The current leaders in the commercialization of organoids, their geographical location, and application areas.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"948",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Perioperative Considerations in Cardiac Surgery",title:"Perioperative Considerations in Cardiac Surgery",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book considers mainly the current perioperative care, as well as progresses in new cardiac surgery technologies. Perioperative strategies and new technologies in the field of cardiac surgery will continue to contribute to improvements in postoperative outcomes and enable the cardiac surgical society to optimize surgical procedures. This book should prove to be a useful reference for trainees, senior surgeons and nurses in cardiac surgery, as well as anesthesiologists, perfusionists, and all the related health care workers who are involved in taking care of patients with heart disease which require surgical therapy. 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Organoid formation from stem and progenitor cells. Following tissue dissociation, adult stem cell/ progenitor cells from normal or patients are isolated. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells are subjected to guided differentiation, followed by growing them on extracellular matrix in 3D culture system using specific culture media to begin organoid culture. The lower right section shows the different aspects of organoid commercialization, including molecular profiling of the collected cells, long term storage of cells with appropriate patient consent and information. These biobanked organoids can then be used for functional studies related to potential applications like disease modeling, therapeutic development, regenerative medicine, toxicology, and personalized medicine.
Tissue specific organoid bioenginnering and different basic biomedical and commercial applications.
Backed by some significant observations in the proliferative nature of adult tissue stem cells in 2009, the cardinal notion enveloping organoid technology is that stem cells have ingrained potential to self-assemble into 3D constructs with similitude with human organs [5]. As time rolled on, the modus operandi has been implemented to produce several human and murine organoids out of epithelial tissues of various organs such as the liver, intestine, kidney, skin [6, 7, 8, 9]. Another breakthrough entails the evolution of organoids obtained from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), which can circumvent the toil to avail specific tissues like the heart or brain. This prodigious prospect, reinforced with genetic engineering, permits the mutational corrections in patient-derived iPSCs expediting differentiation to generate a specific type of cells [10, 11, 12, 13]. Scrupulous experimental manipulation while maintaining sensitive biological complexity allows organoid technology to bridge the gap between 2D cell culture and 3D models [14]. It has also proved to better simulate human physiology than animal models and has shown the promise to substitute animals in preclinical biology [15, 16].
As ratiocinated from the trends, there will be a steady increase in the demand for organoid technology in the following years [3, 16]. As per reports published in various media, around 20 companies are into business with this technology—their activities include biobanking, manufacturing, commercialization, the implication of robotics for the development of organoids, organoids on a chip, etc. Statistically, priorities are given to heart, brain, intestine, and kidney organoids [3]. Financial models adopted by these companies are—(i) venture capitals, (ii) partnerships (iii) direct collaboration with the originators. Routine use of animals for disease modeling has always been afflicted with stringent moral and ethical queries. Usage of embryonic stem cells has also faced stormy skirmishes regarding the moral status of the embryos. Likewise, the moral and legal status of the organoids has been called in regulatory questions, to mention a few—ownership, consent, IP rights, safety, commercialization, etc. Utilization of ‘matrigel’ (extracellular matrix obtained from animals) has raised some safety concerns regarding compatibility with the human system. The debate revolving around the exchange or donation of human tissue as a commodity is still ongoing. To resolve this, few regulations should be declared and accepted by the global intellect [17]. Quibbles for intellectual property (IP) generation with human tissue should cease to persist, showing proper dignity and preserving the donor\'s rights. Consent should become a requirement avoiding de-identification of the donor [18, 19, 20, 21]. In the present chapter, we shall highlight the usage of the organoid, organoid cell atlas, followed by shedding light on the commercialization aspect of the technology and future directionality.
