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1. Introduction
Minke whales are members of the Order Cetacea. They are the smallest species within the suborder Mysticeti (baleen whales), usually not exceeding the 10 m in body length. They are characterized by a sharply pointed head that looks V-shaped when see from above, and they present a sharp longitudinal ridge that runs along the top of the rostrum [1]. Minke whales are the most abundant of the baleen whales and they are hunted in limited numbers by some countries for commercial (Japan and Norway) or aboriginal subsistence (Greenland) purposes.
Until relatively recently, only one species of minke whale was thought to exist: Balaenoptera acutorostrata. This even though historical morphological [2, 3, 4, 5, 6] and genetics [7, 8, 9] data collected from extant populations pointed out to substantial differentiation within the minke whales.
In 1998, based on a review of both morphological and genetic data, two species of minke whales were recognized, the Antarctic minke whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis), which is restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, and the cosmopolitan common minke whale (B. acutorostrata) [10]. Furthermore, three sub-species of the common minke whale were recognized, North Atlantic (B. a. acutorostrata), North Pacific (B. a. scammoni) and Southern Hemisphere (B. a. subsp.) [10]. The common minke whale in the Southern Hemisphere is commonly referred to as the ‘dwarf’ minke whale [6]. Figure 1 shows the external morphology of minke whale species and sub-species. As seen in Figure 1, the main external morphological character that most readily distinguished the two species is a white flipper patch that is only present in the common minke whale.
Figure 1.
External morphology of minke whales. From top to bottom: Antarctic minke whale, North Pacific common minke whale, North Atlantic common minke whale and Southern Hemisphere common minke whale (dwarf minke whale).
Several genetic studies of minke whales have been conducted since the 1998 review. Some studies have focused on phylogenetic issues while others have focused on elucidating population genetic structure in each oceanic basin. This chapter aims to provide a short review of recent genetic studies, outlining the main new findings and implications. After introducing the genetic markers in Section 2, in Section 3, we review the studies that focus primarily on phylogeny and other matters that are relevant to taxonomy and then, in Section 4, we concentrate on the studies on the population genetic structure of each species and sub-species by oceanic basin (Southern Hemisphere, North Atlantic and North Pacific).
Both information on taxonomy and population identification and structure of minke whales are important and necessary for effective decision-making about conservation and sustainable use of the species.
2. Genetic markers
Two main genetic markers have been used in recent genetic analyses of minke whales, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region sequences and microsatellite DNA (msDNA, a nuclear marker) genotypes, which are briefly explained here based on [11].
The mitochondrial genome is a circular, double-stranded molecule ranging in size from 16,500 to 17,600 base-pairs (bp) in cetaceans. The main features of mtDNA are (a) maternal inheritance, (b) no recombination during reproduction and (c) it is haploid. Features (a) and (c) mean that the effective population size for the mtDNA genome is ¼ of that for nuclear markers. Sequence changes in animal mitochondrial genomes are of four types: sequence arrangements; additions; deletions; and nucleotide substitutions. The substitution rate is not constant across the mitochondrial genome. The most variable part is where replication begins (the ‘control region’). The control region is the only major non-coding region in the mitochondrial genome. In whales, its length is approximately 1000 bp. In most studies on minke whales, the sequence of the first 300-500 bp in the control region is determined, which is the most variable part.
MsDNA or simple tandem repeats (STRs) are segments of non-coding nuclear DNA containing a varying number (different alleles) of tandem repeats of short sequences of less than six nucleotides. As a nuclear marker, they are diploid with recombination during reproduction. They are abundant and widely distributed throughout the mammalian genome. MsDNA is highly variable, presenting a large number of alleles at each locus, selectively neutral, inherited in standard Mendelian fashion and allelically codominant. MsDNA generally evolves by changes in the number of repeats, i.e., in the length of the repetitive region. MsDNA alleles can be distinguished by differences in the length of the repetitive region. They predominantly mutate by insertion or deletion of repeats. In most studies on minke whales, a set of approximately 12–16 msDNA loci are used.
Most of the recent genetic studies on minke whales have made combined use of these two genetic markers, which presents several advantages. Some of the genetic criteria for taxonomic definition require results of both markers (see below). Different species of large whales can produce hybrid whales and such cases can be detected by the combined use of mtDNA and msDNA. In studies on population identification and structure, parallel analyses of Mendelian and maternally inherited loci are particularly important. Some species may display maternally directed phylopatry. In such cases, genetic differences can be found for the mtDNA but not for msDNA. The use of msDNA in addition to mtDNA allows for an investigation of kinship, which is important information for the interpretation of population structure.
Details of laboratory procedures for mtDNA and msDNA in minke whales can be found in [12].
3. Phylogenetic and other studies relevant for taxonomy
Several genetic studies addressing phylogenetic and other aspects relevant for taxonomy were conducted after the 1998 review in [10]. All those studies used samples from minke whale worldwide [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Oceanic basins covered by the genetic sampling in recent studies are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Oceanic basins covered by the genetic sampling for the phylogenetic and other studies relevant for the taxonomy of minke whales. SOJ = Sea of Japan, NA = North Atlantic, WSP=Western South Pacific, WSA = Western South Atlantic, WNP=Western North Pacific, Antarctic minke whale = Antarctic Ocean (modified from [18]).
A brief description and main findings of these studies are presented below. Several phylogenetic inference methods were used to evaluate observed heritable traits, such as mtDNA sequences, under a specified model of the evolution of the traits. Taxonomic classification is now usually based on phylogenetic data. Details of the phylogenetic inference methods are not given here however relevant bibliographic references on the methods are provided for interested readers in the sections below.
3.1 Speciation and divergence time
The focus of the first post-1998 study involving minke whales was a case study to investigate the radiation and speciation of pelagic organisms during the period of global warming [13]. The study was based on mtDNA control region sequences (340 bp) in samples of Antarctic minke whales (n = 180), North Atlantic (n = 102) and North Pacific (n = 161) common minke whales and Southern Hemisphere common or dwarf minke whales (n = 23 from the western South Atlantic, WSA and western South Pacific, WSP). A total of 187 haplotypes (unique sequences) were determined. The genealogical relationship among a sub-set of 60 haplotypes was estimated using the NUCML program in the MOLPHY computer package [19], the BASEML program in the PAML computer package [20] and the TREE-PUZZLE program of the quartet-puzzling (QP) method [21]. Divergence time was estimated by applying a molecular clock model using a calibration point that minke whales and the gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) separated 20 million years ago (Ma) [22].
The study provided evidence for phylogenetic differentiation not only between the two species of minke whales but also among North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere common minke whales. The study estimated that the two species of minke whales diverged in the Southern Hemisphere less than 5 Ma, and that the current sub-species of the common minke whales diverged after the Pliocene some 1.5 Ma. Based on their analysis, the authors hypothesized that prolonged periods of global warming facilitate speciation in pelagic marine species that depend on upwelling [13].
