\r\n\tFrom practice to a mathematical and technological application, scheduling has become another form of art: an algorithmic art, declined in as many OS and hardware constraints, from embedded systems onboard an aircraft or a spacecraft to databases in all financial and Internet servers.
\r\n\tThey have become ubiquitous so that a large part of our civilisational development is supported by their reliability, redundancy, and optimisation capacity. Like all of our civilisational assets, they are benefiting from scientific breakthrough in computational sciences such as evolutionary algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, and quantum computing. If not by using it, by being in need of adapting to the next generation of computing. Space development is also bringing new challenges, especially in redundancy and reliability.
Crystallization is the process where the molecules or tiny ice crystal are attached to each other to produce bigger formation of molecule or ice layer. Large cluster is stable compared to the smaller cluster as most of the molecules are far from the surface of the solution. It starts to form at the center of the cluster and slowly spread to the outward part of the cluster [1].
\nBesides, crystallization happens when there is phase change from the liquid to solid or crystalline form. This process happens when concentration of the solute already exceeds the equilibrium concentration or known as the supersaturated solution. The solution provides the driving force for the process and develops the growth of the particle but it not always develops the crystallization process because the supersaturated solution might be in metastable state. The process will happen when the limit of metastable has reached the limit and it depends on the kinetics system [2].
\nNucleation is the process that happens in the crystallization process and it can be divided into few categories [2]. Ice nuclei appear at the solid surface when the fusion of heat is transferred by the conduction toward the cooled surface. By this time, the thin film starts to grow thicker until the ice crystal layer is formed. Most of the nuclei are developed in the high supersaturation and it attaches to form the ice crystal [3].
\nActivated process is known as nucleation because there is a barrier that the growing nucleus needs to be defeated [4]. The nucleation phenomenon is widely known in most aspects of science. Besides, it normally occurs at the beginning of the form of the ice crystal, snow, volcanic and the rainfall [5]. The nucleation process can be divided into a few parts as a different process has different conditions. Other than that, it is important to understand more detail about the formation of ice for the nucleation and the supercooling condition in a science and technology field [6].
\nThe supersaturated state achieved is the first step considered in the crystallization process. For supersaturation condition itself are not sufficient for a system to crystallize. The crystal needs to grow where new crystallization centers must exist in the solution. This formation of one phase in another, under conditions where a free energy barrier exists, is known as nucleation [1].
\nNucleation is a random process which in two same situations or system nucleation will happen at a different time [4, 7]. Generally, the theory introduces in describing this phenomenon include its nature and behavior of the new thermodynamic phase is called classical nucleation theory (CNT). On the other hand, the experimental result of vapor to liquid nucleation cannot be described using CNT include the Argon by a few orders of magnitude for model substances [8].
\nFor the formation of ice in the water below 0°C, if the system not changing with time and the nucleation occurs in one step. Thus, the probability of nucleation happens is denied through exponential decay as seen in radioactive decay. This scenario can be seen in the nucleation of ice in supercooled [9]. Another example is the self-organization process that forms like amyloid assembly associated with Alzheimer’s diseases which the self-assemble system by the energy consumed such as microtubules in cells are referred to the nucleation and growth [10].
\nThere are two types of nucleation namely the homogeneous or spontaneous nucleation and heterogeneous nucleation. This phenomenon happens when nuclei are formed perfectly in a clean solution where there are no any foreign particles. In any practical situation the presence of foreign particles includes impurity molecules, dust particles or ions refer to the heterogeneous nucleation. Both the nucleation process classified as primary nucleation [11].
\nBesides, primary nucleation refers to the early formation of a crystal in absence of any other crystal or it will not affect or influence the process if there any presence of crystal in a system that will happen in two conditions as stated above. In homogenous nucleation, the nucleation is not affected by solids and this include walls of crystallizer vessel and particles of any substance [12]. While the second one is the heterogeneous nucleation caused by the increasing rate of nucleation by the presence of other substance of solid particles would otherwise not be seen without the existence of these foreign particles [13].
\nFor homogeneous nucleation, it is rarely happening because higher energy is needed to start the nucleation with the absence of solid particles. Primary nucleation has been modeled with the following power-law expression.
\n\nEq. (1) shows that the nucleation requires the rate constant, the instantaneous solute concentration, the concentration at the saturation phase and the empirical exponent which is generally ranges between 3 and 4.
\nBasically, primary nucleation theories can be used to study the metastable zone width (MSZW) data and kinetic of nucleation for the crystallization process. MSZW is explained as the gap of supersaturation between the supersolubility curve and solubility curve. The kinetics of primary nucleation of NaNO3 for fractional crystallization process of high saline wastewater had been studied by Bian et al. MSZW of NaNO3 was analyzed based on different stirring rate, present of seed crystals and cooling rate by using ultrasonic velocity sensor [14].