Researchers traditionally used
With the advent of tumor organoid culture, patient-derived tumor organoids (PDTOs) have become popular tools to study molecular tumorigenesis, understand tumor heterogenity, predict drug responses, immunotherapy, and precision cancer therapy. At the moment, several tumor organoid biobanks have been developed catering to a variety of cancer types, including lung [31], breast [32], gut [33], and brain [34], liver [35], colorectal [36], pancreas [37], prostate [38], and ovary [39]. The role of tumor immune microenvironments (TIME) is significant in improving cancer immunotherapies, and PDTOs have started playing a crucial role in modeling the tumor-immune landscape. PDTO-based TIME studies can help evaluate immunotherapies such as checkpoint inhibition and adoptive T-cell treatment [4]. Thus, optimizing the tumor organoid culture method is critical for developing organoid-guided customized cancer immunotherapy [40].
Human organoids are suited for genetic modification and customization and bridge the gap between fundamental research and clinical practice. This technique has aided oncology, biological, pharmacological, regenerative, and personalized medicine studies [1]. Despite the initial advances, the technology is still nascent and is expected to be employed in various applications such as developmental and stem cell biology, toxicology, drug discovery, personalized medicine, disease modeling, immune interaction, and regenerative modeling (Figure 2). Healthy human organoids from different tissues may be utilized to test comparative therapeutic toxicities in combination with disease-related organoids. Cardiac organoids, liver organoids, kidney organoids, and other organoids are now used to dictate intolerable adverse effects, such as hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and other tissue toxicity [41]. Patient-specific relevant organotypic models will go a long way in reframing basic findings, testing innovative ideas in 3D, and validating crucial data without sacrificing animal life for science. This aspect is dealt with in other publications [42, 43].
The lack of a physiologically relevant model system has delayed the therapeutic development process, and many candidates have failed in clinical trials [4]. Cancer organoids are near-physiological replicas of their parent tumors and bridge the gap between drug screening and clinical trials. Organoids have been utilized to examine personalized cancer patient responses in several research [32, 44, 45]. It may also be utilized to look at the epigenetic and genetic changes that cause drug resistance [46]. Tumor organoids can accurately predict chemotherapeutic response and resistance for certain drugs in some cancers [47, 48]. Finding the right therapeutic combination can be a challenge, and tumor organoids can help solve this dilemma and can make personalized medicine a reality [49]. The advances in genetic engineering technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 are implemented on organoids further to confirm medication sensitivity to specific mutations [50]. Organoids may also be used for pharmacokinetic research, critical in drug development. Results suggest that drug-transporters, their efflux transport functions, drug-metabolism can be efficiently studied using organoids [51]. In addition to cancer biobanks, organoids have a significant role to play in immunotherapy, a kind of cancer treatment in which the patient\'s immune system is used to eliminate tumor cells [52]. Organoid-based models are explored to study the effect of tumor-immune cell interaction using a coculture system with both components [53].
Organoids holds promise as a propitious platform in biomedical research and applications for many decades to come. Human organoids currently have a few limitations that require to be circumvented to appreciate their full potential. Some technical and conceptual limitations may be addressed using single-cell sequencing and spatial profiling. Single-cell transcriptome/ epigenome sequencing and spatial profiling can provide a thorough idea about the composition of cells and the state of cells present within the organoids, which may help develop organoids as futuristic models of human biology. In combination with the Human organoids and single-cell technology, a pilot project has been launched within the Human Cell Atlas (HCA) as a “Biological network” (https://www.humancellatlas.org/euh2020/) [54]. HCA is a revolutionary global collaborative initiative aiming at advancing biomedical research opportunities and therapy using single-cell technologies (https://hca-organoid.eu/). This pilot project, under HCA, focuses on the single-cell characterization of organoids and other complex
It is one of the six pilot projects funded by the European Union (EU) Horizon 2020 Framework Programme, which will be helpful in developing the first version of the Organoid Cell Atlas, which may be used as a nucleus for a broader, collaborative, global initiative. The HCA-Organoid association has eight partner Institutions, including EMBL’s European Bioinformatics Institute institutions having experts in organoid technology, single-cell profiling, advanced imaging, and bioinformatics from Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and received €5 million by EU funding, as a part of the European contribution to the HCA project. Currently, the project mainly focuses on generating single-cell transcriptome, epigenome maps, and detailed imaging data in a selection of human organoids. The initial objective of the funded project is to derive and characterize two organoids, colon and brain, from 100 whole-genome-sequence individuals each, to have a record of normal population variation and have a reference for disease-centric research [56].
