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Karwacki and Wojciech Wozniak",authors:[{id:"86757",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:"W.",surname:"Karwacki",fullName:"Marek Karwacki",slug:"marek-karwacki"}]},{id:"29551",title:"Studies of Osteoporosis in Cancer Patients in Slovakia – Experience from Single Institute",slug:"studies-of-osteoporosis-in-cancer-patients-in-slovakia-experience-from-single-institute",signatures:"Beata Spanikova and Stanislav Spanik",authors:[{id:"79511",title:"Dr",name:"Stanislav",middleName:null,surname:"Spanik",fullName:"Stanislav Spanik",slug:"stanislav-spanik"},{id:"123883",title:"Dr.",name:"Beata",middleName:null,surname:"Spanikova",fullName:"Beata Spanikova",slug:"beata-spanikova"}]},{id:"29552",title:"Osteoporosis in Pediatric Patients and Its Clinical Management",slug:"osteoporosis-in-pediatric-patients-and-its-clinical-management",signatures:"Emilio González Jiménez",authors:[{id:"77001",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"González-Jiménez",fullName:"Emilio González-Jiménez",slug:"emilio-gonzalez-jimenez"}]},{id:"29553",title:"Physical Activity Interactions with Bone Accrual in Children and Adolescents",slug:"physical-activity-interactions-with-bone-accrual-in-children-and-adolescents",signatures:"Izabella A. Ludwa and Panagiota Klentrou",authors:[{id:"82220",title:"Dr",name:"Panagiota",middleName:null,surname:"Klentrou",fullName:"Panagiota Klentrou",slug:"panagiota-klentrou"},{id:"87457",title:"MSc.",name:"Izabella",middleName:"Atena",surname:"Ludwa",fullName:"Izabella Ludwa",slug:"izabella-ludwa"}]},{id:"29554",title:"Osteoporosis, Nutrition and Adolescence",slug:"osteoporosis-nutrition-and-adolescence",signatures:"Isabel Seiquer, Marta Mesías and M. Pilar Navarro",authors:[{id:"79053",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Seiquer",fullName:"Isabel Seiquer",slug:"isabel-seiquer"},{id:"85396",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Mesías",fullName:"Marta Mesías",slug:"marta-mesias"},{id:"85399",title:"Dr.",name:"María Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",fullName:"María Pilar Navarro",slug:"maria-pilar-navarro"}]},{id:"29555",title:"Rehabilitation in Osteoporosis",slug:"rehabilitation-in-osteoporosis",signatures:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",authors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis"}]},{id:"29556",title:"Physical Exercise for Prevention of Falls and Fractures",slug:"physical-exercise-for-prevention-of-falls-and-fractures",signatures:"Lucas Teixeira, Joelma Magalhães, Stella Peccin, Rebeca Teixeira, Kelson Silva, Tiago Teixeira, Jander Souza and Virgínia Trevisani",authors:[{id:"63890",title:"MSc.",name:"Kelson",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Kelson Silva",slug:"kelson-silva"},{id:"75687",title:"PhD.",name:"Lucas",middleName:"Emmanuel",surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Lucas Teixeira",slug:"lucas-teixeira"},{id:"80042",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Trevisani",fullName:"Virginia Trevisani",slug:"virginia-trevisani"},{id:"80044",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago",middleName:"Jose De Paiva",surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Tiago Teixeira",slug:"tiago-teixeira"},{id:"80045",title:"MSc.",name:"Joelma",middleName:null,surname:"Magalhães",fullName:"Joelma Magalhães",slug:"joelma-magalhaes"},{id:"80049",title:"Ms.",name:"Rebeca",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Rebeca Teixeira",slug:"rebeca-teixeira"},{id:"122997",title:"Dr.",name:"Stella",middleName:null,surname:"Peccin",fullName:"Stella Peccin",slug:"stella-peccin"},{id:"127780",title:"Mr.",name:"Jander",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Jander Souza",slug:"jander-souza"}]},{id:"29557",title:"The Effect of Exercise on Bone Mineral Density, Bone Markers and Postural Stability in Subjects with Osteoporosis",slug:"the-effect-of-exercise-on-bone-mineral-density-bone-markers-and-postural-stability-in-subjects-with-",signatures:"M. Janura, Z. Krhutová, Z. Svoboda and P. 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Kaczmarzyk",slug:"tomasz-kaczmarzyk"}]},{id:"29564",title:"Balloon Kyphoplasty for Osteoporosis: Technical Notes",slug:"balloon-kyphoplasty-for-osteoporosis-technical-notes",signatures:"Antoine Nachanakian, Antonios El Helou, Sami Salem and Moussa Alaywan",authors:[{id:"116842",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoine",middleName:null,surname:"Nachanakian",fullName:"Antoine Nachanakian",slug:"antoine-nachanakian"},{id:"117443",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonios",middleName:"Georges",surname:"El Helou",fullName:"Antonios El Helou",slug:"antonios-el-helou"},{id:"117444",title:"Dr.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Salem",fullName:"Sami Salem",slug:"sami-salem"},{id:"117445",title:"Dr.",name:"Moussa",middleName:null,surname:"Alaywan",fullName:"Moussa Alaywan",slug:"moussa-alaywan"}]},{id:"29565",title:"Minimally Invasive Treatment of Vertebral Body Fractures",slug:"minimally-invasive-treatment-of-vertebral-body-fractures",signatures:"Pasquale De Negri and Tiziana 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Apostolova",authors:[{id:"75527",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:"Dimitrova",surname:"Apostolova",fullName:"Margarita Apostolova",slug:"margarita-apostolova"},{id:"86282",title:"MSc.",name:"Iliyan",middleName:null,surname:"Kolev",fullName:"Iliyan Kolev",slug:"iliyan-kolev"},{id:"86283",title:"MSc.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",fullName:"Lyudmila Ivanova",slug:"lyudmila-ivanova"},{id:"86284",title:"Mrs.",name:"Leni",middleName:null,surname:"Markova",fullName:"Leni Markova",slug:"leni-markova"},{id:"86286",title:"Prof.",name:"Anelia",middleName:"Aleksandrova",surname:"Dimitrova",fullName:"Anelia Dimitrova",slug:"anelia-dimitrova"},{id:"86289",title:"Prof.