3.2 Phylogenetic analyses
Three relevant studies are described here [14, 16, 18]. The first study [14] used mtDNA control region sequences (327 bp) and a similar sample set of the previous study [13] but this time the study was focused to elucidate the population genetic structure of the Southern Hemisphere common minke whales using samples from WSA (n = 12) and WSP (n = 17) (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
The geographic position of Southern Hemisphere common minke whales (dwarf minke whales) samples used in [14]. Solid and dashed lines indicate possible migratory routes and possible connections, respectively (modified from [14]).
The genealogy of the mtDNA haplotypes was estimated using the neighbor-joining method (NJ) [23], minimum evolution (ME) [24], maximum likelihood (ML) [25] and maximum parsimony (MP) [26]. To evaluate the relative effects of divergence and migration between WSA and WSP whales, the approach in [27] modified for a finite mutation level [28] was used. Phylogenetic inferences derived from these methods were consistent, and similar to the inferences obtained in a previous study [13]. WSA common minke whale haplotypes (except one), clustered in a single clade, which nested within the North Atlantic common minke whale clade. On the other hand, WSP common minke whale haplotypes clustered in a different clade. The study showed that haplotypes from the WSA whales share more recent common ancestors with the North Atlantic minke whales than they do with the WSP minke whales. The analysis suggested a very low number of migrants by generation between WSA and WSP, which suggests that the WSA single haplotype in the WSP clade was unlikely to be a result of migration but rather due to incomplete lineage sorting [14].
The most recent genetic analysis on minke whales worldwide [18] was based on mtDNA control region sequences (313 bp) and msDNA (11 loci). The sample set for the mtDNA analysis was similar to those in the previous studies [13, 14] but the samples of the Southern Hemisphere common minke whales were increased (WSP, n = 17; WSA, n = 30), and msDNA was used in addition to mtDNA. A total of 148 haplotypes were determined. The genealogy of the mtDNA haplotypes was estimated using several methods including NJ, ML and Bayesian inferences (BI) [29]. The three methods provided similar results, and they were consistent with previous phylogenetic inferences [13, 14]. Results from the BI method are shown in Figure 4. This figure shows two main clades, one corresponding to Antarctic minke whales and the other to common minke whales. Furthermore, within the common minke whales clade, North Pacific, North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere common minke whales clustered in different sub-clades.
Figure 4.
Bayesian phylogenetic tree of minke whale mtDNA haplotypes. Values indicate support for each node according to the maximum posterior probabilities>80%. Scale bar represents substitutions per nucleotide site. NA = North Atlantic; WSA: Western South Atlantic; WSP = Western South Pacific; SOJ = Sea of Japan; WNP = Western North Pacific (modified from [18]).
Figure 4 shows that WSA and WSP common minke whales in the Southern Hemisphere clustered in different sub-clades (except the single WSA haplotype mentioned previously that clustered within the WSP sub-clade), and that the WSA haplotypes fell with the North Atlantic sub-clade.
This study estimated the net nucleotide substitutions (dA) [30] between species and sub-species of minke whales. The dA between the Antarctic and common minke whales was high (0.08 in average). The value among common minke whales from different oceanic basins averaged 0.026. The dA between Southern Hemisphere WSP and WSA was 0.027 and that between the Sea of Japan and western North Pacific was 0.007 [18].
The msDNA analysis in [18] involved samples from three localities only (unfortunately, no samples from the North Atlantic common minke whales were considered): North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere (WSA and WSP) common minke whales. The pattern of msDNA differentiation was investigated by two indices, FST [31] and DSW [32]. All pairwise comparisons among North Pacific, WSA and WSP yielded statistically significant differences and the values estimated between WSA and WSP were smaller than the values between each of these populations and North Pacific common minke whales. Therefore, North Pacific, Southern Hemisphere WSA and WSP not only were separated phylogenetically in their mtDNA but they differed significantly in their msDNA as well.
Although, the third study was focused to investigate hybrids between the two species of minke whales [16], it also provided information on genetic differentiation between the Antarctic and common minke whales species as well among common minke whales from different oceanic basins. The study was based on mtDNA control region sequences (287 bp) and msDNA (11 loci), and samples from the Antarctic minke whale (n = 91), North Atlantic (n = 91), North Pacific (n = 95) and Southern Hemisphere (WSP) (n = 9) common minke whales. The genealogy of the mtDNA haplotype was estimated using the NJ method and the inferences obtained were similar to the other studies [13, 14, 18]. The msDNA FST estimates were calculated and Bayesian cluster analysis was also performed using the program STRUCTURE [33]. Pairwise FST estimates revealed that the Antarctic minke whales, North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere (WSP) common minke whales were genetically distinct from each other. The Bayesian cluster analysis supported the FST results, showing large genetic differences between the Antarctic and common minke whales as well among common minke whales from North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere (WSP) [16].
3.3 Hybridization in minke whales
A genetic study based on both mtDNA (287 bp) control region sequences and msDNA (13 loci) reported the migration of an Antarctic minke whale into the Arctic Northeast Atlantic in 1996 [15]. The same study reported the occurrence of a hybrid whale in the North Atlantic in 2007. The analytical procedures for the identification of the hybrid involved the use of the Bayesian cluster analysis STRUCTURE and genetic assignment conducted in the program GeneClass2 [34]. The latter used a genetic baseline consisting of the three minke whale species and sub-species which had a large sample size (Southern Hemisphere common minke whales were excluded due to their small sample size), in addition to three sets of hybrids produced in the program HYBRIDLAB1.0 [35]. The 2007 hybrid was demonstrated to consist of a maternal contribution from an Antarctic minke whale and most likely paternal contribution from the North Atlantic common minke whale. Another case of a hybrid was identified using the same analytical procedures. It was a pregnant female captured in 2010 [16]. In this case, the genetic analyses by both markers confirmed that the mother was a hybrid displaying maternal and paternal contribution from North Atlantic common and Antarctic minke whales, respectively [16]. This study demonstrated for the first time, that hybrids between minke whale species may be fertile, and that they can back-cross.
3.4 Implications for taxonomy and suggestions for future works
Taxonomic definitions are associated with the term Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU) [36, 37], defined in [37] as ‘ESUs should be reciprocally monophyletic for mitochondrial DNA alleles and show significant divergence of allele frequencies at nuclear loci’. However, other authors have argued that the definition of ESUs should incorporate ecological data in addition to data on genetic variation of adaptive significance [38]. An example of ecological data could be discrete prey preferences of sympatric individuals. Other authors suggest the use of dA values based on mtDNA: a review of analytical approaches for recognition of populations, sub-species and species based on mtDNA sequences suggested that species generally exhibit values of dA greater than 0.02 and populations values less than 0.004 [39], and see also [18].
Considering these criteria, the post-1998 genetic results (with larger sample sizes and wider geographical range), strongly support the division of Antarctic and common minke whales as different species [10]. They clearly match the ESU definition (based on different phylogenetic inference methods), and the average estimated dA between the Antarctic and common minke whales from different oceanic basins was estimated at 0.08.
