\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6266",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions",title:"Marine Ecology",subtitle:"Biotic and Abiotic Interactions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"During the last decades, aquatic resources have been severely depleted due to human-induced factors such as overexploitation and pollution and more recently due to deviations in the physicochemical parameters of oceans, dramatic changes in weather patterns and melting of glaciers. The effects of these man-made factors are occurring in a relatively shorter time scale and, in many cases, are beyond the capacity of organisms to adapt to these deviations. The majority of natural aquatic resources, which are one of the most important food sources on the planet, are being used to the extent that limits their capacity for regeneration. Despite ongoing attempts towards developing strategies for long-term management of aquatic resources all over the world, efforts have met with limited success. Thus, the sustainable use of aquatic resources has become a very important reality considering a projected human population of 11 billion by the year 2100. With this reality in mind, the purpose of this book is to shed more light on the field of marine ecology by emphasizing the diversity of aquatic life on earth and its importance both as part of a balanced ecosystem and as part of critical source of food on earth. The book covers important findings, discussions and reviews on a variety of subjects on environmental and competitive interactions of marine organisms at different trophic levels and their effects on the productivity, dynamics and structure of marine ecosystems around the world. Each chapter focuses on a specific case in the field of marine ecology and was written by researchers with years of experience in their respective fields. We hope that academicians, researchers and students as well as experts and professionals working in the field of marine ecology will benefit from these contributions. We also hope that this book will inspire more studies to help better understand the marine environment and develop strategies to better protect this crucial element of life on earth.",isbn:"978-1-78923-449-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-448-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-368-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69018",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"marine-ecology-biotic-and-abiotic-interactions",numberOfPages:294,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9d821ed950a497c8f50de67abf419259",bookSignature:"Muhammet Türkoğlu, Umur Önal and Ali Ismen",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6266.jpg",numberOfDownloads:18225,numberOfWosCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:141,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 13th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 3rd 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 9th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 9th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 9th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99483",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammet",middleName:null,surname:"Turkoglu",slug:"muhammet-turkoglu",fullName:"Muhammet Turkoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99483/images/system/99483.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammet TURKOGLU, completed his undergraduate education in Biology in 1988 at Hacettepe University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology; graduate education in 1991 at Dokuz Eylul University, Marine Sciences and Technology Institute, Marine Living Resources Department (Master thesis titled 'Investigation of Chromium (Cr) Concentrations in Water, Sediments and Some Organisms of Izmir Bay'). He completed his Ph.D. at Ege University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Section of Marine Biology in 1998 (Doctorate thesis (Ph.D. Thesis) titled 'Phytoplankton Composition and Effects of Bio-ecological Factors of Middle Black Sea Area (Coasts of Sinop Peninsula)'). \r\nCurrently, he is working as a full professor of Marine Science and Technology Faculty at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey. Dr. Turkoglu is an oceanographer and his researches involve studies in Aegean Sea, Black Sea, Turkish Straits System (Dardanelles, Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus) and Caspian Sea. He is interested in species diversity, vertical and temporal successions of phytoplankton in marine ecosystems, especially in coastal habitats. Dr. Turkoglu is also interested in nutrient dynamics and harmful algal blooms (HABs) in marine systems. He has more than 100 scientific studies published by various reputed scientific journals and others. Dr. Turkoglu participated in various national and international marine scientific voyages throughout the academic career. \r\nHis expertise are (1) Marine Biodiversity and Ecology (Microplankton, Phytoplankton and Microzooplankton) (2) Biological Oceanography (Phytoplankton Dynamics) (3) Chemical Oceanography (Nutrient Dynamics) (4) Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) (5) Eutrophication and Phytoplankton (6) Physical Oceanography (CTD)",institutionString:"Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Tip