CAS characteristics salient to classrooms and classroom learning.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1292",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress Response in Plants - Physiological, Biochemical and Genetic Perspectives",title:"Abiotic Stress Response in Plants",subtitle:"Physiological, Biochemical and Genetic Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Plants, unlike animals, are sessile. This demands that adverse changes in their environment are quickly recognized, distinguished and responded to with suitable reactions. Drought, heat, cold and salinity are among the major abiotic stresses that adversely affect plant growth and productivity. In general, abiotic stress often causes a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that unfavorably affect plant growth, development and productivity. Drought, salinity, extreme temperatures (cold and heat) and oxidative stress are often interrelated; these conditions singularly or in combination induce cellular damage. To cope with abiotic stresses, of paramount significance is to understand plant responses to abiotic stresses that disturb the homeostatic equilibrium at cellular and molecular level in order to identify a common mechanism for multiple stress tolerance. This multi authored edited compilation attempts to put forth an all-inclusive biochemical and molecular picture in a systems approach wherein mechanism and adaptation aspects of abiotic stress are dealt with. The chief objective of the book hence is to deliver state of the art information for comprehending the effects of abiotic stress in plants at the cellular level.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-672-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4449-6",doi:"10.5772/1762",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"abiotic-stress-response-in-plants-physiological-biochemical-and-genetic-perspectives",numberOfPages:360,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"413adc817779da2de38e680658caa45b",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",publishedDate:"August 29th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1292.jpg",numberOfDownloads:57927,numberOfWosCitations:219,numberOfCrossrefCitations:87,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:270,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:15,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:576,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 15th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 21st 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 21st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58592/images/1664_n.jpg",biography:"Arun K. Shanker is serving as a Principal Scientist (Plant Physiology) with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture in Hyderabad, India. He is working with the ICAR as a full time researcher since 1993 and has since earned his Advanced degree in Crop Physiology while in service. He has been awarded the prestigious Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC), by the Royal Society of Chemistry, London in 2015. Presently he is working on systems biology approach to study the mechanism of abiotic stress tolerance in crops. His main focus now is to unravel the mechanism of drought and heat stress response in plants to tackle climate change related threats in agriculture.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"153612",title:"Dr.",name:"Bandi",middleName:null,surname:"Venkateswarlu",slug:"bandi-venkateswarlu",fullName:"Bandi Venkateswarlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/153612/images/system/153612.jpg",biography:"Dr. B.Venkateswarlu has started his career as a Research Associate in ICRISAT\nin 1976 with biological nitrogen fixation as the initial research subject. He joined\nagricultural research service (ARS) of ICAR in 1977 and posted as Scientist S-1 at\nCentral Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur. He initiated research for the\nfirst time on desert microbiology and quantified the impact of sand dune stabilization\non soil microflora dynamics in the desert eco system. He also developed several\nstrains of nitrogen fixing and P-solubilizing microorganisms for arid legumes. He\nmoved to Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) in 1986 as\nSenior Scientist and pursued research in the areas of soil fertility management,\nbiofertilizers and bio-pesticides. He was appointed as Principal Production System\nScientist (PPSS) of the National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) in 2001in\nwhich he served upto 2006. Under this project, more than 100 production system\nresearch projects were coordinated by him in the rainfed agro-eco-system across the\ncountry. He joined as Head of the Division of Crop Sciences in 2006 and then\nappointed as Director of the Institute in July, 2008. He is now holding this research\nmanagement position directing and coordinating the research programmes of\nCRIDA on rainfed agriculture, two coordinated projects on Dryland Agriculture and\nAgrometeorology and one network project viz. Climate Change. His current areas\nof research include, rainfed agriculture, rural livelihoods, NRM and climate change.\nDr.Venkateswarlu is the follow of National Academy of Agricultural Sciences\n(NAAS), Fellow of Indian Society of Oilseeds Research, President of Indian Society\nof Dryland Agriculture Research, Member, New York Academy of Sciences and life\nmember of several Academic and Professional Societies in India. He is on the\nBoard of AP Horticulture University, Academic Council Member of MPKVV, Rahuri,\nSteering Committee member of Expert group on Integrated Watershed Management\nProject (IWMP) of Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India and Expert\nPanel Member of National Disaster Management Authority. He served as the\nMember of the Sub-group of ICAR to prepare the Mission on Sustainable Agriculture\nDocument under the National Action Plan on Climate Change. He visited several\ncountries on bilateral programmes and as scientific expert. He published over 100\nresearch papers, 10 books and holds one patent.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"385",title:"Plant Biology",slug:"plant-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"18465",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress Response Crosstalk in Plants",doi:"10.5772/23217",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-response-crosstalk-in-plants",totalDownloads:12740,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:77,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Saúl Fraire-Velázquez, Raúl Rodríguez-Guerra and Lenin Sánchez-Calderón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18465",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18465",authors:[{id:"51144",title:"Dr.",name:"Saul",surname:"Fraire",slug:"saul-fraire",fullName:"Saul Fraire"},{id:"60409",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",surname:"Rodríguez-Guerra",slug:"raul-rodriguez-guerra",fullName:"Raúl Rodríguez-Guerra"},{id:"97089",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenin",surname:"Sánchez-Calderón",slug:"lenin-sanchez-calderon",fullName:"Lenin Sánchez-Calderón"}],corrections:null},{id:"18466",title:"Reactive Oxygen in Abiotic Stress Perception - From Genes to Proteins",doi:"10.5772/24891",slug:"reactive-oxygen-in-abiotic-stress-perception-from-genes-to-proteins1",totalDownloads:3747,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Michael Wrzaczek, Julia P. 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E. Ogbureke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/753.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82914",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalu",surname:"Ogbureke",slug:"kalu-ogbureke",fullName:"Kalu Ogbureke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79753",title:"Classroom as Complex Adaptive System and the Emergence of Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101699",slug:"classroom-as-complex-adaptive-system-and-the-emergence-of-learning",body:'In this chapter, I discuss primary classroom pedagogy and assert that common portrayals of teaching and learning, particularly in media, policy, and some academic discourse, fall well short of capturing the complexity of what goes on in many classrooms. Traditional depictions of learning as linear, mechanistic, and in direct causal connection to teaching “input” remain dominant across education sectors, despite their failure to explain the unpredictable and uneven topography of pupil learning outcomes. Against this background, I argue that complex adaptive systems (CAS) theory may offer a useful non-linear alternative to the dominant linear, mechanistic thinking which dominates in many conceptions of school learning. In Section 2, I present the challenges and consequences of oversimplified conceptions of teaching and learning. In Section 3, I explain CAS theory and associated ideas in the context of education and explore arguments for and against applications of CAS thinking to classroom learning. In Section 4, I explore some pedagogical implications of conceptualizing classrooms and classroom learning through a CAS lens and discuss what these might mean for teachers.