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Popov",fullName:"Cyril Popov",slug:"cyril-popov"}]},{id:"29567",title:"Simulating Bone Atrophy and Its Effects on the Structure and Stability of the Trabecular Bone",slug:"simulating-bone-atrophy-and-its-effects-on-the-structure-and-stability-of-the-trabecular-bone",signatures:"Christoph Räth, Irina Sidorenko, Roberto Monetti, Jan Bauer, Thomas Baum, Maiko Matsuura, Philippe Zysset and Felix Eckstein",authors:[{id:"56283",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Räth",fullName:"Christoph Räth",slug:"christoph-rath"}]},{id:"29568",title:"Role of Phytoestrogen Ferutinin in Preventing/Recovering Bone Loss: Results from Experimental Ovariectomized Rat Models",slug:"role-of-phytoestrogen-ferutinin-in-preventing-recovering-bone-loss-results-from-experimental-ovariec",signatures:"Carla Palumbo, Francesco Cavani, Laura Bertoni and Marzia Ferretti",authors:[{id:"75816",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Palumbo",fullName:"Carla Palumbo",slug:"carla-palumbo"},{id:"84964",title:"Prof.",name:"Marzia",middleName:null,surname:"Ferretti",fullName:"Marzia Ferretti",slug:"marzia-ferretti"},{id:"84968",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Cavani",fullName:"Francesco Cavani",slug:"francesco-cavani"},{id:"84970",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Bertoni",fullName:"Laura Bertoni",slug:"laura-bertoni"}]},{id:"29569",title:"The Phytoestrogens, Calcitonin and Thyroid Hormones: Effects on Bone Tissue",slug:"the-phytoestrogens-calcitonin-and-thyroid-hormones-effects-on-bone-tissue",signatures:"Branko Filipović and Branka Šošić-Jurjević",authors:[{id:"44958",title:"Dr.",name:"Branko",middleName:null,surname:"Filipovic",fullName:"Branko Filipovic",slug:"branko-filipovic"},{id:"85513",title:"Dr.",name:"Branka",middleName:null,surname:"Sosic-Jurjevic",fullName:"Branka Sosic-Jurjevic",slug:"branka-sosic-jurjevic"}]},{id:"29570",title:"Nutrition for Enhancing Bone Volume in Mice",slug:"nutrition-for-enhancing-bone-volume-in-mice",signatures:"Junji Ohtani, Fujita Tadashi, R.A. Marquez Hernandez, Toshitsugu Kawata, Masato Kaku, Masahide Motokawa and Kazuo Tanne",authors:[{id:"81412",title:"Dr.",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtani",fullName:"Junji Ohtani",slug:"junji-ohtani"}]},{id:"29571",title:"Osteoporosis and Bone Regeneration",slug:"osteoporosis-and-bone-regeneration",signatures:"Shinji Kuroda, Kanako Noritake and Shohei Kasugai",authors:[{id:"61656",title:"Prof.",name:"Shohei",middleName:null,surname:"Kasugai",fullName:"Shohei Kasugai",slug:"shohei-kasugai"},{id:"84104",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Kuroda",fullName:"Shinji Kuroda",slug:"shinji-kuroda"},{id:"90335",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanako",middleName:null,surname:"Noritake",fullName:"Kanako Noritake",slug:"kanako-noritake"}]},{id:"29572",title:"Lactoferrin – A Potential Anabolic Intervention in Osteoporosis",slug:"lactoferrin-a-potential-anabolic-intervention-in-osteoporosis",signatures:"Dorit Naot, Kate Palmano and Jillian Cornish",authors:[{id:"78754",title:"Prof.",name:"Jillian",middleName:null,surname:"Cornish",fullName:"Jillian Cornish",slug:"jillian-cornish"},{id:"84689",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorit",middleName:null,surname:"Naot",fullName:"Dorit Naot",slug:"dorit-naot"},{id:"84704",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Palmano",fullName:"Kate Palmano",slug:"kate-palmano"}]},{id:"29573",title:"How Dentistry Can Help Fight Osteoporosis",slug:"how-dentistry-can-help-fight-osteoporosis",signatures:"Plauto Christopher Aranha Watanabe, Marlivia Gonçalves de Carvalho Watanabe and Rodrigo Tiossi",authors:[{id:"76171",title:"Prof.",name:"Plauto C. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Watanabe",fullName:"Plauto C. A. Watanabe",slug:"plauto-c.-a.-watanabe"}]},{id:"29574",title:"Effect of Bisphosphonates on Root Growth and on Chlorophyll Formation in Arabidopsis thaliana Seedlings",slug:"effect-of-bisphosphonates-on-root-growth-and-on-chlorophyll-formation-in-arabidopsis-thaliana-seedli",signatures:"Ana I. Manzano, F. Javier Medina, Francisco J. Pérez-Zuñiga, Maria A. Günther Sillero and Antonio Sillero",authors:[{id:"81573",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Sillero",fullName:"Antonio Sillero",slug:"antonio-sillero"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"4520",title:"Osteoarthritis",subtitle:"Progress in Basic Research and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"efe2d1603cb3cb3aa32e697441bf0d4c",slug:"osteoarthritis-progress-in-basic-research-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Qian Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4520.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70485",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",surname:"Chen",slug:"qian-chen",fullName:"Qian Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4525",title:"Advances in Osteoporosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3d99bb4399f999199ee2db9a250884ba",slug:"advances-in-osteoporosis",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4525.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7156",title:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dbffb762cef8ae7cddbd8a3ebed31d81",slug:"osteogenesis-and-bone-regeneration",bookSignature:"Haisheng Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7156.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7565",title:"Osteoarthritis Biomarkers and Treatments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1f50f84936fc4164de08483e43acc16",slug:"osteoarthritis-biomarkers-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Hechmi Toumi and Marija Mazor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7565.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196403",title:"Prof.",name:"Hechmi",surname:"Toumi",slug:"hechmi-toumi",fullName:"Hechmi Toumi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"757",title:"Osteomyelitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"094be3e7b1cac239e661bdb0a1a4f83e",slug:"osteomyelitis",bookSignature:"Mauricio S. Baptista and Joao Paulo Tardivo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/757.