Fakultesi Hastanesi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"83707",title:"Dr.",name:"Umur",middleName:null,surname:"Önal",slug:"umur-onal",fullName:"Umur Önal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/83707/images/5354_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Umur ÖNAL is a full professor in the Department of Aquaculture, Marine Science and Technology Faculty, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey. Dr. ÖNAL received his MS and Ph.D from the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University. His research interests involve larval fish and mollusc culture and mainly focuses on larval fish feeding and nutrition. In addition, he studies reproduction of fish and molluscs with emphasis on optimizing reproduction potential towards developing methods on the mass culture of early stages of commercially important species.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Tip Fakultesi Hastanesi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"208452",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"İsmen",slug:"ali-ismen",fullName:"Ali İsmen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/208452/images/5355_n.jpg",biography:'Dr. Ali İSMEN is a full professor in Fisheries Section of Marine Science and Technology Faculty in Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey. Dr. ISMEN has completed his undergraduate education on Fisheries in Ankara University in 1985. Then, he comleted his graduate education in 1988 in Ankara University, giving the master thesis titled \\"A comparative study of the catches in bait and non-bait pinter with freshwater lobster (Astacus leptodactylus Esch.1823)”. In 1995, he completed his PhD thesis titled “Biology and Population Parameters of whiting (Merlangus merlangus euxinus) in Turkish Coasts of the Black Sea\\" in METU, Institute of Marine Science, Department of Fisheries Biology. He is interested in marine fish species distribution, fisheries biology, stock assessment and population parameters in Turkish seas. He has scientific studies numerous published by various reputed scientific journals and others.',institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"659",title:"Aquatic Ecosystem",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-marine-biology-aquatic-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"61795",title:"Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and Abiotic Interactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78296",slug:"introductory-chapter-marine-ecology-biotic-and-abiotic-interactions",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Muhammet Turkoglu, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61795",authors:[{id:"99483",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammet",surname:"Turkoglu",slug:"muhammet-turkoglu",fullName:"Muhammet Turkoglu"}],corrections:null},{id:"61920",title:"Geo-Biological Coupling of Authigenic Carbonate Formation and Autotrophic Faunal Colonization at Deep-Sea Methane Seeps I: Geo-Biological Settings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76976",slug:"geo-biological-coupling-of-authigenic-carbonate-formation-and-autotrophic-faunal-colonization-at-1",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Methane (CH4) in sub-seafloor sediment is generated both biologically and non-biologically from organic and inorganic sources. A major part of the sub-seafloor methane is oxidized before leakage via “anaerobic oxidation of methane” (AOM) in the subsurface. The AOM-survivor methane, which is relatively minor part of the subsurface methane, leaches to the overlying water column and is eventually subject to thorough anaerobic and aerobic oxidation in the water column. The AOM with sulfate results in the generation of carbon dioxide and sulfide; the former (CO2) is incorporated into authigenic carbonate and autotrophic biomass, and the autotrophy is energetically driven by oxidation of the latter (H2S). These processes are typically observed at focused sites that are generally known as “methane seeps” or hydrocarbon seeps, or occasionally called as cold seeps in comparison with hydrothermal vents. Methane seeps are typically formed in passive and active continental margins, occasionally with unique features such as exposed methane hydrates, mud volcanoes, asphalt volcanoes, salt diapirs, and brine pools. Accordingly, authigenic carbonates and unique biological communities are shaped at respective methane seeps. This chapter overviews geological and biological setting for the formation of methane seeps associated with unique landscapes of carbonates and biomes.",signatures:"Takeshi Naganuma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61920",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61920",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62136",title:"Geo-Biological Coupling of Authigenic Carbonate Formation and Autotrophic Faunal Colonization at Deep-Sea Methane Seeps II. Geo-Biological Landscapes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78978",slug:"geo-biological-coupling-of-authigenic-carbonate-formation-and-autotrophic-faunal-colonization-at-2",totalDownloads:1232,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Deep-sea methane seeps are typically shaped with authigenic carbonates and unique biomes depending on methane-driven and methane-derived