\nThe development of nuclei which refer to the influential of microscopic crystals in the magma is the phenomenon of secondary nucleation [15]. This nucleation happens when the crystal growth is introduced with a contact of other existing crystal or “seeds” [16]. For example, under a certain condition fluid shear forces are sufficient to produce secondary nuclei from an existing crystal surface [17]. Fluid shear nucleation happens when the fluid passes through the crystal with higher speed, sweep away the nuclei that would otherwise be incorporated into a crystal. The scenario led to the formation of a new crystal by the “swept away” nuclei. This contact nucleation proves to be the most effective and common method in nucleation.
\nIn addition, this secondary nucleation depends on supersaturation. As stated Strickland-Constable that arises since the starting size distribution of potential secondary nuclei is depend on supersaturation. However, the particle produces at critical size ranged. This secondary nucleation has been performed in the agitated system that many been found in industrial crystallizers [18]. Sometimes, for needle breeding appear at high supersaturation where the dendrites may be expanding, or the needle is growing from existing crystal. As a result, when the crystal breaks the new centers for crystal growth are formed and this also refers to collision nucleation where arises from contact between two growing crystals or between a crystal with another solid surface [19].
\nThe second nucleation gives many advantages includes lower kinetic order and rate-proportional to supersaturation which allows easy control without unstable operation, the nucleation occurs at low supersaturation which the growth rate is optimal for good quality, lower energy needed where the crystal strike avoids the breaking existing crystal to form new crystal, and the quantitative fundamental have already been isolated and are being incorporated into practical [20]. The following model, although somewhat simplified, is often used to model secondary nucleation.
\nwhere k1 is a rate constant, MT is the suspension density, j is an empirical exponent that can range up to 1.5, and b is an empirical exponent that can range up to 5.
\nXue et al. stated that secondary nucleation is one of the main steps in the crystallization industrial. Most of the researchers are focused on the mechanism and the kinetics of the secondary nucleation of the aluminum hydroxide crystallization. Besides, it is related to the growth of the crystal process through the surface nucleation mechanism. Other than that, secondary nucleation is known as the removal-limited and chemical reaction controlled [21].
\nHomogeneous nucleation is known when the nucleation is occurring without any favorable nucleation sites. Normally, the nucleation process happens randomly as well as spontaneously. It requires supercooling or superheating for the medium and it happens in the inner of the uniform substance with more difficulty. There will be the formation of an interface at the boundaries of a new phase when the nucleus is formed. To start the nucleation process, the supercooled phase is needed where the liquids need to be cooled down to below the melting temperature which is the maximum temperature of homogeneous nucleation but in the same time, the liquid need to make sure that it above the freezing temperature (homogeneous nucleation temperature) [22].
\nWith the absence of external insoluble substance, supercooled water starts to nucleate homogeneously due to the variation temperature, density and pressure. This happens because of the endless formation of the ice cluster [23]. For homogeneous nucleation, after certain period of time when the nucleation begins, the crystals or bubbles are growing and become bigger and at the same time new crystal or bubble starts to nucleate. This can be shown through Figure 1.
\nSchematic diagram for transformation of homogeneous nucleation.
According to the Abyzov et al., they approach new way to predict the homogeneous nucleation rates of silicate glass by estimate the nucleation rates. This is because the temperature of glass transition is closed to the maximum homogeneous rate. By using this approach, they can avoid some serious problem but in the same time they could not solved the difference between the experimental nucleation rate and the Classical Nucleation Theory, CNT [24].
\nBesides, Gibbs free energy is needed to determine the critical radius for homogeneous nucleation and it can be shown in Eq. (3). To find out the critical radius and the critical free energy, the formula of the Gibbs free energy need to differentiate [25]. Eqs. (4) and (5) show the critical radius and critical free energy.
\nThe system can lower the free energy by the dissolution of the solid when the value of r is less than by \n
Heterogeneous nucleation happens more often compared to the homogeneous nucleation. It is applicable for the phase transformation between the two-phase like bubble formation, solidification and the condensation of the gas. Normally, this process happens at a favorable site such as surfaces of the container, impurities and phase boundaries. At these sites, the effectiveness of the surface energy is lower; therefore, it can ease the nucleation process and reduce the free energy barrier.
\nThe example of the heterogeneous nucleation is when the person is putting the finger into the carbonated water and the bubble is formed, this is because the surface of the finger is rougher compared to the surface of the container [26]. Besides, it happens when the ice nuclei at the lower temperature of supercooling [23]. For heterogeneous nucleation, after certain time when the nucleation starts to begin, the crystals or bubble only growing and become bigger and no new nucleation happens. Figure 2 shows the transformation for heterogeneous nucleation.
\nSchematic diagram for transformation of heterogeneous nucleation.