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85863",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauricio S.",surname:"Baptista",slug:"mauricio-s.-baptista",fullName:"Mauricio S. Baptista"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"757",title:"Osteomyelitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"094be3e7b1cac239e661bdb0a1a4f83e",slug:"osteomyelitis",bookSignature:"Mauricio S. Baptista and Joao Paulo Tardivo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/757.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85863",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauricio S.",surname:"Baptista",slug:"mauricio-s.-baptista",fullName:"Mauricio S. Baptista"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"78965",title:"Transforming Continuing Medical Education in the COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100420",slug:"transforming-continuing-medical-education-in-the-covid-19",body:'Health science educators were living times of discussion about competency-based education, how this influenced curriculum design, teaching methodologies, and the role of teachers. The beginning of the decade took us in time when medical schools and colleges are incorporating an early approach to the field of practice and have increased the proportion of learning in practice settings. We never assumed a scenario like this. The COVID-19 pandemic is a situation not intended neither for health, nor for the economy, nor medical education. Everything will undoubtedly change during this period. There may be new, moderate forms of quarantine, but the world will certainly not be the same when the pandemic passes.
Medical education is not immune to the heartaches produced by abrupt contemporary changes in our world, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Unexpectedly, and on very short notice, people can no longer teach or learn alongside other people. The impact on the heart of the educational processes of the health professions is unprecedented. Suddenly, the status quo of undergraduate or graduate medical education has been called into question, perhaps for the better. The key concerns of yesterday, such as the need to improve patient bedside learning or to enhance the experience of students in the clinical setting, in the clinical workplace, have a different meaning.
The arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic caused medical schools and faculties to interrupt their activities abruptly, recovering institutional capacities and making evident the strengths and weaknesses of each educational institution. The response in the undergraduate courses consisted in the migration of classes to virtual media, and the attendance of students to hospitals was interrupted to prevent them from being infected and could spread the virus in the communities.
In the case of students who were in undergraduate boarding school or in residencies, these were suspended and clinical rotations were replaced by the review of clinical cases by digital means. In graduate school, the resident physicians stayed in the hospitals and carried out a certain degree of theoretical activities and review of clinical cases on the Internet. Residents located in COVID hospitals suspended their scheduled clinical rotations and focused on responding to the pandemic by disrupting academic activities.
However, in contrast to the aforesaid, distance education remains rudimentary in supporting holistic professional learning. With the suspension of internships in colleges, medical educators must be creative in offering meaningful alternatives. Although virtual patients are not universally available and teaching practical procedures online is not yet feasible, clinical teachers can take advantage of the changes that are available in healthcare to adapt to COVID-19 crises. Additionally, COVID-19 can lead to unavailability of clinicians to teach as a result of the intense clinical workload generated by the disease. We may not be equipped with the tools to respond effectively [1].
The first response of most of the institutions in the world is to increase the use of “e-learning”, especially online educational platforms and videoconferences. Strategies had already been imposed, more as support systems for face-to-face courses than as real online education. For initial or preclinical cycles, this may be a good answer, but questions immediately arise for which we still do not have an answer regarding the development of professional skills [2]. On the other hand, it highlights the differences in internet accessibility, either due to availability of equipment, connectivity, or the high consumption of data when it is done from mobile devices, which challenge equity in student access. The positive view of these processes is to reflect on how many of our usual face-to-face theoretical classes could be permanently replaced by this modality, accelerating the incorporation of methodologies such as flipped class or team-based learning.
Medical schools and colleges faced the challenge of maintaining their functioning and helping to respond to the pandemic. To this end, the following activities were developed, all of them supported by information and communication technologies (ICT) [3]:
Maintain the undergraduate training processes: Because undergraduate students had to leave hospitals, training had to be migrated to ICT to assume totally a digital education.
Preserve postgraduate training: Resident doctors remained in hospitals and many cases were reassigned to COVID areas, regardless of the specialty they were studying. Academic activities were maintained in most cases virtually.
Strengthen continuing education: Medical schools and faculties implemented courses, webinars, and seminars to update physicians on preventive actions and the management of COVID-19 patients.