metabolisms. Authigenic carbonates vary in δ13C values due probably to δ13C variation in the carbon sources (directly carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, and ultimately methane) which is affected by the generation and degradation (oxidation) of methane at respective methane seeps. Anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) by specially developed microbial consortia has significant influences on the carbonate δ13C variation as well as the production of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide for chemoautotrophic biomass production. Authigenesis of carbonates and faunal colonization are thus connected. Authigenic carbonates also vary in Mg contents that seem correlated again to faunal colonization. Among the colonizers, mussels tend to colonize low δ13C carbonates, while gutless tubeworms colonize high-Mg carbonates. The types and varieties of such geo-biological landscapes of methane seeps are overviewed in this chapter. A unique feature of a high-Mg content of the rock-tubeworm conglomerates is also discussed.",signatures:"Takeshi Naganuma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62136",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62136",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"57495",title:"Plankton Ecology and Productivity in Jamaican Waters with New and Unique Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70663",slug:"plankton-ecology-and-productivity-in-jamaican-waters-with-new-and-unique-applications",totalDownloads:1296,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unique applications of plankton ecology and productivity in Jamaican waters are presented. While traditional indices were inadequate descriptors of mangrove lagoon water quality, planktonic indices (total Chlorophyll a, zooplankton groups and species) were more reliable. Phytoplankton biomass was used to indicate a longitudinal gradient along the Hellshire Coastline, identifying non-point sources of enrichment, and movement of water masses in the absence of expensive Eulerian current meters. Along that same coast, mean primary production, determined by 14C techniques, confirmed a gradient from the eutrophic Kingston Harbour (21.1 g C m−2year−1) to the oligotrophic control site (0.52 g C m−2 year−1). Maximum inshore station values (36.75–18.39 g C m−2 year−1) were more than 20 times greater than offshore and exceeded Harbour values, confirming non-point sources and localized mechanisms as important inshore sources of eutrophication. The novel use of Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) software to model trophic flows within planktonic communities was done in two bays. For Discovery Bay, on Jamaica’s north coast, the model indicated a developing ecosystem with open mineral cycles and poor nutrient conservation while in Foul and Folly Bays on the southeastern coast the model indicated greater resilience and ability to recover from perturbations. These applications have facilitated informed management decisions for sustainable use in Jamaican coastal ecosystems.",signatures:"Mona K. Webber, Dale F. Webber and Gale Persad Ford",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57495",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57495",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"57518",title:"Ecology of Planktonic Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70661",slug:"ecology-of-planktonic-atlantic-cod-gadus-morhua-",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Atlantic cod larvae surviving the first weeks after hatching settle next years juvenile recruitment on Georges Bank (USA). It probably supports Hjort’s critical period hypothesis that effects of climate on marine biological productivity control early-life history processes and recruitment in fish populations. Climate also regulates local ultraviolet sea surface radiation, which may potentially kill microbes pathogenic to planktonic cod eggs. Survival capacities of cod larvae depend on maternal effects on egg qualities attained during oogenesis, influenced by variable food sources for female cod. Actual survival of first-feeding cod larvae requires proper abundance of preferred prey, copepod nauplii, produced by fertile females. Temporal and spatial mismatch between cod larvae and prey is normal, extensive and lethal, counteracted by opportunistic behavior that optimizes encounters. In spawning habitats of Northeast Arctic cod, the abundance of Calanus finmarchicus nauplii possibly results from coastal biological productivity in the previous year, which may explain time lags in positive correlations between vernal river discharge and NEA cod recruitment. Extensive meltwater storage for year-round hydroelectric production probably limits food web productivity, survival of NEA cod larvae and stock recruitment. Global climate change and stock management interact ecologically with other anthropogenic influences concerning sustainability of Atlantic cod population systems.",signatures:"Stig Skreslet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57518",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57518",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"56972",title:"Encounters in the Zooplankton: Implications for Pelagic Ecosystem Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70662",slug:"encounters-in-the-zooplankton-implications-for-pelagic-ecosystem-dynamics",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many