Within the common minke whales, the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere (WSP) match the ESU criterion. Their average dA with common minke whales from other oceanic basins averaged 0.02 [18]. Then the status of sub-species is appropriated for North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere (WSP) common minke whales.
The case of the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere (WSA) common minke whales is more complex. This is because some of the mtDNA phylogenetic analyses showed haplotypes of common minke whales from WSA clustering within the North Atlantic common minke whale clade, therefore not matching the reciprocally monophyletic for mitochondrial DNA definition of ESU, although the status of sub-species is appropriate based on the dA criterion. Therefore, while both Southern Hemisphere common minke whales (WSP and WSA) are clearly separated from North Pacific common minke whales matching all criteria for sub-species, the relationship between WSA and North Atlantic common minke whales requires further investigation including additional genetic analyses based on larger samples from WSP and WSA using both mitochondrial and nuclear markers. In addition, genetic analyses of Southern Hemisphere common minke whales from other unstudied localities, e.g., the Western Indian Ocean [6], are required to elucidate further the phylogenetic relationship among Southern Hemisphere and North Atlantic common minke whales.
Finally, and following the criteria above, whales from the Sea of Japan and western North Pacific should be considered as populations of the North Pacific common minke whale.
The cases of hybridization between minke whale species and the study showing that such hybrids may be fertile, and that they can back-cross have some relevance to the taxonomy of minke whales. As noted in [16], it is not possible to resolve whether the observed migration of Antarctic minke whales to the Arctic, and hybridization between Antarctic minke whales and North Atlantic common minke whales are (a) random events that have occurred over a long period of time; (b) the result of a low number of Antarctic minke whales migrating from the Antarctic to the Arctic in the 1990s; or (c) represent a trend that is increasing in frequency. The authors in [16] further argued that the lack of hybrids in the large (n > 15000) Japanese genetic data sets infers that such events are not frequent. Unless the frequency of reproductive contact increases significantly in the future, the separation of the Antarctic minke whale and the North Atlantic common minke whale should not be challenged [16].
In summary, the recent genetic studies provide support for the classification recognized in the 1998 review [10] for two species, the Antarctic and the common minke whale, and at least three sub-species of the latter. Furthermore, these studies suggest a phylogenetic separation between Southern Hemisphere common minke whales from Western South Pacific and Western South Atlantic. Whales from these two localities differed significantly in mtDNA haplotype and msDNA allele frequencies. Phylogenetic analyses showed that haplotypes from the WSA whales share a more recent common ancestor with the North Atlantic common minke whales than they do with the WSP common minke whales.
4. Studies on population genetic structure in each oceanic basin
Minke whales were hunted commercially or under special permit in the Southern Hemisphere until the 2018/19 austral summer season, and they are hunted currently for limited numbers in the North Atlantic (commercial and aboriginal subsistence purposes), and western North Pacific (commercial purposes). Identification of populations within species and sub-species in each oceanic basin, therefore, is very important for conservation and management purposes. This is because different populations of the same species or sub-species may respond in different ways to levels of direct removals (e.g., catches, bycatches) and other types of environmental stress (e.g., habitat degradation) [18]. Population dynamics modeling is used to investigate the effect of different management strategies and environmental stressors at the population level. However, the identification of populations is not a trivial issue.
In each of the relevant oceanic basins, Southern Hemisphere, North Atlantic and North Pacific, minke whales are believed, like most baleen whale species, to undertake seasonal migrations between feeding grounds in higher latitudes in summer and breeding grounds in lower latitudes in the tropical or temperate regions in winter. However, there are few direct observations of this linkage, and information of minke whale breeding grounds in low latitudes is poor. Ideally, genetic analyses on population identification should be carried out based on samples collected in breeding grounds. However, all genetic analyses on minke whale population identification have been based on samples collected in feeding grounds and migratory corridors, where different populations may mix spatially and/or temporally.
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) has defined areas for the management (i.e., the setting of catch limits) of minke whales in each oceanic basin based upon a variety of data types, genetic and non-genetic (e.g., see [40]) since the earliest days of management, often based upon limited information or analogy. Most recent studies have focused on the correspondence of the set management boundaries with the available genetic information and revising the boundaries as appropriate to ensure that over-exploitation does not occur. The primary management tool used by the IWC Scientific Committee to provide advice on commercial whaling catch limits is known as the Revised Management Procedure or RMP that focusses on providing robust management advice in the light of inevitable scientific uncertainty (e.g., [41]). Uncertainty in stock structure is one of the most influential in terms of providing robust advice. The philosophy adopted under the RMP (and the sister approach for aboriginal subsistence whaling known as the AWMP or Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling Management Procedure) with respect to stock structure is that it is not often, if ever, possible to arrive at only one plausible stock structure hypothesis from the available data. Rather than in the past when the ‘best’ hypothesis (and boundaries) was determined and then fixed management boundaries for the ‘unit-to-conserve’ (usually a population) chosen, the RMP approach says that catch limits must be set that are robust to all plausible hypotheses and that these hypotheses should be regularly reviewed in the light of new data. Of course, deciding what comprises ‘plausible’ is a complex and difficult issue and one which has driven much of the work described below, especially for the North Pacific common minke whale.
In this section, the most recent genetic analyses on population identification and structure in minke whales are reviewed for each species and sub-species in each relevant oceanic basin.
The method most often used for the identification of populations within an oceanic basin was hypothesis testing under the null hypothesis of panmixia. Under this method, mtDNA haplotype and/or msDNA allele frequencies between two geographically grouped samples are compared using several statistical tests. More recently, spatially explicit clustering approaches, for example, sPCA, GENELAND, TESS and BAPS have been used to investigate population identification and structure.
Details of the statistical tests and clustering approaches are not given here however relevant references on the methods are provided for interested readers in the sections below.
4.1 Antarctic minke whales
The IWC’s management areas for baleen whales (excluding the Bryde’s whale Balaenoptera edeni) are shown in Figure 5. These management areas were used during the former commercial whaling of Antarctic minke whales but were based upon information from other baleen whales, notably blue (B. musculus), fin (B. physalus) and humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae) whale catch distributions and mark-recapture records. Most of the recent genetic studies have been focused in the Indian and Pacific sectors of the Antarctic (mainly Areas IV and V in Figure 5) where a large number of genetic samples were available from the Japanese Whale Research Program under Special Permit in the Antarctic, Phases I and II (JARPA and JARPAII). Surveys of these research programs were conducted systematically in the Indo Pacific sector of the Antarctic in summer from 1987/88 to 2014/15.
Figure 5.
Management areas defined by the International Whaling Commission for the management of baleen whales (except the Bryde’s whale) in the Southern Hemisphere. These areas were used for the management of the Antarctic minke whale in the period of commercial whaling, which was stopped in the 1986/87 austral summer season. Most of the recent genetic studies on population structure have been conducted in the shaded area.
There are no genetic samples from Antarctic minke whales from low latitude regions of the eastern Indian Ocean and western South Pacific where breeding grounds of this species in this region are assumed to occur. The most recent genetic studies were based therefore on samples collected by the JARPA and JARPAII programs in the Antarctic feeding grounds of Areas III east, IV, V and VI west. Those studies were summarized in [42], and the most relevant aspects are highlighted here.