Support the institutional management and coordination of telework: With closed institutions and with teachers and students located in different places, the coordination of activities and the organization of telework became decisive to develop synergistic actions between teachers and students and to maintain communication with the population.
Promote access to scientific literature and information on COVID-19, and share it with governments, the health sector, and the general public, to guide evidence-based actions, help to reduce public distress, and avoid false news.
Maintain communication and coordination with national and foreign experts, to keep abreast of the latest advances and set up collaboration networks.
Generate research projects related to COVID-19: both local and participation in international multicenter studies.
Establish advisory groups for governments: through interdisciplinary teams of experts made up of epidemiologists, infectologists, mathematicians, biostatistics, computer scientists, georeference experts, sociologists, and others.
Provide remote medical assistance: through the installation of telephone assistance centers, telemedicine, and virtual hospitals.
Organize volunteer student brigades, to strengthen health institutions with the care of non-COVID patients and facilitate the continuity of medical care.
Take care of the physical and mental health of teachers, students, and workers: The faculties and schools implemented actions to assist their community, maintaining regular contact, establishing support units, and developing protocols for action in mental health.
Produce medical equipment and personal protective equipment, supported by other university entities and businessmen, personal protective equipment was produced and some ventilators were even developed.
Return to classrooms and clinical practices: A large part of the present effort is directed to organizing the return to face-to-face activities, preparing manuals with standards that include the use of masks, hand hygiene, and maintaining the minimum distance between people, or aspects such as ventilation.
Medical educators can leverage technology to enhance medical education at both undergraduate and graduate levels. Although the most recent initiatives, such as remote transmissions, have been introduced for a long time, traditional classes, lectures, and face-to-face didactic tutorials continue to be the most important cornerstone of medical education both in our country and abroad. In the case of the epidemic, we are experiencing and given the highly infectious nature of COVID-19, but as in most emerging infections in recent years, face-to-face interactions in large groups are sources of spread and transmission diseases and therefore should be avoided.
To avoid this, technology, for example, video conferencing and e-learning platforms, can be used to deliver them remotely
Some technological learning tools are also sure to become massive shortly. It will occur in both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Interactive whiteboards, connected to a computer, will be used even more. There the teachers write, project images or videos, and transmit them in real-time to distant places [5]:
Perfecting medical visualizations with 3D images will allow you to learn anatomy or diagnostic imaging.
On the other hand, thanks to the use of virtual microscopes, even more about human cells and tissues will be taught.
The use of mobile phones or electronic tablets for educational purposes will also increase. These devices will allow—thanks to the download of applications—among other things to receive tutoring for a certain exam.
The virtual will allow immersive and augmented reality experiences that will include hospitals, inpatient rooms, or patients. There are already designs that simulate real clinical scenarios, where students assume the professional role, take a medical history, propose diagnoses, and indicate treatments.
Faculties can then set up programs and hold online meetings to continue these types of discussions that further help students and residents consolidate their learning. Courses in subjects such as communication skills, medical ethics, and even clinical or statistical research can also be arranged through these online modalities for medical students or residents. There are already numerous experiences in this regard.
Some countries have shown concern regarding the development of some courses during this pandemic; such is the case of anatomy due to the disposition to cremate the bodies to prevent the spread of the virus, a situation that limits the obtaining of corpses for the development of classes [6]. Furthermore, although virtualization is a viable alternative for many universities, not all have the logistical facilities to implement it. On the other hand, although some contents of the clinical courses can be virtualized, the skills necessary for medical performance—such as performing the physical exam—can only be adequately learned with the patient and virtual adaptations are unsustainable over time; for this reason, some faculties considered it necessary to delay the start of this type of course until the end of the pandemic. While it is true there are many advantages in the virtualization process of courses, it is clear that some universities have and will have limitations to make this process concrete [7].
Advantages and limitations in the virtualization process of undergraduate medicine courses are as follows:
Advantages
Reduces the possibility that students in clinical courses will get sick from COVID-19.
Reduces the possibility of contaminating patients and health personnel if they are asymptomatic carriers of the disease.
Avoid the use of personal protective equipment on non-essential personnel in hospitals.
It allows continuing with academic activities.
Facilitates the timely review of academic material, ensuring the delivery of updated evidence-based content to students.
It promotes digital learning in the new generations better adapted for it.
Limitations
Not all universities have a digital platform to teach virtual courses.
Not all teachers have the ability to build adequate virtual content.
Requires a strong sense of self-motivation and good time management skills on the part of students and teachers.
The saturation of care work of doctors who are teachers will not allow them to dedicate themselves to virtual class-work.
It is not possible to virtualize all the contents of the clinical courses and some non-clinical ones (such as anatomy and the like).
Not all students can have access to a laptop, tablet, or smartphone for their classes.
Not everyone has an adequate internet or electricity connection; for example, if they are undergraduate students in rural areas.
Limits the collaborative learning experience.
Limits the presentation experience with live interaction.
Limits real-time feedback from face-to-face classes.
Unethical behaviors may occur more frequently (e.g., cheating during virtual evaluations).
But there is an unavoidable aspect that puts the development of competencies and their evaluation in tension. The presence of the student in the clinical environment is essential in medical teaching to acquire these skills. Presence that must be supervised requires close contact between teacher and students. The appearance of the coronavirus pandemic, highly contagious, in which the student can be a vector of infection, or can become infected, added to the dramatic change in the care model and the practices of health institutions, makes it necessary to recreate new forms of education combining technology and educational strategies to cushion the impact of the pandemic on the entire education process and continue in some creative way our way of teaching. On the other hand, the student’s displays of commitment and enthusiasm that lead to their participation in volunteering should be evaluated in light of the risks involved, if it brings them into contact with potential patients [8].
