blend reported 27.15%, and stearate blend reported 34.72%, lower HC emissions.
Hydrocarbon emission of WaFO B20 blend and ester samples.
Relatively, stearate blend reported lowest HC emission (by 27.22%), followed by palmitate blend (18.54%) and oleate blend (14.66%), than compared to B20 (biodiesel) blend. Supporting this, palmitate and stearate blends exhibited lower HC emission, and was clearly evident that presence of oxygen in these samples reduced their HC emission. Explaining this, these saturated FAEs initiated early combustion and provided sufficient temperature inside the cylinder for ensuring complete oxidation of diesel [27]. Whilst, oleate blend reported higher HC emission than other ester samples because of its increased availability and unsaturation; which resulted in poor atomization and vaporization, and reduced the effectiveness of combustion (i.e. in complete combustion) for the liquid droplets present at the localized zone with reduced flame temperatures. Consolidating these results, it can be concluded that WaFO biodiesel combusted completely using its fuel bound oxygen content. Interestingly, unsaturated FAEs (ethyl oleate) in WaFO biodiesel reduced its rate of atomization, thus forming micro fuel droplets; however, they were combusted by the heat energy supplied by the saturated FAEs (ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate). Here, HC emission of test samples increased with engine load; yet, HC emission of blend and ester samples remained lower than diesel sample even at higher loads due to high engine temperatures, besides their high cylinder pressures [52].
Thus, this present chapter strongly concludes that the overall engine characteristics of a biodiesel is contributed by its FAEs; and are influenced by their molecular properties including their chain length and unsaturation. Accordingly, engine characteristics, which includes their performance, combustion and emission characteristics of WaFO biodiesel were influenced by its dominant FAEs, and following were the key conclusions deduced from the above study:
Ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate were identified as dominant saturated FAEs, which were responsible for initiating early combustion due to their higher cetane number, and contributing to higher efficiencies owing to their high calorific values. On the other hand, ethyl oleate was characterized as the dominant unsaturated FAEs, and was acknowledged for prolonging the combustion duration due to its unsaturation and need for high activation energy.
High cylinder pressure and heat release rate were explained by early SOC during premixed phase by saturated FAEs, which initiating the combustion of unsaturated FAEs using fuel bound oxygen, and liberated large amount of heat and temperature.
Inspite of complete oxidation of both saturated and unsaturated FAEs, biodiesel reported reduced thermal efficiencies and increased fuel consumption rate in view of their inferior calorific value than neat diesel. In addition, slightly higher density and viscosity also setback biodiesel’s overall performance in engine.
Increased concentration of completely combusted products and reduced concentration of incompletely combusted products were acknowledged by the fuel bound oxygen content of biodiesel. Overall emission characteristics of biodiesel were improved by prolonged combustion of unsaturated FAEs, which was further improvised by saturated FAEs.
Based on these conclusions, it is again evident that FAEs decide the overall engine characteristics of their biodiesel; and this work can be used as a preliminary guideline for deciding the idle feedstock for producing biodiesel, which meets the requirement of the engine’s output and application.
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
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\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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Mainly, the versatile techniques of ultra−/high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC/HPLC) are in use for the analysis of assay and organic impurities/related substances/degradation products of a drug substance or drug product or intermediate or raw material of pharmaceuticals. A suitable analytical method is developed only after evaluating the major and critical separation parameters of chromatography (examples for UPLC/HPLC are selection of diluent, wavelength, detector, stationary phase, column temperature, flow rate, solvent system, elution mode, and injection volume, etc.). The analytical method development is a process of proving the developed analytical method is suitable for its intended use for the quantitative estimation of the targeted analyte present in pharmaceutical drugs. And it mostly plays a vital role in the development and manufacture of pharmaceuticals drugs.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Narasimha S. Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"33046",title:"Affinity Chromatography: Principles and Applications",slug:"affinity-chromatography-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:48609,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1490",slug:"affinity-chromatography",title:"Affinity Chromatography",fullTitle:"Affinity Chromatography"},signatures:"Sameh Magdeldin and Annette Moser",authors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"},{id:"136483",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",middleName:"C.",surname:"Moser",slug:"annette-moser",fullName:"Annette Moser"}]},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:5930,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"While RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) has become increasingly popular for transcriptome profiling, the analysis of the massive amount of data generated by large‐scale RNA‐seq still remains a challenge. RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49873",title:"An Introduction to Actinobacteria",slug:"an-introduction-to-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8089,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:101,abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3691,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"6",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82531",title:"Abnormal Iron Metabolism and Its Effect on Dentistry",slug:"abnormal-iron-metabolism-and-its-effect-on-dentistry",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104502",abstract:"Iron is a necessary micro-nutrient for proper functioning of the erythropoietic, oxidative and cellular metabolism. The iron balance in the body adversely affects the normal physiologic functioning of the body and structures in the oral cavity. Various abnormalities develop owing to improper iron metabolism in the body which reflects in the oral cavity. The toxicity of iron has to be well understood to immediately identify the hazardous effects which arise owing to it and to manage it. It has been very well mentioned in the chapter. The manifestations of defects of iron metabolism in the oral cavity should