Previous morphometric, biological and genetic studies based on mtDNA and msDNA led to the conclusion that Antarctic minke whales in the feeding grounds between Areas III east and VI west do not comprise a single population [43]. The most recent genetic study used mtDNA control region sequences (340 bp) and msDNA (12 loci) [12] to examine a total of 2254 samples in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic: Area III east = 564; Area IV west = 734, Area IV east = 74, Area VE east = 478, Area VI west = 404. The samples were obtained in the Southern Hemisphere summer season in different years. The degree of spatial and temporal divergence was estimated via the FST and by the randomized chi-square Test of Independence [44]. Results of the heterogeneity tests for both markers showed statistically significant genetic differences between whales in the most distant sectors, western (35°- 130°E) and eastern (165°E - 145°W) (see Figure 5), confirming that different populations inhabit the Indian and Pacific sectors of the Antarctic. A simulation study on the dynamics of the species showed that both populations had a soft boundary in the sector 100°-165°E [45].
The main conclusion of the studies was the existence of at least two populations in the feeding grounds of the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic and a transition area in the region around 100°-165°E, across which there is an as yet undetermined level and range of mixing (Figure 6). The following names were proposed for these populations: Eastern Indian Ocean Population (I-Population) and Western South Pacific Ocean Population (P-Population) [42].
Figure 6.
The current hypothesis of population structure of the Antarctic minke whale. At least two populations occur in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic covered by the surveys of the JARPA/JARPAII, which mix in a transition area, whose position and extension varies by year and sex. These populations are possibly related to breeding grounds in lower latitudes evidenced by high-density areas suggested by sighting surveys (upper part of figures) (after [42]).
A recent study described a paternity method based on msDNA (12 loci) to estimate the abundance of mature male Antarctic minke whales in the Indo Pacific sector of the Antarctic using a maximum likelihood approach [46]. Results for the geographical distribution of mother/fetus-father pairs were generally consistent with the hypothesis of separate I- and P- Populations because eight of 10 pairs were found in the expected areas of distribution of either population. Only two pairs were found in distant areas.
The genetic studies showed no concordance between the geographic boundaries of the IWC management Areas and the geographical distribution of the I- and P- populations suggested by the genetic analyses.
4.2 North Atlantic common minke whale
The IWC’s management areas for North Atlantic common minke whales are shown in Figure 7. In this section, the most recent genetic studies on population structure are summarized [47, 48, 49]. These studies were focused on examining the biological validity of the management areas in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Management subareas used by the International Whaling Commission for the management of commercial and aboriginal subsistence whaling of North Atlantic common minke whales. Sub-areas prefixed by W represent the western North Atlantic, sub-areas prefixed by C represent the central NorthAtlantic and sub-areas prefixed by E represent the eastern North Atlantic. Management subarea EC mentioned in the main text merged into a single EW subarea.
The first study reviewed here [47] was based on genetic samples (n = 306) collected throughout the North Atlantic (see Table 1). Samples were collected in spring-summer over several years. The genetic markers used were mtDNA control region (500 bp) and msDNA (16 loci). The analytical procedures used for mtDNA were the FST for haplotype frequencies and the PHIST [50]. MsDNA variation was analyzed by testing for homogeneity of allele frequencies among populations using GENEPOP [51] and FST. Based on the combination of several approaches the authors suggested the existence of four genetically differentiated populations: (1) West Greenland; (2) Central North Atlantic-East Greenland-Jan Mayen; (3) North East Atlantic including Svalbard, the Barents Sea and north western Norway, and (4) the North Sea. Unlike the other areas, there was a lack of inter-annual variation in West Greenland. The authors postulated that each population evolved in response to regional differences in ecological conditions, namely oceanography, ice cover, prey type and prey availability [47].
Summary of sample sizes by North Atlantic management subareas in the three studies referred to in the text.
The second study [48] was based on smaller sample size (n = 202) but again throughout the North Atlantic (see Table 1). Samples were collected mainly in spring-summer over several years. The genetic markers used were mtDNA control region sequences (345 bp) and msDNA (10 loci). The relevant analytical procedures to investigate population structure based on msDNA were the FST and RhoST [52]. Also, the study estimated the most probable number of putative populations (K) using STRUCTURE. To facilitate the interpretation of the STRUCTURE output, a measure based on the second order rate of change of the likelihood function with respect to K was plotted [53]. The FST and RhoST were calculated for the population suggested in STRUCTURE using the same methods used for the geographical comparisons. The analytical procedures for mtDNA were the same FST and PHIST used in the previous study, which was calculated for the populations inferred from the STRUCTURE in the same way as for the geographic comparisons. The study found no evidence of geographic structure comparing putative populations in recognized management areas. However, based on the results of individual genotypes and likelihood assignment methods, the authors identified two putative ‘cryptic’ populations (populations exhibiting some level of genetic structure, which cannot be explained by past or current barriers to dispersal alone) distributed across the North Atlantic in similar proportion in different regions. They suggested that common minke whales range extensively across the North Atlantic seasonally, but segregate to some extent on at least two breeding grounds [48].
The third study [49] was based on much larger sample size (n = 2664) but primarily from the Eastern North Atlantic (Table 1). The genetic markers used were mtDNA control region sequences (331 bp) and msDNA (10 loci). The study used several analytical procedures to investigate population structure based on msDNA including STRUCTURE, BAPS (Bayesian Analysis of Population Structure) [54] and traditional FST and RST [55]. Genetic differentiation among management areas per year, and the level of temporal population genetic differentiation were tested using the Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) [56]. The possibility of cryptic populations suggested in the previous study [48] was investigated using STRUCTURE and two different outgroups. For mtDNA, the relevant analyses on population structure were based on AMOVA. The authors summarized their findings as follows: no spatial or temporal genetic differentiation was observed for either class of genetic marker; mtDNA identified three distinct lineages without any underlying geographical pattern; nuclear markers showed evidence of a single panmictic population in the eastern North Atlantic. Results of additional simulation analyses suggested that clustering methods may spuriously reveal cryptic genetic structure [49].
4.3 North Pacific common minke whale
The IWC’s management sub-areas for North Pacific common minke whales are shown in Figure 8. At least two populations of the common minke whales have been historically recognized in the western North Pacific, (1) the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific (known in IWC literature as the O-stock) and (2) the Sea of Japan-Yellow Sea-East China Sea (known as the J-stock). There are morphological and reproductive [57, 58] as well genetic [59, 60] characters differentiating these two populations.
Figure 8.
Management subareas defined by the International Whaling Commission for the management of the North Pacific common minke whales.
Recent genetic work has focused on refining this two-population hypothesis as well as investigating whether additional structure exists within the J- and O-stocks. Studies have been based on samples collected mainly during the Japanese Whale Research Programs under Special Permit in the western North Pacific, Phases I and II (JARPN and JARPNII) and bycatches along the Japanese coast. Surveys of these research programs were conducted systematically in the western North Pacific in spring-summer from 1994 to 2016. Table 2 summarizes the number of samples used in recent studies, by subarea.