The colon and brain organoids were one of the first organs to which organoids were demonstrated, so comparatively, more advanced protocols for the two are available with HCA [2, 23]. Apart from this, the colon organoids are derived from adult stem cells while the brain is from the iPSCs, thus spanning the two primary sources of organoid derivation. Both of them have primarily been used for disease-centric studies. If the single-cell characterization of these organoids is done for many individuals, this can help facilitate various biomedical applications. Beyond the initial target, most of the data information in the project is generalized in a way to be applicable to various other types of human organoids. The HCA has also spoken about the possibility that they can collaborate with other institutes for different projects, which can pursue systematic single-cell profiling in other types of human organoids, to explore the possibility of interrelation with the Organoid Cell Atlas [56].
The main aim of the EU H2020 HCA-Organoid project is to build an Organoid cell atlas portal that may be equipped with the computational infrastructure and a web-based front end that makes the data easily accessible and analyzed. Some of the organoid-specific features that have been focused on while developing an Organoid portal include the interactive exploration of human organoid data, data-driven selection of organoids for functional experiments, and comparison of disease-specific organoids against reference collections of normal organoids.
This portal also focuses on providing the data of the corresponding primary tissues available in the HCA and also will work on showing interactive mappings between single-cell profiles of human organoids. These may be achieved using the algorithms that enable cell-cell alignments between these datasets. This portal is supposed to facilitate the use of organoids in biomedical experiments and encourage the use of organoids as models in various experiments like precision medicine, drug development, disease modeling, etc. Mapping and data integration may detect normal variation between individuals in an interactive manner showcasing organoid as the capable model for the corresponding variation in primary tissues. The analysis and interpretations of disturbances in the human organoids related to the primary tissues will be performed using cell-cell alignments [56].
A set of strategies have been laid to develop the atlas to be most productive and of high quality. Initially, it was thought to invest in validation and standardization for organoid-related research. Later, a contribution towards the HCA to establish community standards and software infrastructure for data processing and data annotation was strategized. Then the development and validation of computational methods for the comparison of cells between organoids and corresponding primary tissues and their flexible alignments were implemented. Finally, the implementation of interactive visualization tools that helps in establishing user-friendly quality control and exploratory analysis of single-cell organoid datasets contributed to the Organoid Cell Atlas [55].
With the development and successful commercialization of organoids, the most demanded sector in treating patients and pre-clinical trials in pharmaceutical industries will give a slanting graph in the market in the future [57]. In this present era, many specific and most suitable techniques have been developing over the years for organoid research, leading to competition among industries worldwide. The annual cost of treating brain diseases in Europe is $798 billion, and globally it amounts to $3 trillion. Over 90% of novel drugs that are being developed for brain diseases fail during the developmental process, which further reinforces the scope and opportunities for organoids [2]. The development of the living human brain (LHB) enables culturing of human-derived brain organoids from the cells of any individual; the University of Helsinki provides a new technical idea for preclinical trials of drugs in this area. Helsinki Innovation Services Ltd (HIS) supports the commercialization projects of the University of Helsinki from the funding application stage to completion.
Many startups such as XILIS, CELLESCE, SYSTEM1 BIOSCIENCES, 3DYNAMICS, PATH BIOANALYTICS, KNOWN MEDICINE, CYPRE, DYNOMICS are currently working in the domain of organoid technology. XILIS is developing a patient-derived miniature organoid technology to upgrade precision medicine and pharmaceutical drug discovery; their needed materials lead to 30× speed, 50× throughput, and 300× cost-saving (Hans Clever includes in the founding team of XILIS). CELLESCE is a UK-based startup that invented a bio-processing technology intended to grow and expand organoids in drug discovery and regenerative medicine. $25 million of Series A venture funding is raised in SYSTEM1 BIOSCIENCES incorporation with Charles River Ventures and Pfizer Ventures, upgrading neuro drug discovery through the combined action of human brain models, scaled biology, and machine learning to interpret brain disease from genetics to neural computation. Also, KNOWN MEDICINE raised a total of $2.4 M from Khosla, Cota Capital, and Y-Combinator, offering cutting-edge biology research and the latest AI techniques, giving oncologists an easy spot for treating patient\'s tumors with the best suitable drug. PATH BIOANALYTICS does bioanalysis of Phenotypic drug discovery and development. CYPRE is developing a tumor model platform intended for transformative 3D cellular research and clinical testing of cancer patients with seed funding from Hemi Ventures and others. DYNOMICS received $500K in pre-seed funding from Boost VC. The details of the organoid-specific startups are presented in Table 1. These different startups contribute a vast platform to save millions of people’s life [58]. Several companies are also operational in the tumor organoid domain, like Charles River and CROWNBio.