be carefully studied to improve the prognosis of the treatment of the same. Disorders related to iron metabolism should be managed for improvement in the quality of life of the patient.",book:{id:"10842",title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg"},signatures:"Chinmayee Dahihandekar and Sweta Kale Pisulkar"},{id:"82291",title:"The Role of Oxidative Stress in the Onset and Development of Age-Related Macular Degeneration",slug:"the-role-of-oxidative-stress-in-the-onset-and-development-of-age-related-macular-degeneration",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105599",abstract:"Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex, degenerative and progressive chronic disease that leads to severe visual loss. The prevalence of early AMD accounts for 18% in the population between 65 and 74 years of age and even 30% in subjects older than 74 years. The articles published in the last decade point out to a significant role of oxidative stress in the onset and development of age-related macular degeneration. Generally, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced in the eye during light absorption and physiological metabolic processes. The level of oxidative stress is kept under control by the action of antioxidants and reparative enzymes. Excessive synthesis of ROS leads to increased oxidative modification of lipids, proteins and DNA, causing oxidative damage of cytoplasmic and nuclear cell elements and changes of the extracellular matrix. The accumulation of oxidatively modified compounds in drusen deposits will initiate the onset and development of AMD. The objective of this review was to highlight the mechanisms of oxidative stress in order to elucidate their significance and association with the pathogenesis of AMD.",book:{id:"11671",title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg"},signatures:"Emina Čolak, Lepša Žorić, Miloš Mirković, Jana Mirković, Ilija Dragojević, Dijana Mirić, Bojana Kisić and Ljubinka Nikolić"},{id:"82517",title:"MicroRNAs and Pancreatic ß Cell Functional Modulation",slug:"micrornas-and-pancreatic-cell-functional-modulation",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105588",abstract:"Recent reports of diabetes susceptibility loci located on the non-coding regions of the genome highlight the importance of epigenetic control in health and disease. Specifically, microRNAs have shown to have an important regulatory role in pancreatic ß cell physiology. Human studies implicated that ß cell mass and function are regulated by microRNAs in health and disease. Further, the microRNAs are also implicated in ensuing diabetic complications. Delineating the peculiar role of microRNAs in ß cell physiology and pathophysiology will fill the missing gaps in our current knowledge and help to devise better treatment regimens for diabetes. This chapter will discuss multiple effects of different microRNAs on the ß cell physiology in the context of maintenance and function in Type 2 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"11353",title:"Recent Advances in Non-Coding RNAs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11353.jpg"},signatures:"Shahzad Irfan, Farhat Jabeen and Haseeb Anwar"},{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",abstract:"Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is the largest and one of the most complex cellular structures, indicating its widespread importance and variety of functions, including synthesis of membrane and secreted proteins, protein folding, calcium storage, and membrane lipid biogenesis. Moreover, the ER is implicated in cholesterol, plasmalogen, phospholipid, and sphingomyelin biosynthesis. Furthermore, the ER is in contact with most cellular organelles, such as mitochondria, peroxisomes, Golgi apparatus, lipid droplets, plasma membrane, etc. Peroxisomes are synthesized from a specific ER section, and they are related to very-long-chain fatty acid metabolism. Similarly, lipid droplets are vital structures in lipid homeostasis that are formed from the ER membrane. Additionally, there is a specific region between the ER-mitochondria interface called Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs). This small cytosolic gap plays a key role in several crucial mechanisms from autophagosome synthesis to phospholipid transfer. Due to the importance of the ER in a variety of biological processes, alterations in its functionality have relevant implications for multiple diseases. Nowadays, a plethora of pathologies like non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cancer, and neurological alterations have been associated with ER malfunctions.",book:{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg"},signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez"},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",abstract:"SARS-CoV-2 virus infection causes the Covid-19 disease pandemic. Purinergic signaling is a form of extracellular signaling. Purinergic signaling plays significant role in the pathology of Covid-19. Purinergic system includes extracellular nucleotides, nucleosides, ectonucleotidases, and purinergic receptors. ATP, ADP, and adenosine are the main nucleotides, nucleosides. CD39 and CD73 are the main ectonucleotidases. There are two classes of purinergic receptors, P1 and P2. Each of them can be further divided, P1 into A1, A2A, A2B, and A3, P2 into P2X, and P2Y. In Covid-19, the purinergic system is disordered. SARS-CoV-2 viruses invading leads to extracellular ATP and ADP accumulation, purinergic receptor abnormally activation, tissue homeostasis balance is broken, which lead to inflammation even hyperinflammation with cytokine storm and thrombosis et al. symptoms. Currently, Covid-19 therapeutic medicine is still in shortage. Target purinergic system components is a promising way to treat Covid-19, which will help inhibit inflammation and prevent thrombosis. Currently, many relevant preclinical and clinical trials are ongoing. Some are very promising.",book:{id:"10801",title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg"},signatures:"Hailian Shen"},{id:"81708",title:"High Throughput Methods to Transfer DNA in Cells and Perspectives",slug:"high-throughput-methods-to-transfer-dna-in-cells-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104542",abstract:"Genome sequencing led to thousands of genes to study and their molecular cloning to provide ORF collection plasmids. The main approach to study their function involves analysis of the biological consequences of their expression or knockdown, in a cellular context. Given that, the starting point of such experiments is the delivery of the exogenous material, including plasmid DNA in cells. During the last decades, efforts were made to develop efficient methods and protocols to achieve this goal. The present chapter will first give a rapid overview of the main DNA transfer methods described so far: physical, chemical, and biological. Secondly, it will focus on the different methods having reached high-throughput nowadays. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"