Summary of sample sizes by North Pacific management subareas used in recent studies referred to in the text.
Individual probability assignment to either J- or O-stocks was made possible by the use of STRUCTURE in a study that examined 4275 samples obtained from JARPN/JARPNII and by-catches in the subareas shown in Figure 8 and Table 2, using mtDNA control region sequences (487 bp) and msDNA (16 loci) [61]. Statistical tests were conducted to investigate deviations from expected Hardy–Weinberg genotypic proportions and STRUCTURE was used to determine K, the most likely number of genetically distinct populations present in the samples. Regarding mtDNA, the genealogy of haplotypes was estimated using the neighbor-joining method. Twelve of the 16 msDNA loci showed significant deviation from the expected Hardy–Weinberg genotypic proportions. The inbreeding coefficients were all positive suggesting a homozygote excess. This deviation suggested the existence of individuals from multiple populations in the sample set. The STRUCTURE analysis presented the highest likelihood probability at K = 2. These results indicated that the samples came from two genetically distinct populations, the J- and O-stocks. Figure 9 shows the distribution of J and O-stock individuals by sub-area. Almost all the individuals from the Sea of Japan (sub-areas 6E, 10E) were assigned to J-stock, whereas almost all individuals from the offshore North Pacific (east of area 7WR) were assigned to O-stock. Intermediate areas (7CN, 7CS, 11) contained individuals from both stocks. Area 2C on the Pacific side of Japan is mainly occupied by the J-stock individuals.
Figure 9.
Spatial occurrence of O- and J-stocks in management sub-areas around Japan (see Figure 8). BC2, BC6, BC7CS, BC7CN, BC10, BC11 = bycatches from the respective areas; K7CN = coastal JARPN/JARPNII surveys at Kushiro; S7CS = coastal JARPN/JARPNII surveys at Sanriku; 7CS, 7CN, 7WR, 7E, 8, 9 and 11 = offshore JARPN/JARPNII surveys. Sample sizes are at the top of each bar. ‘Unknown’ refers to individuals that could not be assigned to either stock by STRUCTURE (after [61]).
Figure 10 shows the temporal distribution of the J- and O-stock individuals on the Pacific side of Japan (2C, 7CN and 7CS) expressed as a three-month moving average. In sub-area 2C, J-stock animals are predominant throughout the year. In sub-areas 7CS and 7CN, the proportion of the J-stock increases in autumn/winter and decreases in spring/summer – the reverse is true for O-stock animals.
Figure 10.
Monthly occurrence of O- and J-stocks in areas 2C, 7CS and 7CN. Each bar is expressed as three-month moving average. Sample sizes are on the top of each bar. The sampling years in area 2C was 2001–2014; in areas 7CN and 7CS was 1994–2014. ‘Unknown’ refers to individuals that could not be assigned to either stock by STRUCTURE (after [61]).
The phylogenetic tree of haplotypes showed no population-specific clade although most of the individuals assigned to the J-stock shared the same clade. Most of the individuals assigned to the O-stock shared clades where the J-stock individuals were less frequent [61].
A subsequent study investigated the possibility of additional structure within O-stock based on mtDNA control region sequences (487 bp) and msDNA (16 loci) [62]. The sample size of the O-Stock for the different subareas shown in Figure 8 was 2070 (Table 2). The methods used for investigating structure based on msDNA data were the probability test [63] and the discriminant analysis of principal component (DAPC) approach [64]; for the latter analysis, both J- and O-stock assigned individuals were used. For mtDNA, heterogeneity tests in haplotype frequencies among the samples were conducted using both the chi-square test of independence and conventional FST. Results based on both markers and different groupings of the samples showed no evidence of sub-structuring within O-stock. A simulation exercise showed that the statistical power of the homogeneity test was high. The DAPC showed clear differentiation between J- and O-stocks but no evidence of sub-structuring within the O-stock sample [62].
A later study used DAPC and spatial analysis of principal component (sPCA) [65] to investigate population structure [66]. The study was based on msDNA (16 loci) and the sample sizes were similar to the previous study [61]. The DAPC failed to find evidence of additional structure other than the J- and O-stocks. The results indicated a low possibility that multiple stocks exist (other than the J- and O-stocks) with overlapping geographic ranges.
A different approach was used in a study that used msDNA data at 16 loci in 4554 whales to infer Parent-Offspring (P-O) relationships using a Maximum-Likelihood approach [67]. Biological information such as the sex and sexual maturity of the whales was used to interpret the genetic results on P-O pairs. The relationship between False Discovery Rate (FDR) and Power (P) was evaluated by simulation. Of 145 inferred P-O pairs (estimated FDR = 0.1), 141 were further evaluated by typing 10 additional msDNA loci. A total of 75 were confirmed (among them 26 Mother-Fetus pairs) and 66 pairs were ranked ‘False Positives’, yielding an overall observed FDR of 0.468. Among the validated P-O pairs, O-stock pairs were significantly overrepresented and no pairs between J- and O-stock individuals were detected. J-stock animals seem to appear on both sides of Japan closer to the coast, while O-stock individuals occur mostly to the east of Japan, both close to the coast and far offshore. The study provided no evidence for further population structure other than J and O-stocks.
Most recently, a study [68] used three spatially explicit clustering tools including GENELAND [69], TESS [70, 71] and BAPS to explore the msDNA data used previously in [66]. The authors believed that the most informative approach was GENELAND using the mixture model with correlated allele frequency model, which supported K = 4, i.e., four putative populations. Given the implications of this in terms of both previous analyses and management strategy evaluation, additional work was subsequently undertaken [72, 73]. That study examined the correspondence of the four above four clusters with the available genetic and non-genetic information. The authors concluded that the most plausible scenario was for two populations (J and O) with complex spatial and temporal mixing along the Pacific coast of Japan [72, 73]. They further noted that some of the analyses conducted were consistent with a scenario of coastal areas containing genetically admixed individuals, and recommended further analyses under the GENELAND as well under the TESS and BAPS.
4.4 Summary and suggestions for future work
Over the last two decades, several important genetic studies focused on investigating population identification and structure in minke whales have been undertaken in three oceanic basins using two genetic markers, mtDNA and msDNA. The driving force behind these analyses was obtaining information to help with effective conservation and management. Of necessity, all of these studies were based on genetic samples collected in feeding grounds and migratory corridors. In this context, population identification is associated with the concept of Management Units (MUs) described by one author in 1994 as ‘populations with a significant divergence of allele frequencies at nuclear or mitochondrial loci, regardless of the phylogenetic distinctiveness of the alleles’ [37]. Several of the studies described above presented statistical results that are consistent with this criterion for defining the population. In addition to hypothesis testing, several increasingly sophisticated clustering approaches have been used for the purpose of identifying populations.