There is widespread support in the literature for the view that primary classroom learning and teaching are not straightforward processes. Davis and Sumara [1] note that most teachers will attest to the unpredictability of learners’ responses to teaching. Eisner [2] described teaching as “an inordinately complex affair” and others, [3, 4, 5] have framed teachers’ roles in terms of managing uncertainty and problematizing unpredictability. Shulman [6] is unequivocal in describing teaching as “perhaps the most complex, most challenging, and most demanding, subtle, nuanced and frightening activity that our species ever invented”. Descriptions of the facilitation and elicitation of learning by teachers themselves [7, 8] also acknowledge the unpredictable, dynamic and often messy, uneven nature of learning, and Alexander et al. sum up the argument with the assertion that “one cannot begin to understand the true nature of human learning without embracing its interactional complexity [9].” The case for learning and teaching being far from straightforward is also captured succinctly by Schon, who described teachers’ work as operating in the “swampy lowlands” of everyday life. For him, “the problems of real-world practice do not present themselves to practitioners as well-formed structures. Indeed, they tend not to present themselves as problems at all but as messy indeterminate situations [10].” Considering this, it seems reasonable to suggest that what pupils learn in the context of school classrooms does not flow mechanistically from teachers’ input and is not entirely within the conscious control of either teachers or pupils. This is not to argue that learning is not a function of teaching, but that pupil learning must be driven by more than merely the influence of teachers and teaching. It seems reasonable to hypothesize that teaching input is filtered through a range of networked factors resulting in learning occurring sometimes because of, sometimes despite, and sometimes irrespective of what teachers do.
Notwithstanding these depictions of the complex nature of learning and teaching, including from teachers themselves, a popular portrayal in policy and public discourse runs counter to this, presenting teaching and learning as simple, linear, causal, and mechanistic activities [11] reflecting a technical rationalist view of the profession [12, 13]. In this conception, teachers simply apply instrumental “teaching” solutions to address well-formed “learning” problems. Discourse and national agendas concerning teaching, learning, pupil progress, curriculum, standards, and teacher professional development are typically driven by this input-output conception. In the dominant policy discourse, “outstanding” teaching is often narrowly defined as the meticulous planning of lessons to meet specific, predetermined objectives [14] and despite years of reform in the UK and comparable education systems, the language of policy [15] still partially depicts a transmission and absorption notion of teaching and learning. This leads to the popular notion that if teaching is “outstanding” learning will (or should) be too. Tessellating policies of national testing, league tables, school inspection, and teacher competency descriptors firmly position teachers as the lynchpins [16] of pupil progress with the consequence that they are routinely held accountable for a phenomenon (learning) which appears to be only partially within their control.
This technical rationalist positioning of teaching alludes to an absorption and output conception of learning and learners. However, the pupil end of any learning and teaching relationship is no less complex than the teaching end. In any given school classroom “the persistence of inequities in student achievement [17]” speaks to a range of factors influencing learning. These include inherited and environmental predispositions such as cognitive ability, personality, confidence, task commitment, and risk-taking tendencies along with influences from home and school ecosystems. More ephemeral factors influencing volition such as social dynamics, nutrition, mood, and even weather may also play a part. Research from several paradigms offers insights into learner factors and their effects on learning outcomes. Bronfenbrenner’s [18] Ecological systems theory, for example, presents a framework for describing community and environmental influences on individuals. According to the model, interaction with other individuals and institutions across five levels of systems (from micro to chrono) shapes the individual’s growth, learning, and development. These include family, peer group, school, media, and health care policies for example. Research into the emergence of gifts and talents in school-age learners [19, 20] has highlighted common elements, which typically correlate with high performance, including general cognitive ability, environment, personality, self-confidence, and chance. Numerous studies from the field of psychology [21, 22, 23, 24] illustrate how personality influences readiness to learn and learning outcomes. Common findings suggest that the long-established “Big Five” personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) interact in statistically significant ways with learning. Studies of class emotion and mood [25, 26, 27] reveal how pupil interactions, on/off-task behaviors, and learning can be influenced by interpersonal features including regulation, negotiation, and resistance. Despite wide-ranging acknowledgment across multiple disciplines that learning is influenced by a complex array of converging and mutually interacting factors (those mentioned above and many not mentioned e.g. working memory, self-efficacy, parents’ education, personal health, and cultural expectations to name a few), its depiction remains largely characterized in public discourse by the receiving and remembering of information and the mastery of a set of skills. This is evidenced most clearly in the way that policy developments in the United Kingdom, and comparable education systems, over the last 20 years have striven to routinize teaching.
It is against this landscape, in which teaching and learning are characterized quite differently in policy and media to how teachers and pupils experience them, and how research frames them, that this discussion chapter sits. I have previously suggested [28] there is a need for more accurate depictions of teachers’ work and its relationship to pupils’ learning. As Hardman [29] points out, there has been a failure of simple causal explanations to adequately account for the complexities of school and classroom learning, because, according to Davis & Sumara learning tends to “defy simplistic analyses and cause-effect explanations [1]”. Complex adaptive systems (CAS) theories may offer valuable insights about ways that learning emerges in classrooms and my hope is that advancing this discussion will contribute to unpicking current over-simplified thinking about teaching and learning and offer new perspectives on pedagogy.
A less reductionist, less mechanistic, more accurate depiction of classroom teaching and learning will necessarily acknowledge their complexity. The framework of complexity theory (an umbrella term applied to the analysis of a range of dynamic, non-linear systems) is a transdisciplinary theoretical framework presenting a non-linear, non-mechanistic scheme through which to view change within systems. Emerging originally from disciplines such as computer science, cybernetics, chaos theory, and the natural sciences [30, 31, 32], complexity theory has been applied to the natural sciences since the 1950s, and to the social sciences for approximately the last 30 years, as a tool for understanding systems containing multiple agents (in the case of classrooms: pupils, teachers, ideas, environment) whose adaptation, development or change (classroom system learning) is resistant to explanation using the traditional scientific method, or as Newell puts it, “phenomena resistant to reductionist analysis [33].” Complexity theory breaks with linear, causal, or deterministic explanatory frameworks [34], rejecting a version of reality in which “a knowledge of inputs is adequate to predict outputs [1]”. Complexity theory distinguishes between systems that are merely complicated and systems that are complex. Complicated systems, such as clocks or engines, have many moving, interacting parts that behave in centralized, repetitive, predictable ways. They remain consistent over time. In contrast, complex systems display less predictable, bottom-up, emergent, and non-linear behaviors, because the elements constantly and mutually affect one another [35]. Central to the behavior of complex systems (and therefore to this discussion) are the concepts of self-organization and emergence. Complex systems are said to have self-organizing properties, meaning that they are not centrally governed or controlled, instead of individual agents in the system act with degrees of autonomy, through local decision-making. From these autonomous actions patterns of coherent, aggregate behaviors form across the system from the bottom-up; this is referred to as emergence. My contention in this chapter is that to some extent learning can be said to have emergent qualities and that complexity may provide a framework for depicting and explaining elements of classroom learning which are routinely omitted by mechanistic portrayals of classroom teaching and learning.
Complexity theory has been employed as a lens through which to analyze systems in and of education for a little under three decades now exploring a range of aspects including curriculum [36, 37, 38, 39], educational research [1, 40, 41, 42], purposes of schooling [43], educational change [44, 45] and the philosophy of education [46]. A limited range of empirical studies have been undertaken into areas including school interventions [47], non-linear modeling for education systems [48, 49], and agent-based studies at system, school and classroom levels [50, 51, 52]. Since complexity theory is still a novel framework in education, support for the application of a complexity lens to classroom learning is currently limited but growing. A number of studies have examined classrooms, focusing on links between classroom systems and complexity characteristics, analoging pupil interactivity with the non-linear, ensemble agent behavior characteristic of complex systems. My justification for framing the primary classroom as complex draws on these accounts which suggest that complexity has useful applications in the analysis of classrooms and classroom learning.