But medical education is not just about imparting specific knowledge and skills in a particular domain. A highly qualified surgeon or an experienced physician is not necessarily a good physician. In addition to domain-specific knowledge, holistic non-cognitive attributes such as teamwork, empathy, initiative, and compassion are important qualities to convey to medical students and residents. The participation of these medical students and residents as collaborators, the former, and physicians increasingly involved, the latter, to try to alleviate this crisis is something important not only for that purpose but for their general education as physicians. In this sense, we are not inventing anything new, there are antecedents. In 2003, during the height of the SARS outbreak in Singapore, medical students were asked to help with temperature checks [9].
With the COVID-19 crisis, residents of all medical and surgical specialties in very different locations have also been selected to take shifts on the frontline, where they have assisted with the detection of suspected cases in emergencies and elsewhere. In addition to alleviating labor shortages where labor was scarce, this has helped foster camaraderie among residents as part of the medical community, prompting them to feel like part of the teams fighting this pandemic. This, according to very different testimonies, the residents have been taught important lessons about courage, empathy, and teamwork [2]. It has also provided the opportunity for many residents to review their general medical skills, since in many cases many of them, who belonged to highly technical or specialized specialties, have had to care for patients with this infection. This is a great step in their training and development as medical professionals with more holistic perspectives.
In response to the lack of clinical practice, the first alternative seems to be to alter the academic calendar by postponing the practical load and increasing the clinical reasoning activities at this stage, or the elective activities related to the pandemic. Some institutions incorporate the use of virtual cases, surgical videos, and participation in telemedicine. We must also think creatively, how to maintain contact with virtual and real patients, as well as develop new forms of evaluation. This requires clear indications for students and supervisors because the electronic interface modifies the possibilities of giving feedback and modifies the observed competencies. Nor should we lose contact with the human aspects of pandemics, as literature and film can contribute as triggers for this understanding [10].
The COVID-19 pandemic has posed challenges in medical education globally. Each society has responded according to its possibilities and needs to take advantage of this situation as a learning opportunity, continue with education, and incorporate students as health workers in the countries where it was necessary. A crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic involves making great efforts to carry out contingency plans that minimize disruptions or profound changes that occur in educational programs.
Many university professors who went through this situation agree that preclinical subjects have been taught, overcoming some inconveniences and without being prepared for such a hasty decision. For others, after this pandemic and forced “natural experiment” something may no longer be strange. Why not think about a preclinical cycle entirely online for future doctors. With users located in various parts of the world, even endowed with the ability to find the best teachers or courses thanks to one click. Exchanging face-to-face classes of 1 hour, for sequences of short videos or podcasts of no more than 15 minutes [11].
However, technology can and should be harnessed to allow students and residents to learn from these experiences and gain extra training in skills such as clinical communication and medical ethics. Beyond the knowledge of a particular domain, the participation of medical students and residents in the clinical tasks that a pandemic like the one we are experiencing can be beneficial to develop another perspective on medicine and what clinical practice means and what it means. Time about what is expected of them as physicians. This type of crisis should be used to improve or instill non-cognitive holistic aspects such as leadership and adaptability. As medical educators, we can and must meet the challenge of continuing to teach even in times of crisis.
Before the outbreak of the SARS-COV-2 virus, online medical education had acquired some evolutionary features. She used to dealing with healthcare professionals who were geographically isolated and distant but connected through virtual communication. He provided solutions to hundreds of them immersed in demanding work hours, and with little flexibility in the agenda. It was based on collective learning, online collaboration, proactivity, and self-directed training [12].
Online had dispensed with the presence of educational leaders and managed to optimize interaction with them from a distance. It had generated between the participants an exchange—both synchronous and asynchronous—through chats, forums, or emails. COVID-19 has done nothing but selects those cited features of virtual education. Also, during these months, he has polished virtual-friendly technological educational tools. But it should not be repaired only in this present. It should be noted that the future seems to have changed a bit as well. Even the most skeptical no longer conceives the future of medical education, as something in total separates from technology and online.
In general terms, the educational emergency caused by the epidemic made evident the high frequency that the expository technique or oral presentation has in the educational activity by the teacher, who by not having the students in physical presence, perceived a lack of control and authority. In the same way, the student, under the same system, felt free and without directivity, which generated anxiety and anguish in not feeling his physical presence and having his direct surveillance; the teacher’s immediate action was to commission homework, homework, and more homework, and the students were overwhelmed and disappointed by not receiving feedback.
Online education requires a differential planning of education with physical presence; the conjunction of a team of experts in various disciplinary areas is desirable, such as pedagogues, educational psychologists, software specialists, interactive, and graphic designers, among others, with which the online educational experience is highly meaningful for students [12].
The characteristics of teaching in virtuality include the following: the management of non-face-to-face asynchronous or synchronous educational organizations, transversal (multi or transdisciplinary) and holistic; student-centered, characterized by being flexible, cooperative, personalized, and interactive; the teacher will be a facilitator, who must be more collaborative than lonely, encourage/promote participation, recognize/accept the fact that they no longer have possession, with organizational skills, open to experimentation, and with the ability/ability to modify.