Company name | Country | Application area |
---|---|---|
XILIS INC. | Durham, North Carolina, USA | Micro-organospheres |
CELLESCE | Wales, UK | Patient-derived organoids (PDO) |
SYSTEM 1 BIOSCIENCES | San Francisco, CA, USA | Brain organoids |
3DNAMICS | Baltimore, Maryland, USA | Brain and liver organoids |
PATH BIOANALYTICS | North Carolina, USA | PDO for precision medicine |
KNOWN MEDICINE | Salt Lake City, Utah, USA | Patient-specific organoids for cancer drug development |
CYPRE | San Francisco, CA, USA | 3D tumor model |
DYNOMICS INC. | San Francisco, CA, USA | Human cardiac organoid |
CHARLES RIVER | Wilmington, MA, USA | Tumor organoid |
CROWNBio | San Diego, CA, USA | Tumor organoid |
The current leaders in the commercialization of organoids, their geographical location, and application areas.
Despite using pre-clinical trials in animal models, concerns are raised about whether the animals will be extinct if used over the years. This will lead to the depletion of species and a significant effect on the ecosystem. Moreover, they may lead to harmful effects on the environment once mutated and released. The Animal Welfare Act of 1970 was implemented in the United States and set standards for animal use and care in research. Three principles of the Act are (1) experiments must be proven necessary for instruction or to save or prolong human life, (2) animals must be appropriately anesthetized, (3) animals must be killed as soon as the experiment is over. Much to our intrigue, different types of organoids such as kidney organoids, lung organoids, liver organoids, intestine organoids, brain organoids, etc., can substitute such animal models in preclinical trials for drug discovery and precision medicine. Even self-organ plantation may occur with the continuous development of organoids.
Globally, the expenses of organ transplantation and post-transplantation maintenance treatment are quite expensive but varies according to variables such as geographical location, medical facility, transplant organ type, and access to insurance coverage [59]. Private hospitals in India now charge around INR 10 lakh to INR 30 lakh for a heart transplant, while in USA, the charges can be very high ~$1,664,800.00 (https://www.statista.com/statistics/808471/organ-transplantation-costs-us/). While the cost of a kidney transplant goes from INR 5 lakh to INR 20 lakh, while in USA it can be around ~$442,500.00. The cost of a liver transplant runs from INR 15 lakh to INR 35 lakh, and ~$878,400.00 in the USA. The eventuality of the unaffordability of such expensive treatment modalities led to the demise of a multitude. Furthermore, organ transplants from other donors are sometimes associated with organ rejection and the onset of auto-immune disease. It is not only the high cost of transplant but also the availability and transport of organs is a major issue in many countries. Though the number of donors have increased but the needs have also reached new heights [59]. One-third of all organ transplants fail due to rejection due to multiple reasons including HLA mismatch and alloantibodies [60]. While modern medicine has halted acute rejection but chronic rejection is a major challenge. The organoid technology may provide a realistic patform to design transplantable tissues in a dish thereby catering to the transplant problem in the near future as current limitation prevent organoids from meeting these expectations.