Systems that adapt themselves through complex emergence are described as complex adaptive systems (CAS). Typical examples from the natural sciences include ant colonies, insect swarms, or clouds, and city traffic is an example often cited from the human social sciences. In each case, patterns of complex aggregate behaviors emerge through the mutually self-interested actions of individual agents following simple rules. The system “learns” and adapts itself through the network of agent interactions without top-down control from any central authority. CAS is said to function more bottom-up than top-down. Whilst descriptions of CAS properties in the literature across multiple domains overlap considerably, the lack of any unified CAS field of study, a single body of literature, or agreed nomenclature has proved an impediment to achieving a universally applicable framing in the social sciences. As Sullivan points out, “it seems every theorist has his or her own list of characteristics, qualifying properties, or optimal conditions for complex adaptive systems, each slightly different from the next [53]”. Some have attempted to consolidate divergent definitions into more generalizable interpretations for CAS [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58], however, even in synthesized forms, there is a considerable divergence from one framing to the next. Some theorists [1, 29, 33, 40, 44, 46, 53, 59, 60] have drawn on framings from complexity sciences to describe and discuss features of CAS in the field of education, though here too, no consensus exists about how to frame CAS.
The question of whether a school classroom is a CAS has been studied and discussed by some [29, 53, 59] including me [61] with mixed, but indefinite, conclusions, which depend largely on the CAS definition used and the organizing principles at work in the classroom. I have previously acknowledged [61, 62] that a primary classroom is not a CAS as originally conceived in the natural or computational sciences. However, along with others, I maintain that classrooms have sufficient CAS-like characteristics to warrant using a CAS framing to seek otherwise tacit insights about the nature of classroom learning. The most significant voices concerned with CAS thinking and education (Davis [1, 63, 64], Sumara [1], Mason [44, 45], Morrison [46], Sullivan [53] to name some) agree that caution should be exercised when attempting to conceive of the school classroom as a CAS, or equating emergence with learning. Analogies were taken from complexity science on radically emergent systems, for example, insect swarms, suggests that a classroom organized along similar principles would maximize knowledge sharing between pupils, have little by way of top-down leadership, prioritize individual self-interest and investigate questions to which neither pupils nor teachers know the answer. This is contrary to how most classrooms operate, whereby teachers exercise central executive control, pupil to pupil knowledge sharing may be considered cheating and the teacher tends to know “the answer”. Whilst complexity offers “intriguing and generative metaphor(s)” for the classroom system [33], there are obvious limitations to such analogies. Despite some reservations, however, there is agreement among those who have examined learning through a complexity lens (Davis [1, 63, 64], Newell [33], Sullivan [53], Hardman [29] in particular) that instruction alone does not cause learning and that there are, as yet unearthed insights about learning which a CAS framing may elicit.
Whilst no two definitions of CAS in the literature align exactly, there are certain characteristics I deem to be most relevant to school classrooms that appear repeatedly in CAS definitions, shown in Table 1. These form the core framework for this discussion of emergent learning. Based on these criteria, a complex adaptive classroom system is one containing multiple autonomous, interacting pupils, whose inter-relationships create networked, self-organized, non-linear behaviors from which change (learning) emerges at different levels (individual, small groups, whole class).
CAS criteria | Definition |
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Self-organization | Individual agents acting with sufficient autonomy to determine their own actions/interactions/behaviors |
| |
| |
| |
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Emergence | Organized patterns of synergistic behaviors which aggregate bottom-up across the system as a result of agent self-organization |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Non-linearity | Information moves between agents via feedback loops and signals, therefore causality is not linear but networked and recursive |
| |
| |
| |
Transcend their components | Exhibit properties not manifest in individual agents; systems that learn; learning is more than the sum of the system parts |
|
CAS characteristics salient to classrooms and classroom learning.
Complexivist educational researchers have explored ways in which characteristics of school classrooms overlap with descriptions of CAS, pointing out strengths and weaknesses in the comparison. Burns and Knox [65] compared De Bot et al.’s [66] descriptions of the development of complex systems over time, with their own analysis of classrooms. They found a number of correlations, including that both consists of sets of interacting variables (pupils, teachers, resources, environment), both had unpredictable outcomes (learning outcomes, critical incidents), both are part of and connected to other systems (family, institutional, community), both are sensitive to initial conditions, meaning that small changes or incidents can result in large differences over time and both develop through interaction and through internal self-organization. These qualities produce the inherent instability which predisposes classroom systems to emergent change over time. Davis and Sumara [1] posit that to really understand the dynamics of the classroom it is necessary to stop thinking linearly, a point which is supported and explained, with reference to how the social world behaves, by Byrne [67] who asserts that outcomes are determined by multiple causes moving in non-linear ways. Typical classroom examples of this are the multiple factors that might determine whether a pupil contributes verbally or not to a class discussion. These might include (though are not limited to) peer pressure, personal ambition, knowledge of an answer, fear of failure, confidence level, social status, degree of interest, or desire to go to lunch. If the classroom is a CAS, one would also expect these factors to interact with one another and exert influence over other pupils indirectly (“if my neighbor keeps quiet I will speak up/keep quiet; if my neighbor speaks up I will compete to speak first/keep quiet”) making causality non-linear, an argument which most teachers would not find it difficult to make. The point here is that classrooms consist of more than simply 30 separate linear interactions between teachers and pupils. Pupils influence one another in multiple visible and invisible ways making it difficult to trace the antecedent(s) of any given event or outcome.
Arguing that classrooms display CAS behaviors, Guanglu [68] points to the non-linear, recursive nature of teaching and learning, in which pupils’ and teachers’ interconnections produce continuous recursions of understanding, interpretation, re-understanding, and reinterpretation. Teaching and learning do not always follow this pattern, in fact, the linear transmission of information remains common in many classrooms and arguments for more direct instruction are currently strengthening [69, 70, 71]. However, some degree of openness and randomness are characteristic of even in the most tightly controlled classrooms and at times learning can take on forms more akin to “mutual fertilization, pollination [and] active catalytic(s) [38]”. Guanglu suggests that this mutuality is seen in the experience, commonly reported by teachers, of gaining a new or better understanding of the subject matter they are teaching, through the act of teaching it [68]. Support for conceptualizing school classrooms as CAS also comes from Hardman [29] who asserts that sudden or unanticipated emergence of novel outputs in classroom activity is inevitable, partly due to the internal diversity of classrooms, including the uniqueness of individual pupils’ (and teachers’) brains. Novelties might include sudden realizations, moments of inspiration, original ideas or solutions derived from collaborative experimentation. Diversity is a theme which Davis and Sumara [1] pick up. They suggest that differences, counterpoints, and asymmetries between agents within a system cause the very perturbations from which self-organization and emergence originate. Diversity in this sense does not refer to demographic identity differences (race, gender, etc), but to the myriad tangible, intangible, perceptible, and imperceptible differences which exist between human beings which in the classroom may cause differences in perspective, motivation, intent, action or utterance. These might include, personality traits, personal histories, family environment, inherited traits, self-esteem, self-confidence, or mood. In a CAS, internal diversity is one factor that helps maintain a system’s vibrancy and promote adaptation, keeping it far from equilibrium. In the context of a primary classroom this is seen in the way that given sufficient autonomy, pupil interactions rarely follow prescribed pathways or result in predictable outcomes. Collisions between individual diversities create collisions between ideas and perspectives which in turn creates the pluriform, entangled messiness so evident to teachers. From the mess, however, novelty and innovation often emerge.