As stated by Fujinaga and Shibuta, athermal heterogeneous nucleation is the process where the onset of the free growth of the phase is controlling the grain initiation of the inoculated particles. The onset of free growth is dependent on the particle sizes and undercooling temperature. In molecular dynamic simulation MD, additional condition should be chosen carefully in order to fix the heterogeneous [27].
\nFor the heterogeneous nucleation process, the wetting will encourage the nucleation at the surfaces, thus the free energy is the same with the product of free energy for homogeneous and the contact angle (θ). Eq. (8) shows the free energy of the heterogeneous nucleation. It also has the critical radius and critical free energy and both of it can be shown through Eqs. (9) and (10).
\nTo calculate the heterogeneous nucleation rate, it requires several atoms that contact with the surface of the nucleating agent surface. Eqs. (11) and (12) show the formula for the number of atoms and nucleation rates for heterogeneous nucleation. With minor undercooling situation, the nucleation process is happening in the cracks. To ensure that the cracks are effective, the opening of the crack should be large enough as it needs to let the solid to grow out freely without bothering the radius of the solid is smaller than the critical radius [25].
\nThe crystallization process for super-cooled water will start when the ice cluster solid has been formed by the nucleation. The ice starts to grow when the nucleation process has happened. Apart from it, the initial nucleus interrupts the second ice layer to growth when the latent heat is released [23].
\nWater forms the ices by undergoing the freezing process and this phase transition happens widely in nature. It is hard to redo the freezing process to transform water into solid with the specific crystalline structure [28]. The study of the growth of the ice layer on the subcooled surface started early in the field of geography. According to the Neumann problem, the phase change of water supposed to be uniform in the early process at the subcooled surface like ice crystal start to appear as a thin film around the surface. The ice starts thicken in the perpendicular direction uniformly. Primary nucleation will not happen simultaneously at the surface during the onset of the freezing on the subcooled surface [29].
\nThe reaction of the ice particles in stratospheric clouds will change the halogen chemistry and at the same time, it helps to deplete the ozone layer. For the reactivity of the ice surface, it depends on its mobility or density as it is important to control the degree of the crystallinity and the structure of the ice film itself. To face this issue, ice film need to be grown well on the solid surfaces and use it as a tool to find out the reactions of the atmospheric. The structure of the ice film on the different hexagonal metal surface is sensitive to attach the energy to the metal and different structures of different transition metal surfaces [30].
\nFor the phase change, heat and mass transfer is an important part of the onset like freezing on the subcooled surface. It is because it can be a good opportunity for the engineering application [29] such as ice formation on the cryogenic surface [31] and the ice production using scraped-surface heat exchanger [32]. For a certain process, the mass flow rate of the injected vapor is used to calculate the ice layer growth rate which is forms on the plate. Normally, the ice layer grows until it reaches the critical thickness is considered as the outcome of the process. Film-wise condensation starts to occur on the surface of the ice layer when it reaches the critical thickness [31].
\nThe heat transfer coefficient in the scraped-surface heat exchanger without the phase change (ice growth) is three to five times smaller compared to the phase change. The torque for handle the scraper is increasing when the onset of ice growth is happening until the scrapper becomes frozen. Ice started to growth at stage II and stage III, where the ice particle from the nucleation takes place. The ice particle continuously freezes until it transforms into the ice crystal and the concentration of the mother liquor is increasing [33].
\nAs reviewed, the part of kinetics from the rate of nucleation gives a number of the water molecule which has a potential incorporated into the ice crystal [34]. The flux of water molecule that happens be incorporated with the ice crystal must be counted for nucleation rate estimation. The flux can be written as diffusive flux (Φ) and known as the Boltzmann distribution. The equation is expressed as below.
\nwhereas h refers to the Planck’s constant and Δg# is the activation energy for the transfer of a water molecule across the water-ice boundary. The Φ can also be introduced as the frequency at water molecules overcome at the activation energy [34], as for the collisions rate or the probability in breaking the bond and reassemble of molecular.
\nBesides, the second pre-factor stated as the Zeldovich factor (Z) is for the depletion of the cluster population caused by crystal production. This factor includes the non-equilibrium of the kinetics process which the value is between 10−2 and 1, where the value 1 considers as assumed equilibrium. As a result, in describing the expression for the Φ and the pre-factor Z the rate (K) for water molecule is transformed into ice crystal can be expressed as equation below;
\nwhereas \n
Most of the basic theories of the nucleation have been summarized in this chapter. The objective of this chapter is to introduce more about the primary, secondary, homogeneous, heterogeneous, ice growth and the kinetics of the nucleation. Even though the homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation can be called as part of the primary nucleation, both of it has different characteristic as both processes happen at different situation and time. Basically, homogeneous always nucleate new crystals while heterogeneous only focus on the growth of the crystals. Both nucleations can be analyzed through the kinetics of the nucleation and the ice growth of the crystals or bubbles.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research (CBBR) and also Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for the support.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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