Another recent scientific area where organoids showed great potential was during the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. SARS-CoV-2 causes respiratory illness and multi-organ dysfunction. Scientists were scrambling to test experimental COVID-19 systemic medicines. Organoids were used to study the adverse effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on human tissues and for the investigation of prospective therapeutic approaches. With the recent work on mini lungs organoids, a few of the drugs stemmed from the infection of the organoid models, representing a handful of possible treatments for COVID-19 [26]. Scientists must still develop methods to produce more complicated systems, such immune cells and blood arteries, to fully harness the technology [26]. Scientists must also find a way to swiftly and inexpensively produce thousands of identical organoids. Bioprinting is a potential new fast prototyping method that prints cells and accompanying matrices in 3D. Organoid bioprinting uses hydrogel-based bioinks to deposit various cell types that stimulate physiological signaling and can help commercialize the platform faster [61].
According to a study published by Fior Markets, the global organoids, and spheroids market is predicted to increase from USD 502.92 million in 2019 to USD 2794.79 million in 2027, with a CAGR of 23.91% from 2020 to 2027 [57, 62]. Till now, 19 companies are having an interest in organoid commercialization. Some of them are Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA), Merck (Kenilworth, NJ, USA), Corning (Corning, NY, USA), STEMCELL Technologies (Vancouver, Canada), Lonza (Basel, Switzerland), Prellis Biologics (San Francisco, CA, USA), Amsbio (Abingdon, UK), Cellesce (Cardiff, UK), DefiniGEN (Cambridge, UK), OcellO B.V. (Leiden, Netherlands), HUB Organoid Technology (Utrecht, Netherlands), 3Dnamics Inc. (Baltimore, MD, USA), Organoid Therapeutics (Pittsburgh, PA, USA), InSphero (Schlieren, Switzerland), etc. Organome (Baltimore, USA) and HUB (Hubrecht Organoid Technology) are dedicated to organoid biobanking, and other companies aim at manufacturing, organoid marketing, other related technologies. SUN Biosciences (Lausanne, Switzerland) and System1 Biosciences (San Francisco, CA, USA) use robotic automation tools for organoid generation. The semi-automated process enabled researchers to make retinal organoid production and selection faster using the algorithm. The MIMETAS (Leiden, Netherlands)—the organ-on-a-chip company, offers the second-best cell-based model after humans, using human cells growing in three-dimensional structures called Mimetas’OrganoPlates (microfluidics-based culture plates allowing culturing and screening of a range of organ and tissue models), which are affordable and available for nonspecialized end-users. With a consumption market share of about 46% in 2019, North America is the most important consumer of organoids, with Europe in second place. Key manufacturers of the global organoids market are Thermo Fischer Scientific, Merck, and Corning. The top three players took up a market share of about 75% in 2019. Byers of the report can access verified and reliable market forecasts, including those for the overall size of the global organoids’ market in terms of revenue. The Organoids’ market is segmented into 3D Organoid Culture and Biochemical Cues. In the case of Organoids application, the leading players are Biopharmaceutical Companies, Contract Research Organizations, Academics, and Research Institutes. The regional analysis covers North America (USA, Canada, and Mexico), Europe (Germany, France, UK, Russia, and Italy), Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, Korea, India, and Southeast Asia), South America (Brazil, Argentina, Columbia, etc.), Middle East and Africa (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Nigeria, and South Africa) and predicts an upsurge in the usage of organoid technology across the globe in future.
Organoid Biobank is like a commercial bank with a similar modus operandi. In organoid biobank, collected samples from different sources such as stem cells, primary tissues, and biopsies were made into organoids and stored. The organoid samples can be taken from a healthy individual and a patient. These stored organoids are ready to use for different purposes. Organoid biobanks manage the database of organoids and a registry with all the patient details. These stored organoids can be tracked and used for wireless phenotyping with the help of radio-frequency identification (RFID) ultracompact chips inserted within them. The organoid biobanks store and transport organoids using liquid nitrogen.
The regulatory rules for organoid research use and commercialization are not very well laid in many countries and needs an update. The scientific, ethical, and regulatory problems related to organoid research are subject to extensive regulatory scrutiny and controlled partly by federal laws and state laws in the US and pertain to International laws in case of foreign collaborations. United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations are implemented in organoid research [63, 64, 65]. Organoid research is subject to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approvals. Many institutions have Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight (ESCRO) or Stem Cell Research Oversight (SCRO) committees that oversee research utilizing human ESCs or iPSCs. These committees are outlined in the National Academies Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and help evaluate the scientific and ethical aspects. The special committees assess the current state of research, weigh the advantages and hazards, address related ethical problems, including informed consent from the donor, and evaluate suitable supervision methods as per the federal guidelines [63].