A few suggestions are evident in these descriptions which lend support to the framing of classrooms as CAS. Firstly, that classrooms, like other CAS, have many moving parts which, given sufficient opportunity to interact, will produce productive instability. Secondly, that instability is causally connected to learning insomuch as randomness changes interactive behaviors and injects novelty, which can qualitatively change learning states. Thirdly, there is an implication that even in classrooms characterized by linear transmission and high degrees of centralized teacher control, openness is inevitable to some degree. Described in these accounts of classrooms and adding some legitimacy to comparisons with descriptions of CAS, are factors beyond, or resistant to, control. Despite the structure of organized schooling, the structure of the curriculum, and the necessary order imposed by teachers, diversities reveal themselves when pupils enjoy sufficient autonomy and openness in the classroom system and this creates opportunities for unpredictability and non-linear change. An example of non-linear emergent learning is evident in the common understanding that alongside the top-down influence of the teacher, pupils also influence and change one another through mutual self-influence [63]. The flow of content, explanation, and questioning does not only travel unidirectionally from teacher to pupils and result in the development of neat predictable knowledge, understanding, and skills. Alexander et al. point out that “change that happens in the learner, be it dramatic or imperceptible, or immediate, or gradual exerts a reciprocal effect on the learner’s surroundings [9]”. This depiction offers a strong positive comparison between classrooms and CAS, implying that there is also a flow of information and influence between pupils, towards the classroom environment and climate and, presumably, back towards the teacher as well. This suggests that as pupils change, they also change one another, the teacher and their surroundings, including the environment, through their mutual interconnectedness, much like the behavior of a CAS. Davis and Sumara refer to this phenomenon when stating that complex systems, such as classrooms, are systems that learn. Within such systems, they suggest
This means that in a classroom, change (learning) is unlikely to only unfold entirely as intended or directed by the structures of organized schooling, the curriculum, or the teacher. The system and its constituent agents will also adapt and change in ways not predicted or intended by those governing structures. This is evident in the common occurrence of classroom ethos, culture, and atmosphere changing over the course of a week, month, term, semester, or academic year. Such changes are behavioral, relational, environmental, and knowledge-based and can be felt by pupils and teachers in the dynamics of the classroom system. The system adapts because the collective adapts. Groups adapt because individuals adapt. Haggis suggests that emergence is always unpredictable to some extent, stating that “what emerges will depend on what interacts, which is at least partly determined by chance encounters and changes in environments [41].” This supports Biesta’s point [72] that learning cannot be reliably predicted but is a retrospective judgment. A principal learning characteristic of classrooms according to complexivists is their tendency towards self-organization and self-maintenance, what Sullivan [53] refers to as “adapt[ing] of their own accord.” Some degree of self-organization is inevitable in any system which is not entirely mechanistic and deterministic and since wholly determining the opinions, predilections, desires, impulses, thoughts, and behaviors of groups of pupils is impossible (not to mention undesirable), the tendency for self-organization to exert an influence on classrooms is understandable.
It is necessary to ask, however, to what extent this phenomenon can be said to positively influence learning. In a CAS such as an ant colony, immune system, or decentralized finance block-chain, the self-organization and its concomitant adaptation is the learning. The fluctuation and interaction of many agents (be they ants or genes) all influencing one another, all influencing the system and being influenced by it, produces change that exceeds the individual possibilities of the agents. However, this analogy does not translate perfectly into school classrooms because, as Biesta [72] points out, education is not a morally neutral activity, but a purposeful, values-orientated one, and because of this, what is learned matters. He argues that describing learning as whatever emerges as a result of classroom interactions ignores the fact that education exists so that people learn something, not just anything. This argument fits with assertions from others [42, 73] that a CAS framework has considerable limitations when analyzing classroom learning because classroom learning is goal-orientated and has prescribed directions in which teachers must steer all pupils. As Kuhn puts it
These descriptions of the purposes of education are demonstrably incompatible with depictions of CAS, in which higher complexities may emerge as a consequence of agents operating individually out of mutual self-interest. Kuhn goes on to state “complexity merely describes, whereas education aims to make a difference [42]”. A consequence of this purposefulness that characterizes education (and which distinguishes it from learning in the general sense) is the centralized control of the teacher. Teachers impose expectations and structures on classroom activity and do so in the interest of curricular aims and purposes. Biesta [72] describes how this introduces “an asymmetrical element into the educational process” which is “one of the main reasons why educational learning is radically different from collective, interactive, explorative learning”. Without the imposition of purposive structures, the likelihood of emergent learning aligning with curriculum aims is low and the risk that nothing of curricular value will be learned, potentially high. Individuals in a classroom system are not all equal and teachers do not permit pupils to behave out of self-interest, for good reason. Ramussen agrees that educational learning has “special intentions in mind” [74], describing teaching as a “social arrangement and organization aimed at intensifying possibilities for learning and the results of learning”. The absence of any overarching “special intentions” in a CAS found in nature or in human systems at a great scale, such as cities or economies, weakens the case for classrooms being viewed as CAS. Sullivan’s study [53] illustrates this. Examining three different lessons (a music class, a mathematics class, and an English class) through a CAS lens, he noted that not all the classrooms displayed complex adaptive behaviors. He suggests that a key factor in whether a classroom can usefully be classified as a CAS is whether adaptations within the system are triggered by the teacher or by the collective. If the teacher orchestrates all or most responses to daily events (snow days, timetable changes, pupil absence) with little involvement from the pupils, then adaptations cannot be described as bottom-up. In concluding he states
Radford [40] bridges arguments for and against comparisons between classrooms and CAS using a metaphoric continuum between what he refers to as “clockishness” and “cloudishness”. He draws on Popper’s assertion [75] that all systems can be viewed on a continuum between deterministic, reducible, and predictable (clockish) on one hand, and indeterminate, unpredictable, and open (cloudish) on the other. Radford’s contention is that even the most deterministic systems, such as clocks, have degrees of unpredictability, and that likewise, the most open and unpredictable systems, such as clouds, have some degree of predictability. Viewed at sufficient resolution, a clock will reveal its lack of mechanistic causality and a cloud will reveal its causalities. All phenomena, according to Radford, can be thought of as having degrees of both “clockishness” and “cloudishness”. The question is, which is the most useful or accurate explanatory framework for depicting a given system. Some researchers have attempted to describe the “cloudish” features of classrooms and how exploring them might lead to new insights about classrooms and classroom teaching and learning. Semetsky for example presents a radical vision of a self-organized classroom, characterized by decentralized control, pupil autonomy, and an absence of direct instruction. She posits that this would “naturalize the concept of learning [76]” through the introduction of greater choice for pupils. She envisages a classroom in which there are no right or wrong responses or answers, just an array of choices for pupils, creating an environment with an “inherent incapacity for students to experience failure at any point within the process” because there is no “special educative aim”. This vision of classroom learning is considerably more cloud-like than clock-like and would require a radical overhaul of curriculum structures, not to mention the very purposes of education. Semetsky acknowledges that this radical vision has the potential to be counter-productive, however. She draws on Cillier’s warning about chaotic system behaviors or “catatonic shutdown [77]” and suggests that a multiplicity of pupil options may contribute to complete disorganization rather than self-organization. This is similar to Waldrup’s assertion that whilst frozen (clockish) systems can benefit from “loosening up a bit”, turbulent (cloudish) systems “can always do better by getting themselves a little more organized [78]”.