Recent studies in the Southern Hemisphere were concentrated in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic where a large number of genetic samples of Antarctic minke whales was available from Japanese whale research programs. At least two populations have been identified in this sector, the I- and P-populations, which may be related to breeding grounds in lower latitudes of the eastern Indian Ocean and western South Pacific. These populations exhibit significant differences in their mtDNA haplotype and msDNA alleles frequencies, matching the criterion for Management Unit defined above. The Australian continent may play a role in isolating these populations during the winter breeding season, with whales presenting some degree of fidelity to particular feeding grounds in the Antarctic during summer. Although, a transition area of mixing of these two populations was postulated in the Antarctic feeding grounds, whales from each population appear to return to their respective breeding grounds in winter.
To fully understand population structure in the Southern Hemisphere, additional effort should be made to collect genetic samples from other sectors of the Antarctic and other regions of the Southern Hemisphere. This will allow investigation of the full distribution of the P- and I-populations as well the research into structure in the remaining sectors of the Antarctic. Clearly, any understanding of population structure will be greatly facilitated by dedicated efforts to investigate the migration routes and locations of breeding areas; satellite tracking will be an extremely valuable tool in this regard [74].
In the North Atlantic, the results of several genetic studies on population identification and structure may appear contradictory. While some studies suggested subtle genetic differences among groups of whales, others studies based on larger sample sizes have failed to detect any evidence of structure in this oceanic basin. As in the Southern Hemisphere, research on migratory routes and locations of breeding grounds is required to assist the interpretation of the results of the genetic analyses in the feeding ground and migratory routes.
In the North Pacific, recent genetic analyses have been concentrated in the western side due to a larger availability of genetic samples from the Japanese whale research programs and to management needs within the context of the IWC’s Scientific Committee. Historically two populations have been recognized in the western North Pacific, the J- and O-stocks, and recent genetic analyses have confirmed their existence and furthermore have revealed more information on their patterns of spatial and seasonal movement. The J-stock occurs mainly in the Sea of Japan although some individuals migrate seasonally to the Pacific side of Japan. The O-stock is mainly found on the Pacific side of Japan. The objective of most recent studies has been to whether or not additional structure occurs within either or both of the J- and O-stocks, and several new analytical approaches were used to respond that question. Results of most of the approaches indicated a lack of additional structure, other than that attributed to the J- and O- stocks. The most recent IWC Scientific Committee discussions allocated high plausibility to the hypothesis of two populations with spatial/temporal mixing in the western North Pacific [75]. As for the other two ocean basins, effort should be made to collect and analyze genetic samples from the less understood eastern North Pacific as well to undertake focused research to understand migratory corridors and breeding ground locations.
It is also important to make effort to investigate the occurrence, distribution and population structure of common minke whales distributed around Chinese and Korean Peninsula waters, and the genetic relationship with whales distributed in the subareas around Japan. Investigation of the population genetic structure in those waters is important as several annual bycatches have been reported for the Korean Peninsula.
5. General conclusions
Many genetic studies on minke whales were conducted in the last 20 years. New taxonomic information post-1998 relates primarily to the Southern Hemisphere common minke whales (dwarf minke whales) from the western South Pacific and western South Atlantic, which are differentiated by both mtDNA and msDNA markers. The paraphyletic relationship between the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere (WSA) common minke whale has important implications for the taxonomic definition of common minke whales. Regarding population genetic structure, at least two populations of the Antarctic minke whale have been identified in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic, and at least two populations were confirmed in the western North Pacific common minke whales. In the North Atlantic genetic studies suggest that population structure, should it exist, is rather subtle. As for the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, analyses are hindered by a lack of knowledge (and thus samples from) breeding grounds.
The population structure of minke whales is intertwined with some degree of fidelity to specific feeding grounds. This fidelity could vary depending on changing short- and long-term environmental conditions. In the case of the Antarctic minke whales, the pattern of distribution and movement of different populations in the feeding grounds has been related with the distribution of their key prey species, the krill (Euphausia superba), which in turn depends on the bottom topography as well sea ice and hydrographic features [12]. A similar story has been identified for both the North Atlantic and North Pacific and it is not surprising that feeding ground distribution reflects prey distribution. Future studies on population structure and distribution of minke whales should consider information on environmental variables especially under a scenario of climate change.
Acknowledgments
We thank crew members, researchers and many other persons for the collection of genetic samples from minke whales from different sources, which made possible the studies reviewed in this chapter. We also thank Greg Donovan, former Head of Science of the International Whaling Commission, for useful comments and suggestions that improved substantially the previous version of this chapter. Our appreciation to Jorge Acevedo and Lucas Milmann for their assistance in figure drawing.
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Antarctic minke whale, North Pacific common minke whale, North Atlantic common minke whale, Southern Hemisphere common minke whale, dwarf minke whale, genetics, taxonomy, population structure",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81209.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81209.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81209",totalDownloads:3,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 6th 2022",dateReviewed:"January 14th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 24th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In 1998, two species of minke whales were recognized based on the review of the morphological and genetic information available at that time: the Antarctic minke whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis), which is restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, and the cosmopolitan common minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata). Furthermore, three sub-species of the common minke whale were recognized: the North Atlantic (B. a. acutorostrata), North Pacific (B. a. scammoni) and Southern Hemisphere (B. a. subsp.). This chapter reviews the genetic studies on minke whales conducted after 1998. The review is organized by topic, e.g., those studies focused on phylogeny and other matters most relevant for taxonomy, and those focused on population genetic structure within oceanic basins most relevant for conservation and management. On the former topic, the new genetic information, whilst strongly supporting the minke whale taxonomic classification recognized in 1998, also reveals substantial genetic differentiation within the Southern Hemisphere common minke whales, with subsequent taxonomic implications. On the latter topic, results from different analytical procedures have provided information on population identification and structure in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic and western North Pacific, but they have failed to identify unequivocally any population within the North Atlantic common minke whales.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81209",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81209",signatures:"Luis A. Pastene, Mutsuo Goto, Mioko Taguchi and Yoshihiro Fujise",book:{id:"11335",type:"book",title:"Marine Mammals",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Marine Mammals",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-490-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-489-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-491-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Genetic markers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Phylogenetic and other studies relevant for taxonomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Speciation and divergence time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Phylogenetic analyses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Hybridization in minke whales",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Implications for taxonomy and suggestions for future works",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Studies on population genetic structure in each oceanic basin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Antarctic minke whales",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 North Atlantic common minke whale",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3 North Pacific common minke whale",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4 Summary and suggestions for future work",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. General conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Reeves RR, Stewart BS, Clapham PJ, Powell JA. 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Paper SC/F19/WNPM9 presented to the First Intersessional Workshop on the Implementation Review for western North Pacific minke whales, Tokyo, February 2019. 2019;19pp. [Available from the IWC Secretariat]'},{id:"B73",body:'Taguchi M, Goto M, Pastene LA. Genetic and Non-genetic Evidences Suggest a Low Plausibility for Western North Pacific Common Minke Whale Stock Structure Hypothesis E. Paper SC/68a/SDDNA02 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee, Nairobi, May 2019. 2019;22pp. [Available from the IWC Secretariat]'},{id:"B74",body:'Konishi K, Isoda T, Bando T, Minamikawa S, Kleivane L. Antarctic minke whales find ice gaps along the ice edge in foraging grounds of the Indo-Pacific sector (60°E and 140°E) of the Southern Ocean. Polar Biology. 2020;43(4):343-357'},{id:"B75",body:'International Whaling Commission. Report of the Scientific Committee. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management (Suppl.). 2020;13:1-65'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Luis A. 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Customers have the right to terminate the contract without giving any reason (written notice of termination). The deadline for said termination is fourteen (14) days from the date of receipt of goods. Returns are at the expense of the Customer and must be made within the fourteen (14) days from the date of the written notice of termination. Intech Limited will process refunds to the Customer without undue delay.