While in Europe, organoids research must be approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC) as per the guidelines laid down by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Different European countries also have their individual regulatory agencies. In India, the regulatory board is the Institutional Committee for Stem Cell Research (IC-SCR). At the same time, in China, the measures for Ethical Review of Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects and Ethical Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research, are used as guidelines [66]. The manufacturing process of organoids for commercial purpose must fulfill the same standards as other pharmaceutical drugs, following good manufacturing practices (GMP) [64, 65]. Additional hurdles exist at the convergence of organoid technology and commercial clinical use, global rules relating to the heterogeneity of approved quality standards, privacy laws and data protection, patent laws and identifying ownership. As a positive step in this direction, the International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) has set new stem cell research guidelines in 2021 [67, 68, 69]. It is expected that organoid-based biotechnology innovations would need updated global regulatory guidelines and governance in the future.
Organoid technology and biobanking have grown in recent years, paralleling the expansion of stem cell and organoid research. However, ethical, moral, and legal existential questions persist. One crucial aspect is establishing globally recognized consent procedures for research and clinical organoid biobanking protocol. Also, the ethical and moral implications for clinicians while using organ mimics should be called into question. Patenting concerns are bound to arise when organoids are distributed over the world. Collaborations between the public and commercial sectors may lead to data exchange, entitlement sharing, etc. Confidentiality decorum and global patenting rules for organoid rights are therefore evolving. Even the iPSC-based organoids bring new concerns around permission, commercialization, ownership, IP rights, safety, and marketing [70]. The proliferation of big data, genomics, biobanking, and the globalization of the biotechnology sector has complicated the task of setting universal ethical standards. The primary ethical consideration about organoids is who owns them and whether small organ mimics (similar to organs) can be traded? With the advances in organoid technology, where do we draw lines to differentiate between organoids and tissues/organs? Sample de-identification, donor consenting, and licensing rights need to be better defined, especially concerning organoid commercialization. Addressing these bottlenecks may allow quicker commercial application for drug discovery, disease modeling, and research and development.
In the upcoming years, the designed pilot project focuses on substituting animal or human models with the organoid model by encouraging better research and accessibility of organoids. The HCA has been encouraging this shift of models by establishing a reference map of the entire human cells; which will be the first molecular picture of a human that will help the researchers to functionally dissect and systematically analyze human biological systems that would lead to a better exploration of organoids as a model. The initial version of the organoid cell atlas is planned to be established by the upcoming year that will be practically useful and open to advancements. These are thought to help maximize the impact of the project to become helpful in the field of basic biology and biomedical applications. To broader the reach, the single-cell profiles will be made public as soon as possible following HCA\'s ethical, social, and legal guidelines. Finally, the Organoid Cell Atlas Portal will be made “into a public, sustainable and widely used infrastructure for finding, accessing, analyzing and interpreting single-cell data from human organoids.” The goal of the Organoid Cell Atlas is to make advancements in the biomedical field and develop various regenerative therapies by encouraging and accelerating disease-centric research of rare genetic diseases, precision oncology, or other complex diseases that are yet less understood. So, to achieve all of their objectives, they have made the portal open to create an inclusive research environment that would help in collaborating with a broad range of researchers interested in the field, which would later lead to extremely well-defined growth in the field of organoids.