The use of ICT in teachers ranges from the resistance of its use to its formal use in education, with relative or little use for play, recreation, or social networks, while students use them little as an educational tool and their focus is on the play, entertainment, and especially on social networks. The previous dichotomy leads us to think in three moments about the knowledge, attitudes, and practice of ICT: appropriation, use, and access to ICT [13].
Appropriation: There is a difference in conceptualization and use between natives and digital immigrants; the former have grown and have developed as a priority the playful and recreational aspect of digital technologies, especially social networks; in the case of the educational aspect, the job that is done consists of recovering the information, generally without discriminating the objective sources or of scientific certainty, and carries out its work by copying and pasting. The latter, digital immigrant teachers, can discriminate from sources, but their technological management often leaves much to be desired. Both require training, but not the same training, students to consume relevant information for their training and teachers train and train in the use of technology to strengthen the teaching-learning process.
Use: It has to do with knowing the potentialities that it offers in its scope of action, such as contributing to the development of other thinking skills (problem-solving) other than communicative ability. To develop these skills, critical thinking must be forged in the student that allows him to discriminate information on the network, evaluate it, verify its veracity, and be able to build new learning, because when thinking critically, arguments are accepted or rejected that later can be applied in different fields of knowledge, that is, establish a dialog between the student and the information that allows him to assess and abstract the arguments of use to the student, take a position before them, pose questions and answers to his personal and intellectual searches, solve problematic situations of his daily life, apply new knowledge to your life, and seek the improvement of the world around you. Thinking and interpreting in technology entail the creation of new educational scenarios.
Access: Two elements are inherent to access to ICT, one is inherent to the institution and the other to the student. ICTs are resources, tools, and programs that are used to process, manage, and share information through technological supports such as computers, laptops, cell phones, that is, hardware and software. The institution must provide resources and reliable means, of easy access and availability for teachers and students, but it must be ensured that the student has the appropriate resources for their distance education.
Face-to-face and virtual education are not the same, for us to be successful in virtual education we cannot directly apply what we do in physical presence and what is applied online, nor can it be replicated in a face-to-face class, each one has its methodologies and materials to make them work properly. So you have to adapt and redesign; in the virtual environment, people compete for attention, time, and space on the screen; in addition, students have greater control over the content and how they work with it and must take responsibility and practice autonomy, reflection, and reasoning.
Educational institutions must have robust, adequate, and sufficient technology, both intangible resources such as servers, computers, printers, and intangibles, such as platforms that allow them to carry out administrative, school, and teaching process management—learning. The platforms must have some characteristics such as centralization and automation, flexibility, interactivity, standardization, scalability, functionality, usability, ubiquity, and integration.
Educational institutions, in general, must carry out a process of technological reconversion that allows them to sustain the processes adjacent to the use of ICT. Thus, educational institutions should be supported by broadening their horizons to an institutional philosophy that considers ICT as fundamental elements in educational work, having financial sustainability that allows them to maintain high costs, recondition, and maintain the academic infrastructure for the good development of educational processes, in addition, with a teaching staff prone to change. The reconversion must also be carried out in administrative, pedagogical, and institutional management. The training processes in virtual learning environments are essential for the success in the training of students [14].
The migration from virtual to classroom education is essential in medical education. It is not a substitute for clinical practice, face to face with the real patient; however, hybrid or mixed strategies and curricular redesigns should be sought in the immediate and mediate future of the training of the medical professional. Among the fundamental elements are not improvising, but planning in hybrid or mixed options; consider the differences between face-to-face and virtual education; managers must be involved in the transformation; carry out adequate and pertinent teacher training about ICT in daily didactic and pedagogical activity. Acquire the relevant technological equipment for migration, including servers, Internet capacity, and diagnosis of the needs of teachers and students to carry out the migration properly.
Students are comfortable with technology-based solutions to support learning and assessment, and with peer communication tools. Pandemic circumstances have pushed teachers to acquire skills in using online resources to teach and meet students like never before. Now, we lack patients and a professional care environment. A lot of work is needed to ensure the privacy of participants, compliance with data protection regulations, quality, inclusion and fairness, support for students and teachers, among other key issues. They can be resolved effectively through intra- and inter-institutional cooperation, preferably on an international scale. The COVID-19 emergency will eventually end. By then, the whole concept and system of medical education will have been reinvented, having served as an
As of this quarantine, every one of the universities, certain policies were generally adopted that were applied throughout the country: Face-to-face classes became virtual; universities have had to offer platforms to include their students and to be able to have classes online. This requires a smartphone that can connect to the respective platform with Internet paid for by the student, or laptop computers or iPad’s, owned by the student. In the hospitals where I work (General Hospital of Zone No. 36 of the IMSS and General Hospital of Minatitlán) that are public, residents have all the means such as Internet to carry out their academic care work.
We use ICT a lot, whether for conferences
The new insurance doctors will be different from “the old ones.” The simple fact of living in confinement due to the pandemic, implying that they suddenly cut their studies, has made them approach learning issues in different ways. New doctors have to face a “new normal” that we may not know what it will be like once we try to return to the life we had every day. Telemedicine is undoubtedly a tool that has accelerated its use and it seems that it will continue in various ways. They will have to get used to teaching and learning in new formats, but at this point, the fact of reaching the comprehensive review of a patient live and in-person should be landed (see Section 4).