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Aref",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10931.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"342429",title:"Dr.",name:"Noorah Abdulaziz",middleName:null,surname:"Othman Alkubaisi",slug:"noorah-abdulaziz-othman-alkubaisi",fullName:"Noorah Abdulaziz Othman Alkubaisi"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"242089",title:"Prof.",name:"Nagwa Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Amin Aref",slug:"nagwa-mohammed-amin-aref",fullName:"Nagwa Mohammed Amin Aref",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242089/images/system/242089.jpg",biography:'Over the past decade, Prof. Nagwa Mohamed Mohamed Amin Aref has worked in the areas of virology, molecular virology, nanotechnology, and immunology. Her work as an inventor has investigated three applied patents methods: a method of treating a bacterial infection using colostrum, a method of using clay suspension to prevent viral and phytoplasma diseases in plants, and a method of inhibiting plant virus using gold nanoparticles. She has made fundamental contributions to plant and medical viruses including publishing more than ninety-one journal articles and presenting at numerous conferences. Included topics are: \\"Detecting plant viral disease of stone fruit trees\\", \\"Engineering transgenic tomato plants Resistant to Tomato Yellow Mosaic Gemini Virus\\", \\"Radioprotective efficacy of zinc oxide nanoparticles on γ-ray-induced nuclear DNA damage in Vicia faba L. as evaluated by DNA bioassays\\", \\"Modulatory effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on gamma radiation-induced genotoxicity in Vicia faba\\", \\"Bioactive Molecules from Dodder Cuscuta as a critical parameter in the management of plant virus disease\\", \\"Evaluation o Biological and Molecular Characterizations for Identification of a Phytoplasma Associated With Lemon Witches\\\'-Broom in Egypt\\", \\"Physiological parameters correlated with Tomato Mosaic Virus inducing a defensive response in Datura metel\\", \\"Interleukin 17 Level as a Prognostic Marker in Highly Active Antiviral Treated Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) in Saudi Patients\\", \\"Lymphocyte subset and anti-HLA in AIDS Saudi patients\\", \\"Prevalence of HCV Genotypes and Viral Load in Saudi Arabia\\", \\"Correlation Between Phage Typing and Toxins Content as an Outbreak Tool in Staphylococcus aureus\\", \\"Olive Leaf Extract Trigger Defense Physiological Markers in Datura metel against Tobacco Mosaic Virus\\" \\"Correlation between Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Titers and Hepatitis B Virus DNA Levels\\" and etc. Over 91 journal articles have been published in these areas, and also numerous conference presentations made. She has collaborated with US, Indian, Saudi, Egyptian, German, French, and Taiwanese researchers. Previously, she was Professor of Virology, Molecular Virology, Faculty of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.',institutionString:"Ain Shams University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:134,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46083",doi:"10.5772/57399",title:"Pesticides: Environmental Impacts and Management Strategies",slug:"pesticides-environmental-impacts-and-management-strategies",totalDownloads:12539,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:177,abstract:null,book:{id:"3801",slug:"pesticides-toxic-aspects",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Toxic Aspects"},signatures:"Harsimran Kaur Gill and Harsh Garg",authors:[{id:"169137",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsh",middleName:null,surname:"Garg",slug:"harsh-garg",fullName:"Harsh Garg"},{id:"169846",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsimran",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",slug:"harsimran-gill",fullName:"Harsimran Gill"}]},{id:"21989",doi:"10.5772/17184",title:"Bacillus-Based Biological Control of Plant Diseases",slug:"bacillus-based-biological-control-of-plant-diseases",totalDownloads:17379,totalCrossrefCites:64,totalDimensionsCites:150,abstract:null,book:{id:"432",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-pesticides-use-and-management",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Pesticides in the Modern World - Pesticides Use and Management"},signatures:"Hélène Cawoy, Wagner Bettiol, Patrick Fickers and Marc Ongena",authors:[{id:"27515",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Fickers",slug:"patrick-fickers",fullName:"Patrick Fickers"},{id:"40395",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Ongena",slug:"marc-ongena",fullName:"Marc Ongena"},{id:"108031",title:"Ms.",name:"Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Cawoy",slug:"helene-cawoy",fullName:"Hélène Cawoy"},{id:"108032",title:"Dr.",name:"Wagner",middleName:null,surname:"Bettiol",slug:"wagner-bettiol",fullName:"Wagner Bettiol"}]},{id:"32936",doi:"10.5772/26052",title:"Phytochemicals: Extraction Methods, Basic Structures and Mode of Action as Potential Chemotherapeutic Agents",slug:"phytochemicals-extraction-methods-basic-structures-and-mode-of-action-as-potential-chemotherapeutic-",totalDownloads:95158,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:113,abstract:null,book:{id:"878",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"James Hamuel Doughari",authors:[{id:"65370",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Hamuel Doughari",slug:"james-hamuel-doughari",fullName:"James Hamuel Doughari"}]},{id:"49274",doi:"10.5772/61368",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidant Enzymes Involved in Plant Tolerance to Stress",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidant-enzymes-involved-in-plant-tolerance-to-stress",totalDownloads:4920,totalCrossrefCites:47,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plants are continuously exposed to several stress factors in field, which affect their production. These environmental adversities generally induce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause severe oxidative damage to plants. ROS are toxic molecules found in various subcellular compartments. The equilibrium between the production and detoxification of ROS is sustained by enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Due to advances in molecular approaches during the last decades, nowadays it is possible to develop economically important transgenic crops that have increased tolerance to stresses. This chapter discusses the oxidative stress and damage to plants. In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]},{id:"49289",doi:"10.5772/61442",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Elicitors–Role in Secondary Metabolites Production through In Vitro Culture of Medicinal Plants",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-elicitors-role-in-secondary-metabolites-production-through-in-vitro-culture-of-me",totalDownloads:6998,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites are having the great application in human health and nutritional aspect. Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. Al-Khayri"},{id:"176284",title:"Dr.",name:"Poornananda M.",middleName:null,surname:"Naik",slug:"poornananda-m.-naik",fullName:"Poornananda M. Naik"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4059,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5808,totalCrossrefCites:54,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7556,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5802,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"41",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81798",title:"Protein Metabolism in Plants to Survive against Abiotic Stress",slug:"protein-metabolism-in-plants-to-survive-against-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102995",abstract:"Plants are frequently subjected to several abiotic environmental stresses under natural conditions causing profound impacts on agricultural yield and quality. Plants can themselves develop a wide variety of efficient mechanisms to respond environmental challenges. Tolerance and acclimation of plants are always related to significant changes in protein, cellular localization, posttranscription, and posttranslational modifications. Protein response pathways as well as pathways unique to a given stress condition shared by plants under different stressed environment are discussed in this chapter. The various signaling of protein such as fluctuation, overexpression, and silencing of the protein gene are observed to be modulated in drought-tolerant plants. Similarly, gene expression, RNA processing, and metabolic process take place to cope with drought conditions. For adaption in water-submerged conditions, plants undergo reactive oxygen species (ROS), cell wall modification, proteolysis, and post-recovery protein metabolism. Heat shock protein and protein and lipid contents vary and play pivotal role in resisting low and high temperatures. In a nutshell, this paper provides an overview of several modification, synthesis, degradation, and metabolism of protein in plants to cope with and revive again to normal growing conditions against abiotic stress, emphasizing drought, submerged, extreme cold, and heat temperatures.