Morrison presents a similar critique and asks
This is a valid question. Judging when sources of novelty and disruption risk undermining sources of coherence within a system is crucial to maintaining a productive edge of chaos states and is a crucial aspect of teacher professional judgment. In a CAS such equilibrium is maintained through self-organization. In a classroom, it is largely due to the influence of the teacher. A key illustration of why the conception of classrooms as CAS both is, and is not, accurate and useful.
Others present visions of classrooms as self-organizing adaptive systems, which are less adversarial to the purposes of education than Semetsky’s. Fong for example, suggests that the concept of self-emergent order is well suited to early learning environments because of their natural tendency to balance the “dual worlds of emergent order and imposed control [79]” and the challenges teachers face in managing the latter in busy nursery or kindergarten classrooms. Sullivan [53] also takes a positive view of the classroom as a CAS and posits that in classrooms where the features of CAS such as self-organization, distributed control, and agent-interaction (the more cloudish characteristics) are maximized, novel learning emerges. Defining emergent learning as the “acquisition of new knowledge by an entire group when no individual member possessed it before [53]” Sullivan suggests that some curriculum subjects lend themselves more than others to the conditions in which such learning might emerge (literacy more so than mathematics in his example). One such feature of CAS which might be emphasized and capitalized upon in the interest of classroom learning is neighbor interactions. In their study of Canadian mathematics teachers Davis and Simmt noted that with sufficient density of short-range pupil interactions and networking, the emergence of novelty was likely. Their concept of neighbor interactions includes, but also stretches beyond, pupils sitting on the same table. They emphasize that “neighbors in a knowledge-producing community are not physical bodies or social groupings. Rather, the neighbors that must “bump” against one another are ideas [63]”. They recommend maximizing conditions in which pupils’ ideas can collide, not just between neighbors on tables, but across the topography of the classroom system, because “agents within a complex system must be able to affect one another’s activities [1]”.
It is clear that school classrooms share several characteristics with CAS, however, the extent to which any classroom can usefully be described as complex depends on how it is organized. Classrooms that operate under strictly centralized control (“clockish”) will share fewer features of CAS, whereas classrooms which function in more decentralized or distributed ways (“cloudish”) are likely to create space for the sort of autonomy which invites more CAS-like behaviors. Under such organizational principles, pupils may interact in networked and non-linear ways, becoming self-organizing, and inviting learning to emerge bottom-up, rather than always traveling top-down from the teacher. Figure 1 depicts three broad typical organizing principles common to many classrooms: centralized, decentralized, and distributed. When centrally organized [A], communication flows linearly from the teacher to the pupils but there is little or no interaction between pupils. When organized in a distributed manner [B], groups of pupils interact, including with the teacher, however, there is little or no mutual interaction between pupil groups. In a more distributed organization [C], interactions occur between any individuals with no central organization from the teacher. Newell [33] points out that all three organizational principles may be enacted at different times in any given classroom (even within a single lesson). In classrooms where decentralized or distributed forms are common, ideas are more likely to collide, pupils are more likely to become mutually influential, novelty and innovation may be more apparent, and learning may emerge which exceeds what any individual pupil previously knew or understood.
Centralised [A], decentralized [B], and distributed [C] classroom organizing principles. Adapted from Davis and Sumara [
However, as Semetsky [76] has noted and my own research [62] attests, events, occurrences, and interactions that challenge or obstruct learning are also more likely in decentralized and distributed classrooms structures. With greater pupil autonomy comes greater unpredictability, greater likelihood of social conflict, and greater unevenness in pupil participation. Many theorists [80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87] have also noted that pupil interaction alone rarely results in elaborated learning and that the organizing and structuring influence of the teacher is essential in transforming pupils’ hunches and intuitions into knowledge and understanding. With this in mind, and notwithstanding the evident CAS-like qualities of classroom learning, it is relevant to ask what the potential pedagogical benefits of a CAS classroom framing might be.
Notwithstanding its limitations, there is sufficient merit in the arguments for CAS-classroom comparisons to conclude that viewing the classroom through a CAS lens can illuminate a range of teaching and learning behaviors that might otherwise go unnoticed, and therefore unattended to. Among the drawbacks to an over-simplified, linear view of teaching and learning mentioned in part one of this chapter, is the risk that despite knowing better, teachers may teach in ways that presume a linear relationship between teaching and learning, missing opportunities to set conditions conducive to non-linear emergence. A CAS lens may encourage teachers to think non-linearly about learning processes, to become more attuned to collective, networked effects on learning, to see the critical potential in moments they might otherwise ignore, dismiss or want to prevent, and gain a more thorough appreciation of why pupil learning does not appear to augment in a steady trajectory. Arguments have been made that the extent to which classrooms reflect CAS-like qualities depends on how they are organized. More centralized organizational structures are less likely to encourage self-organized behaviors, whereas decentralized or distributed structures are more conducive to self-organization and emergence. In this final section I argue that teachers can occasion emergence through the organizational principles they employ and the degrees of autonomy they give to pupils, in order to capitalize on useful CAS-like classroom characteristics in the interest of learning. Part four draws on preliminary findings from my own recent research into emergent learning in a British year 4 classroom to explore how this might be achieved and what the benefits might be.
Linear thinking tends to result in linear expectations, which for teachers means the assumption that tangible evidence of pupil learning will follow shortly after teaching input. This mechanistic reckoning about learning is a key part of the simplification problem presented at the start of this chapter and is ubiquitous in classrooms across the world. However, it does not reflect how many teachers experience classroom learning on a day-to-day basis. Thinking non-linearly about teaching and learning means understanding that learning is a consequence of multiple, networked factors which may not covary linearly or occur in the same moments or places. Learning, when it emerges tangibly, is the result of inputs from multiple sources, including direct teaching, autonomous activity, peer influence, social dynamics, personality traits, prior conceptions, understandings, misunderstandings, environment, and chance, from a range of temporally diverse events. In short, learning (including individual learning) results from system-wide factors, not simply the linear mechanisms of teaching. Instruction may be the dominant influence on pupil learning, but is far from the only influence and its effects are filtered through multiple influences both within, and outside of, the classroom system. Awareness of the networked and recursive nature of learning enables teachers to notice, attend to and even plan for the pluriform influences which may assert themselves in, and beyond, the classroom. For example, awareness that pupils’ mental models, their understandings, and the connections they make are substantially influenced by experiences outside of school may lead a teacher to elicit information about pupils’ wider experiences of a phenomenon before planning to teach it. Similarly, knowing that new knowledge may emerge through decentralized and distributed interactive structures may lead teachers to facilitate episodes of autonomous, or semi-autonomous group activity expecting pupils to create or evolve ideas which they themselves had not planned for. Thinking non-linearly can encourage teachers to not only ask conditional “if-then” questions about teaching and learning but also consider “what if …” questions which can produce sensitivity to teachable moments. Thinking non-linearly changes expectations about how, when, and from where learning might emerge and can result in teachers noticing potential and future learning in its infancy. Sensitivity and responsiveness to “soon-to-be” learning as it appears are at the heart of effective pedagogy. Understanding that pupils, their ideas, utterances, moods, similarities, differences, and personal histories interact in non-linear ways can help teachers to look for potential learning in places and at times not typically explored when expectations follow singular, linear logic. This includes finding learning, or the conditions for learning in unlikely places, including classroom disruption, in social conflict, or in incidental, unintended moments.