Alemán Bermúdez IJ, Vera León E, Patiño Torres MJ. COVID-19 and medical education: Virtuality from the perspective of the teacher and the student of higher education. Internal Medicine, Medical Education and Community 2020;36(3):116–123
UNAM School of Medicine. Post-COVID-19 medical education [Video Archive]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsytNWRtOdA [Accessed: 21 April 2021]
UNAM School of Medicine. Challenges of medical education in times of COVID-19: Institutional decisions in the face of the pandemic [Video Archive]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGhn-fW2424 [Accessed: 1 September 2020]
TecSalud. Best practices in medical education in time of COVID-19 [Video File]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olaDLOBaf7U [Accessed: 7 July 2020]
National Academy of Medical Education. Medical education, from face-to-face to virtual in times of contingency [Video Archive]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmmCBSLCNvI [Accessed: 4 June 2020]
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Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"63322",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80355",title:"Challenges to Hygiene Improvement in Developing Countries",slug:"challenges-to-hygiene-improvement-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:2647,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Hygiene is defined as conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease. Hygiene has been shown to reduce diarrheal diseases and assist to improve social outcomes in the community. Improving hygiene faces several problems especially in countries with low income per capita of population. Currently, many developing countries already struggle to cope with consistent water shortages and rapid urbanization causing more pressure to limited resources which in turn result in poor hygienic practices in the communities. The common types of hygiene include personal hygiene, water hygiene, food hygiene, and hygiene during waste handling. Different nongovernmental and governmental organizations face different challenges in achieving high levels of hygiene in communities. Some of these challenges include poverty, lack of political commitment, lack of full community participation, inadequate gender inclusion, inadequate data, lack of coordination among actors, and behavioral issues. To reduce these challenges, several measures have been proposed including community empowerment, pushing for equitable access to hygiene needs, advocating for political commitment, promoting gender equity, and enhancing youth involvement.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Save Kumwenda",authors:[{id:"233913",title:"Mr.",name:"Save",middleName:null,surname:"Kumwenda",slug:"save-kumwenda",fullName:"Save Kumwenda"}]},{id:"52475",doi:"10.5772/65462",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8239,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"75646",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96039",title:"Neurological Complications in COVID-19: Implications on International Health Security and Possible Interventions of Phytochemicals",slug:"neurological-complications-in-covid-19-implications-on-international-health-security-and-possible-in",totalDownloads:266,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Global health security or international health security (IHS) includes any natural or man-made phenomenon that challenged human health and well-being including emerging infectious diseases such as the current global pandemic: COVID-19. Since the sudden outburst of COVID-19 pandemic in 2019, many COVID-19 patients have exhibited neurological symptoms and signs. Till now, there is no known effective established drug against the highly contagious COVID-19 infection despite the frightening associated mortality rate. This chapter aims to present the mechanism of action of coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the clinical neurological manifestations displayed by COVID-19 patients, impact on the global health system and present phytochemicals with neuroprotective ability that can offer beneficial effects against COVID-19 mediated neuropathology. Reports from COVID-19 clinical studies, case reports, and other related literature were evaluated. Neurological complications of COVID-19 include anosmia, acute cerebrovascular disease, acute disseminated post-infectious encephalomyelitis, encephalitis, etc. Also, SARS-CoV-2 соuld be a neurotropic vіruѕ due to its iѕоlаtіоn from сеrеbrоѕріnаl fluіd. Multірlе nеurоlоgісаl dаmаgе displayed by COVID-19 patients might be due to hyperinflammation associated with SARS-CoV-2 infections. Kolaviron, resveratrol, vernodalin, vernodalol, and apigenin are natural phytochemicals with proven anti-inflammatory and therapeutic properties that could extenuate the adverse effects of COVID-19. The phytochemicals have been documented to suppress JNK and MAPK pathways which are essential in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. They also showed significant inhibitory activities against SARS-CoV-2 main protease. Taken together, these phytochemicals may offer neuroprotective benefits against COVID-19 mediated neuropathology and suppress the burden of the pandemic on IHS.",book:{id:"10624",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-2",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",fullTitle:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security - Volume 2"},signatures:"Johnson Olaleye Oladele, Oluwaseun Titilope Oladele, Oyedotun M. Oyeleke and Adenike T. Oladiji",authors:[{id:"335880",title:"Dr.",name:"Johnson Olaleye",middleName:null,surname:"Oladele",slug:"johnson-olaleye-oladele",fullName:"Johnson Olaleye Oladele"},{id:"342648",title:"Mrs.",name:"Oluwaseun Titilope",middleName:null,surname:"Oladele",slug:"oluwaseun-titilope-oladele",fullName:"Oluwaseun Titilope Oladele"},{id:"342649",title:"Prof.",name:"Adenike T.",middleName:null,surname:"Oladiji",slug:"adenike-t.-oladiji",fullName:"Adenike T. Oladiji"},{id:"346531",title:"Dr.",name:"Oyedotun M.",middleName:null,surname:"Oyeleke",slug:"oyedotun-m.-oyeleke",fullName:"Oyedotun M. Oyeleke"}]},{id:"63191",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80392",title:"Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya",slug:"household-water-handling-practices-in-the-arid-and-semi-arid-lands-in-kenya",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Utilisation of water from unimproved water sources coupled with inadequate access to sanitation can adversely affect human health. This study undertaken from November 2014 to March, 2015 sought to assess the household water handling practices and relate them to the prevalent diseases in Baringo Central and South, Kenya. A Household sanitary survey was conducted and questionnaires were administered to 100 household heads within the study area. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that 72% of the households (n = 100) collected water for cooking and drinking from the water pans. Only 34% of the households treated water commonly using boiling (19%), filtration with cloth (2%), chlorine (11%) before using it for drinking. There was a positive correlation between methods used in accessing water from drinking water storage containers and water related diseases prevalent in the study area (p < 0.05). Household drinking water in the study area did not meet the WHO drinking water quality guidelines mainly due to poor handling practices at the household level. There is a need to promote water, sanitation and hygiene campaigns in the study area to prevent water related diseases at the household level.