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Bharti Thapa and Abhisek Shrestha"},{id:"80923",title:"Salt Stress Tolerance in Rice and Wheat: Physiological and Molecular Mechanism",slug:"salt-stress-tolerance-in-rice-and-wheat-physiological-and-molecular-mechanism",totalDownloads:70,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101529",abstract:"Salinity is a major obstacle to global grain crop production, especially rice and wheat. The identification and improvement of salt-tolerant rice and wheat depending upon the genetic diversity and salt stress response could be a promising solution to deal with soil salinity and the increasing food demands. Plant responses to salt stress occur at the organismic, cellular, and molecular levels and the salt stress tolerance in those crop plant involving (1) regulation of ionic homeostasis, (2) maintenance of osmotic potential, (3) ROS scavenging and antioxidant enzymes activity, and (4) plant hormonal regulation. In this chapter, we summarize the recent research progress on these four aspects of plant morpho-physiological and molecular response, with particular attention to ionic, osmolytic, enzymatic, hormonal and gene expression regulation in rice and wheat plants. Moreover, epigenetic diversity could emerge as novel of phenotypic variations to enhance plant adaptation to an adverse environmental conditions and develop stable stress-resilient crops. The information summarized here will be useful for accelerating the breeding of salt-tolerant rice. This information may help in studies to reveal the mechanism of plant salt tolerance, screen high efficiency and quality salt tolerance in crops.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"80091",title:"Molecular Defense Mechanisms in Plants to Tolerate Toxic Action of Heavy Metal Environmental Pollution",slug:"molecular-defense-mechanisms-in-plants-to-tolerate-toxic-action-of-heavy-metal-environmental-polluti",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102330",abstract:"Toxic action of heavy metals on plants growing in contaminated soils intensified the research on detoxification and sequestering mechanisms existing in plants to understand and manipulate defense mechanisms that confer tolerance against metal ions. Increased biosynthesis of plant biomolecules to confer tolerance during toxic action of heavy metals is an intrinsic ability of plants. Induced formation of low-molecular weight amino acids, peptides or proteines as chelators such as proline (Pro), glutathione (GSH), phytochelatins (PCs) or metallothioneins (MTs) under heavy metal stress enhances metal binding and detoxification capability of plants. In addition, proline and GSH related enzymes such as GSH reductase, GSH peroxidases and glutathione S-transferases are also key components of the antioxidant defense system in the cells to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). Protective action of oxidized fatty acids oxylipins at toxic levels of heavy metals is considered to activate detoxification processes as signaling molecules.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Istvan Jablonkai"},{id:"80723",title:"Intra-Annual Variation in Leaf Anatomical Traits of an Overwintering Shrub of High Elevations of Himalaya",slug:"intra-annual-variation-in-leaf-anatomical-traits-of-an-overwintering-shrub-of-high-elevations-of-him",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102016",abstract:"Trait variability in response to seasonal variations can be hypothesised as an advantageous strategy for overwintering shrubs. This hypothesis was tested by elucidating patterns of trait variation in an evergreen alpine shrub, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don. The study site was established at Rohtang (3990 m a.s.l.) in western Himalaya. Its leaves were sampled at 10 time points spanning a period of 1 year (beginning from 22-August-2017 to 14-August-2018) for estimating anatomical traits using light and scanning electron microscopy. The data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance, and the trait-temperature relationships were analysed using linear regression. The results indicated a lower variability in the anatomical traits. A few traits (e.g. cuticle thickness and epidermal scales) were found to be significantly correlated with temperature (p < 0.05). Our analysis revealed increase in cuticle thickness and a decrease in epidermal scales (size) during low-temperature conditions. The lesser variability found in anatomical traits of overwintering shrub could be explained as ‘evolutionary gained adaptive traits’.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Nikita Rathore, Dinesh Thakur, Nang Elennie Hopak and Amit Chawla"},{id:"80587",title:"Morpho-Anatomical Adaptation against Salinity",slug:"morpho-anatomical-adaptation-against-salinity",totalDownloads:73,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101681",abstract:"Plants tolerant of NaCl, implement several adjustments to acclimate to salt stress, such as biochemical, physiological, and morphological modifications. Besides, plants also adjust to saline circumstances by altering their anatomical structure of roots, leaves, and morphological modifications. The leaf and roots are among the essential plant organs and are involved in the transport of water and minerals used for photosynthesis. From a plant physiology perspective, water use efficiency in the quantity of CO2 fixed in photosynthesis compared to the leaf anatomy. In this review, we provide a comparative account of the morphology of the leaf and root under normal and salt stress circumstances. There is little information on the ultrastructure changes elicited in response to salt stress. The analysis expands our knowledge of how salt may impact the leaves and root anatomy.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Smita Srivastava"},{id:"80201",title:"Nutrients Deficit and Water Stress in Plants: New Concept Solutions Using Olive Solid Waste",slug:"nutrients-deficit-and-water-stress-in-plants-new-concept-solutions-using-olive-solid-waste",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101523",abstract:"Great efforts were deployed by researchers to mobilize water resources while is becoming rarer and to control with efficiency the water besides nutrient needs for the plant. Autonomous water and nutritional anti-stress device for plants (AWANASD) based on the recovery of rainwater patented by Medhioub et al. fits into this general framework. Scientific efforts were also dedicated to preserve the environment and minimize energy consumption through using agricultural waste materials in different fields. This chapter provides a new concept based on the use of the olive solid waste in AWANASD as water storage and nutrient elements for plants giving rise to the new system called AWANASD-OSW.",book:{id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg"},signatures:"Samir Medhioub, Slah Bouraoui, Ali Ellouze and Hassen Sabeur"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 23rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. 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He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82248",title:"Sustainability and Excellence: Pillars for Business Survival",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105420",signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai",slug:"sustainability-and-excellence-pillars-for-business-survival",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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