Thinking non-linearly is not a typical habit for most teachers, however, trained as they often are to view teaching and learning in a unidirectional causal relationship in which learning is singularly the product of teaching. This is essentially the central presumption of the “what works” educational paradigm [88] and there are understandable justifications for this habit of mind; not least because it is accurate to some extent. Learning is a consequence of teaching. The problem is not that teaching has no part to play in learning, it plays a significant part, of course. The problem is the failure to understand teaching and learning as existing in a recursive, mutually influencing relationship and failure to see learning as an emergent phenomenon that surfaces because of bottom-up dynamics as much as from top-down instruction. Non-linear thinking, which attempts to accommodate these concepts, will require some effortful reimagining on the part of teachers well-versed in the “what works” paradigm.
Non-linear thinking about teaching and learning has the potential to unlock awareness of the different sources which influence learning and how they interact with one another. Once aware that instruction is only one of several influences and that the multiple influencing factors are mutually interactive, teachers may view common classroom scenarios and occurrences differently. For example, when pupils articulate their understanding of a concept or process it is likely that the new understanding was constructed in an uneven trajectory involving bursts, plateaus, and stops over time. In addition to teaching input, the conceptual understanding will be a result of their interactions with other pupils, the collision of ideas those interactions permit, interaction with the environment and with aspects of their own and others’ personalities, learning habits, social status, intellectual and non-intellectual pre-requisites. Sensitivity to these factors can support teacher judgments about pupil grouping, sequencing, and duration of classroom activities, whether and when to intervene, scaffolding questions to ask, and the importance of helping pupils to link experiences. My research with 8 and 9-year-old pupils in a British Year 4 classroom [62] suggests that learning is always a process of organizing, reorganizing, constructing, reconstructing, and refining existing knowledge and understanding. This was illustrated in instances where pupil learning was the consequence of errors and misunderstandings, off-task as well as on-task behaviors, and because of, rather than in spite of, social conflict. There was also evidence that asymmetries in pupil social hierarchies produced discussion and knowledge sharing which more symmetrical dynamics almost certainly would not have. In one such example, the disruptive influence of one pupil in a practical small group activity and the frustration it caused other group members actually drove reconfigurations in pupil roles and articulation of perspectives, arguments, and explanations. The atmosphere was not calm and cooperative, but ideas, demonstrations, and later articulation of learning almost certainly resulted in part because of this. Behaviors which a teacher might instinctively want to prevent unlocked learning for some pupils, to some extent. Attunement to these factors and possibilities, particularly the knowledge that learning can emerge out of social conflict (which teachers routinely, and understandably, aim to suppress) has the potential to shift teachers away from expecting evidence of learning during or shortly after instruction, towards a more authentic appreciation of and attention to the range of antecedents, including unexpected ones.
Attunement to the CAS-like features of classrooms and non-linear thinking about learning processes opens the door for teachers to re-evaluate their intuitions about where and how learning can, or might, emerge. Acknowledging that some antecedents of visible learning originate from outside of the linear mechanisms of direct instruction means acknowledging that learning is caused and supported by more than simply teacher explanation and demonstration or planned classroom activities. It may also emerge incidentally during the non-lesson time or out of instances of social disruption, which teachers typically aim to discourage. Evidence from numerous classroom studies [89, 90, 91, 92, 93] suggests that when pupils collaborate autonomously, or semi-autonomously, on shared activities some degree of social conflict is inevitable. This may range from minor disagreements about turn-taking or resources that do not interrupt the flow of activity, to larger arguments that disrupt purposeful activity, cooperation, and group productivity. What these studies do not acknowledge, however, is that whilst there are sound reasons to discourage an atmosphere of conflict in the classroom, clashes of personality, asymmetries of social dominance, disagreements about pupil roles, and the socially engendered necessity to resolve these can actually produce moments of novelty, innovation, knowledge sharing or motivation which lead to learning. It is no surprise that nowhere in the literature is there any support for the idea that social conflict might also support curriculum learning in unexpected ways, however, some of the data in my recent research [62] suggests that learning does not just survive episodes of social conflict, but can be occasioned by it. I am not here advocating a laissez-faire approach to classroom management or an “anything goes” attitude to pupil behaviors. Calmness, cooperation, and mutual respect are necessary and desirable qualities to encourage in classrooms. However, I am (somewhat tentatively) suggesting that when teachers suspend, even temporarily, their linear expectations about what produces learning (and perhaps even stop thinking about learning as a product altogether), they may notice teachable moments worth capitalizing upon in some unexpected places.
According to Davis and Simmt [63] the network of mutual self-influence between pupils, environment, and classroom climate, and the resulting randomness, opens the door to novel moments of teaching and learning. An example of this in my recent research included instances in which arguments between two pupils prompted periods of increased productivity and “on-task” behaviors from others. In another example the repeated ignoring of a low social status pupil by his small group caused him out of frustration to share his ideas with the teacher, resulting in him eventually explaining it to the whole class, whereafter most groups adopted his ideas. The learning in these incidents, or the conditions for it, emerged bottom-up rather than top-down. What emerged was a consequence of the situated, unique dynamic choreography of multiple pupils’ wills, personalities, social standing, and knowledge states, among other factors. Sensitivity to the ways these and other factors can interact to produce conditions for learning where one might not expect to find it can be advantageous to teachers. How then might teachers use this knowledge and capitalize on it in the interest of learning? The knowledge that whilst excessive pupil autonomy, interactive license, or social conflict is likely to obstruct learning, appropriate degrees of freedom from centralized teacher control can invite novelty, could lead teachers to re-evaluate their centralizing instincts and look for a balance between Radford’s “clockish” and “cloudish” organization [40] in their classrooms. Such re-evaluations can lead to teachers pausing, observing, and assessing for potential teachable moments. If there are potential benefits in allowing social conflict to play out, enabling pupils to find their own resolutions, this may lead teachers to re-assess how and when they intervene. Judging the line between tolerable and intolerable degrees of social conflict or noticing signs of potential learning benefits is unlikely to be easy, however there is evidence, albeit tentative, that there may be payoffs for teachers brave enough to try. The “edge of chaos” [1] will always be a double-edged sword, inviting innovation but also risking havoc. Semetsky [76] acknowledges that radical visions of open and unrestrained classroom systems, whilst opening doors to possibility, might also be counterproductive. Accepting that interactive learning is by nature open and generative (and therefore susceptible to disorganization), Biesta [72] has argued in favor of enabling constraints, structures which facilitate autonomous pupil interaction, encourage novelty and originality but without courting havoc. A useful question for teachers therefore might be, how can I implement limits on interactive learning which unlock and enable, rather than dampen, novelty and originality?