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Edith J. Kurui, George M. Ogendi, Wilkister N. Moturi\nand Dishon O. Nyawanga",authors:[{id:"78236",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilkister",middleName:null,surname:"Moturi",slug:"wilkister-moturi",fullName:"Wilkister Moturi"},{id:"234029",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Edith",middleName:"Jepchirchir",surname:"Kurui",slug:"edith-kurui",fullName:"Edith Kurui"},{id:"247927",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Ogendi",slug:"george-ogendi",fullName:"George Ogendi"},{id:"247930",title:"Mr.",name:"Dishon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyawanga",slug:"dishon-nyawanga",fullName:"Dishon Nyawanga"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"73634",title:"Supply Chain Management and Restart of Economy in Post COVID-19",slug:"supply-chain-management-and-restart-of-economy-in-post-covid-19",totalDownloads:741,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The increase in World Trade has led to significant growth in world GDP over last 100 years particularly. Supply chains have become the major enablers of world trade and the world is connected through supply chains. Any disruptions in any part of the world has led to disruptions in supply chains and economic recessions. Crisis like Tsunamis, earthquakes, 911 terror attacks, epidemics/pandemics like COVID-19 etc. have affected the businesses worldwide. COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated economic crisis due to disruption of supply chains and suppressed demand for many products and services worldwide. International Monetary Fund (IMF) has projected global economic growth to be negative 4.9%. This economic crisis has resulted in substantial erosion of market capitalization across the globe. The impact of COVID-19 is very significant on both health of the people and economy worldwide. Almost all businesses and governments are trying its best to save people from health and economic crisis. This requires rebuilding of supply chains through appropriate configuration with reliable sources of supply, collaboration, manufacturing and distribution of goods and services. Sectors like essential items, pharmaceutical, e-commerce have started early recovery of economy. However, other sectors require suitable interventions from government, business organizations in their policies and practices and use of digital technologies for economic recovery.",book:{id:"10624",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-2",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",fullTitle:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security - Volume 2"},signatures:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti, Sagar Galwankar and Akilesh Sai Saddikuti Venkat",authors:[{id:"292211",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Venkataramanaiah",middleName:null,surname:"Saddikuti",slug:"venkataramanaiah-saddikuti",fullName:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti"},{id:"293168",title:"Dr.",name:"Sagar C.",middleName:null,surname:"Galwankar",slug:"sagar-c.-galwankar",fullName:"Sagar C. Galwankar"},{id:"321650",title:"Mr.",name:"Akilesh Sai",middleName:null,surname:"S V",slug:"akilesh-sai-s-v",fullName:"Akilesh Sai S V"}]},{id:"63707",title:"Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries",slug:"drinking-water-treatment-and-challenges-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:7979,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Safe drinking water remains inaccessible to many humans in the developing countries. Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"74995",title:"Death Penalty: A Human Rights Issue for South Africa",slug:"death-penalty-a-human-rights-issue-for-south-africa",totalDownloads:624,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In South Africa, the death penalty has been repealed just after the arrival of democracy in 1994. At present, due to numerous daily murders, especially farm murders, this issue is being debated once again seriously – by ordinary citizens, politicians, theologians, and others. In the media, in particular, it gets a lot of attention and in view of the extent of violent crime in our country, the reinstatement of the death penalty is again supported by many. The death penalty as such will always be contentious because it is about the reasoned termination of someone’s life – which is a radical act. Between 2009 and 2013 I did research on the death penalty in South African prisons (the first of its kind as far as we could determine), in all 9 our country’s provinces. The content of this study, gathered from 467 convicted murderers, and several other core aspects of why the reinstatement of the death penalty particularly in South Africa, should not be an option, will be discussed with reference to supporting international and authoritative research.",book:{id:"9537",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",fullTitle:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World"},signatures:"Chris Jones",authors:[{id:"274281",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Jones",slug:"chris-jones",fullName:"Chris Jones"}]},{id:"63322",title:"Challenges to Hygiene Improvement in Developing Countries",slug:"challenges-to-hygiene-improvement-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:2642,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Hygiene is defined as conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease. Hygiene has been shown to reduce diarrheal diseases and assist to improve social outcomes in the community. Improving hygiene faces several problems especially in countries with low income per capita of population. Currently, many developing countries already struggle to cope with consistent water shortages and rapid urbanization causing more pressure to limited resources which in turn result in poor hygienic practices in the communities. The common types of hygiene include personal hygiene, water hygiene, food hygiene, and hygiene during waste handling. Different nongovernmental and governmental organizations face different challenges in achieving high levels of hygiene in communities. Some of these challenges include poverty, lack of political commitment, lack of full community participation, inadequate gender inclusion, inadequate data, lack of coordination among actors, and behavioral issues. To reduce these challenges, several measures have been proposed including community empowerment, pushing for equitable access to hygiene needs, advocating for political commitment, promoting gender equity, and enhancing youth involvement.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Save Kumwenda",authors:[{id:"233913",title:"Mr.",name:"Save",middleName:null,surname:"Kumwenda",slug:"save-kumwenda",fullName:"Save Kumwenda"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"277",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"