M.K.P. acknowledges S. Dubinett, B. Gomperts, and V. Hartenstein for providing constant support and mentoring.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Magnetic materials absorb greatly microwaves. The more magnetic, the more microwaves are absorbed. The aim of this chapter is to present the fundamental physics of the absorption of microwave power (energy per unit time) by ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic matter in the nano and micro size scale. The magnetic moments and their collective modes are the basic microscopic absorbers under in-resonance and out-of-resonance conditions. Experimental setups and measurement techniques are described. The profiles of microwave absorption are described and connected to the micromagnetic environment that elicits such absorption. Section by section and the overall microwave power absorption profiles are related to the micromagnetic structures. Emphasis is made on nano- and micromagnets. These interactions of microwaves with nano- and micromagnets serve to infer microscopic magnetic information.",book:{id:"7617",slug:"electromagnetic-fields-and-waves",title:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves"},signatures:"Rafael Zamorano Ulloa, Ma. Guadalupe Hernandez Santiago\nand Veronica L. Villegas Rueda",authors:[{id:"176210",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Zamorano Ulloa",slug:"rafael-zamorano-ulloa",fullName:"Rafael Zamorano Ulloa"},{id:"289450",title:"Mrs.",name:"María G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",slug:"maria-g.-hernandez",fullName:"María G. Hernández"},{id:"289451",title:"Ms.",name:"Verónica L.",middleName:null,surname:"Villegas",slug:"veronica-l.-villegas",fullName:"Verónica L. Villegas"}]},{id:"16094",title:"Electromagnetic Waves and Human Health",slug:"electromagnetic-waves-and-human-health",totalDownloads:14377,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"166",slug:"electromagnetic-waves",title:"Electromagnetic Waves",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Waves"},signatures:"Feyyaz Ozdemir and Aysegul Kargi",authors:[{id:"24790",title:"Prof.",name:"Feyyaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ozdemir",slug:"feyyaz-ozdemir",fullName:"Feyyaz Ozdemir"},{id:"36228",title:"Dr.",name:"AYSEGUL",middleName:null,surname:"KARGİ",slug:"aysegul-kargi",fullName:"AYSEGUL KARGİ"},{id:"128104",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysegul",middleName:null,surname:"Kargi",slug:"aysegul-kargi",fullName:"Aysegul Kargi"}]},{id:"66579",title:"Effects of Electromagnetic Field on the Development of Chick Embryo: An In Vivo Study",slug:"effects-of-electromagnetic-field-on-the-development-of-chick-embryo-an-in-vivo-study",totalDownloads:1354,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This study was conducted to explore the effects of electromagnetic waves on a developing chick embryo. The radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RFW) emitted by different smart phones was measured by using a TriField meter. Chick fertilized eggs were placed in an egg incubator, divided into control and exposed groups. In the exposed group, a mobile phone was placed inside an incubator in call receiving mode, while in the control group, the mobile phone was not used. Studies were conducted at low and high exposure (dose) of RFW. Chick embryos were sacrificed at day 10 and day 15, and embryos were examined for mortality, gross malformation, weight, and length. Histology, electron microscopy, and Hsp 70 of liver were done for the high dose group. No mortality was observed in the low dose group; however, in the high dose group, the mortality was 14%, and deformities of the limbs and skin abnormalities were observed. Weight and length in the exposed groups were significantly lower than the control at higher dose. Histology and ultrastructure of liver revealed fatty infiltration, increase number of mitochondria, deformation, and disappearance of its cristae. Hsp 70 and mRNA levels were elevated in the exposed groups for high dose group.",book:{id:"7617",slug:"electromagnetic-fields-and-waves",title:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves"},signatures:"Najam Siddiqi and Nasser Al Nazwani",authors:[{id:"278673",title:"Dr.",name:"Najam",middleName:null,surname:"Siddiqi",slug:"najam-siddiqi",fullName:"Najam Siddiqi"},{id:"291777",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:null,surname:"Al Nazwani",slug:"nasser-al-nazwani",fullName:"Nasser Al Nazwani"}]},{id:"16084",title:"Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Thin Dielectric and Metallic Films",slug:"propagation-of-electromagnetic-waves-in-thin-dielectric-and-metallic-films",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"166",slug:"electromagnetic-waves",title:"Electromagnetic Waves",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Waves"},signatures:"Luc Levesque",authors:[{id:"26483",title:"Dr.",name:"Luc",middleName:"Joseph",surname:"Lévesque",slug:"luc-levesque",fullName:"Luc Lévesque"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"737",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/34618",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"34618"},fullPath:"/chapters/34618",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()