CAS-framed classroom research and discussion [33, 61, 62, 64] suggests that CAS-like behaviors do not necessarily occur naturally in all classrooms, but depend to a large extent on balance between sources of coherence and disruption; between centralized control and decentralized autonomy. Having looked at some of the opportunities which CAS-like behaviors might offer teachers and pupils in pursuit of learning, it is worth considering ways teachers might occasion emergence by locating and exploiting “sweet spots” between rigid order and all-out chaos; in which pupils benefit from what autonomous interaction and teacher scaffolding have to offer. This is what Radford [40] refers to when describing systems, which are a balance between “clockish” and “cloudish”. This would include knowing how, and judging when, to centralize or decentralize the organization and autonomy, and understanding the consequences. Much like a jazz leader, knowing when to allow improvisation and when to return the ensemble to the main theme. “Sweet spots” exploit the most useful products of centralized, decentralized, and distributed classroom structures, whilst avoiding the unproductive excesses of each.
In tightly controlled, centralized classroom structures ideas tend to flow linearly from the teacher to the pupils and back from individual pupils towards the teacher. Under this organizing principle, ideas do not collide, they simply travel along straight lines, often in just one direction emanating from the teacher. Those ideas become known by everyone but are not interrogated, trialed, experienced, regurgitated, or challenged. The principal casualty of this tendency in highly centralized classrooms is the cross-fertilization of pupil perspectives and emergent learning. Newly emerging understandings, partially articulated thinking, and challenge to pupil assertions tend to arise more freely in distributed peer-to-peer interaction than in centralized, didactic scenarios. Too much centralized communication is likely to stifle this “soon-to-be” learning. At the opposite extreme, in classrooms principally characterized by distributed structure, ideas tend to collide but are rarely refined, sustained, or linked coherently. The main casualty here is the spread of ideas since ideas tend to remain local, petering out without dissemination, and coherence, because thinking remains atomized. Somewhere between these extremes lie sweet spots where pupils experience sufficient freedom and autonomy to encourage elements of self-organization and bottom-up novelty, accompanied by sufficient central teacher coordination for emerging ideas to be shared, digested, shaped, and sustained. Factors that teachers can manipulate to locate such sweet spots include (among other things) physical space, time periods, activity types, and groupings. Activities with sufficient openness undertaken for appropriate durations by autonomous or semi-autonomous pupil groupings with considered classroom organization and sensitive teacher intervention have the potential to create space for novelty, creativity, and innovation to emerge. Timely shifts between distributed, decentralized, and centralized structures may enable learning to emerge and progress from emergent states towards elaborated, more secure states from which it can be more easily redistributed.
In order to create conditions in which partially formed ideas may grow into articulated explanations or productive applications, a range of pedagogical pre-requisites are necessary, beginning with an understanding of what centralized, decentralized, and distributed modes of classroom organization offer the pursuit of learning. Confidence and competence in noticing signs that classroom structures need to be loosened or tightened follow logically from this, along with knowing how and judging when to do this. Creating open learning activities and opportunities that are fertile ground for ideas to collide, which are encouraging autonomous interaction and structured sufficiently to elicit novelty and originality, whilst avoiding excessive teacher control takes courage and practice. The starting point, surely, is sensitivity to potential teachable moments, attunement to the networked interacting influences at work in the classroom, and openness to the possibility of learning emerging from unexpected places.
In response to the widespread tendency for teaching and learning to be depicted in over-simplified and linear-causal terms, this chapter has discussed the potential usefulness of applying a CAS framing to the primary classroom. I have sought to begin addressing the question of whether viewing classrooms as complex systems may illuminate inherent complexities of learning and ask whether doing so reveals any useful lessons for teachers. Descriptions of the behavior of CAS and consideration of the typical characteristics of many classrooms leave little doubt that classrooms have CAS-like features, though the extent to which such features may prevail in any given classroom depends to a large extent on how teaching and learning are organized. The most salient CAS qualities inherent to primary classrooms are occasioned by pupil autonomy, interconnectedness, and interaction through which there is some evidence that learning can reveal itself in emergent forms, more as a consequence of bottom-up than top-down initiative. Under the right conditions, including sufficient enabling constraints and pupil autonomy, a focus on CAS characteristics can draw teachers’ attention to the possibility of learning emerging from unexpected sources and in unanticipated times and ways. These include pupil errors, social conflict, and apparently off-task behaviors. However, more research is needed into the forms and value of such emergent learning, including how and to what extent it can be encouraged by thoughtful, imaginative, and sensitive teaching.
A possible implication for teachers is a recommendation to introduce subtle shifts in thinking about classroom practice and pupil learning. This would include considering the potential benefits of loosening central control and allowing pupils sufficient autonomy for self-organization to materialize, holding less tightly to evidence of pupils meeting learning objectives in unitary packages, and developing sensitivity to what else might be learned, when and how. I would urge my fellow teachers away from framings that locate learning as merely the linear product of teaching and instead invite them to adopt a more open and speculative mindset, exploring and investigating pluriform and interconnected antecedents of learning, rather than expecting it to appear as a product following teacher input.
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. 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Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9291,totalCrossrefCites:167,totalDimensionsCites:400,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"42566",doi:"10.5772/53706",title:"Challenges and Opportunities for Spark Plasma Sintering: A Key Technology for a New Generation of Materials",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-for-spark-plasma-sintering-a-key-technology-for-a-new-generation-of-mat",totalDownloads:9168,totalCrossrefCites:99,totalDimensionsCites:213,abstract:null,book:{id:"3478",slug:"sintering-applications",title:"Sintering Applications",fullTitle:"Sintering Applications"},signatures:"M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. Torrecillas, H. U. Kessel, J. Hennicke, R. Kirchner and T. Kessel",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",middleName:null,surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}]},{id:"23617",doi:"10.5772/24118",title:"Collagen- vs. Gelatine-Based Biomaterials and Their Biocompatibility: Review and Perspectives",slug:"collagen-vs-gelatine-based-biomaterials-and-their-biocompatibility-review-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:9461,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:203,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Selestina Gorgieva and Vanja Kokol",authors:[{id:"55577",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kokol",slug:"vanja-kokol",fullName:"Vanja Kokol"},{id:"61285",title:"BSc",name:"Selestina",middleName:null,surname:"Gorgieva",slug:"selestina-gorgieva",fullName:"Selestina Gorgieva"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13737,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:163,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76780",title:"Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties",slug:"basics-of-clay-minerals-and-their-characteristic-properties",totalDownloads:1930,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Clay minerals such as kaolinite, smectite, chlorite, micas are main components of raw materials of clay and formed in presence of water. A large number of clays used to form the different structure which completely depends on their mining source. They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11734,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. There are numerous original papers, reviews, and monographs focused on the synthesis, properties, and applications of hydrogels. This chapter covers the fundamental aspects and several applications of hydrogels based on the old and the most recent publications in this field.",book:{id:"5251",slug:"emerging-concepts-in-analysis-and-applications-of-hydrogels",title:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels"},signatures:"Morteza Bahram, Naimeh Mohseni and Mehdi Moghtader",authors:[{id:"179718",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Bahram",slug:"morteza-bahram",fullName:"Morteza Bahram"},{id:"185713",title:"Dr.",name:"Naimeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohseni",slug:"naimeh-mohseni",fullName:"Naimeh Mohseni"},{id:"185714",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Moghtader",slug:"mehdi-moghtader",fullName:"Mehdi Moghtader"}]},{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2672,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"18275",title:"Modeling and Identification of Parameters the Piezoelectric Transducers in Ultrasonic Systems",slug:"modeling-and-identification-of-parameters-the-piezoelectric-transducers-in-ultrasonic-systems",totalDownloads:10197,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"201",slug:"advances-in-ceramics-electric-and-magnetic-ceramics-bioceramics-ceramics-and-environment",title:"Advances in Ceramics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ceramics - Electric and Magnetic Ceramics, Bioceramics, Ceramics and Environment"},signatures:"Pawel Fabijanski and Ryszard Lagoda",authors:[{id:"13086",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",middleName:null,surname:"Fabijański",slug:"pawel-fabijanski",fullName:"Pawel Fabijański"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16251,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:407,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83055",title:"Boron Clusters in Biomedical Applications: A Theoretical Viewpoint",slug:"boron-clusters-in-biomedical-applications-a-theoretical-viewpoint",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106215",abstract:"In this chapter, we presented an analysis of the recent advances in the applications of boron clusters in biomedical fields such as the development of biosensors and drug delivery systems on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. Biosensors play an essential role in many sectors, e.g., law enforcement agencies for sensing illicit drugs, medical communities for detecting overdosed medications from human and animal bodies, etc. The drug delivery systems have theoretically been proposed for many years and subsequently implemented by experiments to deliver the drug to the targeted sites by reducing the harmful side effects significantly. Boron clusters form a rich and colorful family of atomic clusters due to their unconventional structures and bonding phenomena. Boron clusters and their complexes have various biological activities such as the drug delivery, imaging for diagnosis, treatment of cancer, and probe of protein-biomolecular interactions. For all of these reactivities, the interaction mechanisms and the corresponding energetics between biomaterials and boron clusters are of essential importance as a basic step in the understanding, and thereby design of relevant materials. During the past few years, attempts have been made to probe the nature of these interactions using quantum chemical calculations mainly with density functional theory (DFT) methods. This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical viewpoint on this issue.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Ehsan Shakerzadeh, Elham Tahmasebi, Long Van Duong and Minh Tho Nguyen"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83035",title:"Breaking the Property Trade-Offs by Using Entropic Conceptions",slug:"breaking-the-property-trade-offs-by-using-entropic-conceptions",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106532",abstract:"Entropic conception has been used as an effective strategy for developing materials to break the property recordings of current materials, for example, breaking the trade-off between the high-strength and low-ductility structural alloys. The performance of materials usually under a complex circumstance, a balance of multiple properties, for example, combined the high-strength, high ductility, high conductivity, high corrosion resistance, high irradiation resistance, etc., the strategy of high-entropy-alloy (HEA) will provide a materials design and development technology to realize the goal. Magnetic materials usually exhibit excellent magnetic properties but weak mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The reported unique behaviors of HEAs, for example, self-healing effects may be the mechanism for the high irradiation resistance of the HEAs, and self-sharpening behaviors of the tungsten-based HEAs main closely be related to the serration behaviors.",book:{id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Materials - Microstructures and Properties",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg"},signatures:"Yong Zhang and Xuehui Yan"},{id:"82929",title:"Prediction of Solubility and Miscibility Parameters of Bismuth-Arsenic Complex and Amorphous Mineral Compounds Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation",slug:"prediction-of-solubility-and-miscibility-parameters-of-bismuth-arsenic-complex-and-amorphous-mineral",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106316",abstract:"Bismuth is one of the most difficult impurities to remove in mining concentrates and low concentrations generate problems in silver and copper refineries. Therefore, financial penalties are established when concentrations exceed 0.05%. Some researchers had used arsenic to remove bismuth with results of up to 52% of extraction. Unfortunately, this mechanism is not yet fully understood. The objective of this research was to obtain the solubility parameters of amorphous mineral compounds, including bismuth-based compounds, through computational simulation using molecular dynamics. The composition of the mineral sample was determined by X-ray diffraction and the crystalline species were obtained and modeled using Materials Studio software. The nanostructures were optimized by an energy minimization methodology using the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno algorithm and were validated using the figure of merit equation and density. Simulations were performed using the Universal Force Field at constant pressure and temperature. The results of the minerals identified in the sample were compared with arsenic trioxide, indicating miscibility between As2O3 and Bi2O3, possible miscibility with 10 other minerals, and immiscibility with the rest. The results indicate that As2O3 can be successfully used for the removal of Bi2O3 without a negative effect on the recovery of other minerals of higher commercial value.",book:{id:"11467",title:"Bismuth-Based Nanostructured Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg"},signatures:"Francisco Adrián De la Torre-Martínez, Efren Delgado, María Dolores Josefina Rodríguez Rosales, Hiram Medrano-Roldán, Javier López-Miranda and Damián Reyes-Jáquez"},{id:"82940",title:"Role of Surface Defects and Optical Band-gap Energy on Photocatalytic Activities of Titanate-based Perovskite Nanomaterial",slug:"role-of-surface-defects-and-optical-band-gap-energy-on-photocatalytic-activities-of-titanate-based-p",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106253",abstract:"In recent years, water pollution has become one of the major challenges faced by humans because of consistent rise in population and industrial activities. Water pollution due to discharge from cosmetics and pharmaceutical wastes, organic dyes, and heavy metal seen as carcinogens has the potential to disrupt hormonal processes in the body. Different approaches such as chlorination, aerobic treatment, aeration, and filtration have been deployed to treat wastewaters before being discharged into the streams, lakes, and rivers. However, more attention has been accorded to treatment approaches that involve use of nanomaterial due to non-secondary pollution, energy efficiency, and ease of operation. Titanate-based perovskite (TBP) is one of the most frequently studied nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications because of its stability and flexibility in optical band-gap modification. This chapter provided an overview of basic principles and mechanisms of a semiconductor photocatalyst, and current synthesis techniques that have been used in formulating TBP nanomaterial. The effect of reaction conditions and approaches such as doping, codoping, composites, temperature, pH, precursor type, surface area, and morphology on surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP nanomaterial was highlighted. Importantly, the impact of surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP on its photocatalytic activities was discussed. Finally, how to enhance the degradation efficiency of TBP was proposed.",book:{id:"11469",title:"Recent Advances in Perovskite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11469.jpg"},signatures:"Izunna Stanislaus Okeke, Priscilla Yahemba Aondona, Amoge Chidinma Ogu, Eugene Echeweozo and Fabian Ifeanyichukwu Ezema"},{id:"82718",title:"Refractories for the Cast Iron Melting",slug:"refractories-for-the-cast-iron-melting",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105973",abstract:"Refractory is a very important component in economically successful melting of cast iron. Refractory is used to line the furnace or any other vessel used for melting or holding of the molten metal. This chapter has discussed the different type of furnaces used for the melting of cast iron, the special features of those furnaces and the operational parameters of those furnaces with special emphasis on the coreless induction furnace, which is most commonly used. It has dealt with the installation practices of the refractory lining and also has discussed the mode of failure of the refractory lining and the precautions to be taken during installation and during use.",book:{id:"11766",title:"Cast Iron - Production, Properties, Characterization, and Casting Defects Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11766.jpg"},signatures:"Prasunjit Sengupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:80},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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