important phenomena in the plankton are driven by encounters among individuals. These encounters are mediated by the relative motion of zooplankters, either through the swimming ability of organisms, the small-scale hydrodynamic turbulence, or both. Through selected case studies, in this chapter, we illustrate how encounter rates influence the predator-prey interactions and reproduction, two of the major processes regulating the zooplankton population dynamics. Estimations on the encounter rates among zooplankters were made on the basis of the Gerritsen-Strickler and Rothschild-Osborn models, which consider non-turbulent and turbulent conditions, respectively. In a first case, we show how the predatory impact of siphonophores is over the fish larvae, in the southern Gulf of Mexico. In the absence of water turbulence, a predator encounters 38–40 prey in a day at surface waters, but under the influence of the wind, encounters can increase between 1.2 and 3.3 times depending on the wind velocity and prey speed. In a second case, we examined the encounters between a copepod predator and a cladoceran prey, the dominant groups in the meromictic lagoon of Clipperton atoll. Here, a predator can encounter a high number of prey (until 441) in a day, due to the high density of prey. Turbulence conditions enhance encounter rates, but even if encounters are high, it does not mean that a predator can ingest a high number of prey. In a third case, we analyzed the mate encounters of the holoplanktonic mollusk Firoloida desmarestia from the southern Gulf of Mexico, throughout an annual cycle. Results indicated that May is the high reproductive season, a period where a female can encounter 17 males in a day, under turbulent conditions. As F. desmarestia is a low abundant species, the role of wind-induced turbulence proved to be highly important in increasing encounters between mates. These case studies illustrate the importance of encounters among zooplankters in the growth and maintenance of populations in the plankton. Future field and experimental studies are needed to achieve a better understanding of the pelagic ecosystem dynamics.",signatures:"Laura Sanvicente-Añorve and Miguel Alatorre-Mendieta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56972",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56972",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"59865",title:"Marine Fisheries in Nigeria: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75032",slug:"marine-fisheries-in-nigeria-a-review",totalDownloads:3936,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Fisheries production especially from marine is important for the socio-economic development of Nigerians and its contribution to the nation’s economic growth through the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Nigeria is blessed with enough marine fisheries resources that could enhance increased fish production. Yet, fish supply from domestic production is far below the fish demand of her citizens. This chapter is therefore focused on marine fisheries in Nigeria. We adopted a desk review approach. This chapter is divided into different sections such as the Nigerian fisheries sector, marine fisheries resources in Nigeria, status of marine fisheries production in Nigeria, marine fisheries regulations, and constraints to optimal marine fisheries production in Nigeria. We concluded that the contribution of aquaculture to marine fisheries production has been low, compared to the marine capture fisheries production. Also, we noted that despite the availability of regulations, noncompliance by fisher folks has not helped to optimize marine fisheries production. We therefore recommended that the culture of marine fishes should be intensified. Marine waters should also be protected against destruction and pollution as a result of human activities. Available marine fisheries regulations should be enforced and violators of the regulations should be punished as stipulated in the regulations.",signatures:"Olalekan Jacob Olaoye and Wahab Gbenga Ojebiyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59865",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59865",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60228",title:"Marine Stock Enhancement in India: Current Status and Future Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75175",slug:"marine-stock-enhancement-in-india-current-status-and-future-prospects",totalDownloads:2184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"India is a 12 mega-diversity nation known for its biodiversity richness. The geographic territory of India is an integral part of Central Indian Ocean Region consisting of three distinct marine ecosystem zones such as the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean. India is endowed with an exclusive economic zone of 2.02 million km2, coastline of over 8000 km and a variety of coastal ecosystems. The estimated number of marine fish species known from India constitutes 2443 species distributed in 230 families. According to the IUCN extant (2014), 50 species are threatened (6 of them critically endangered, 7 endangered and 37 vulnerable), while 45 are near-threatened. Marine fish diversity is in ever-increasing danger with depletion of resources. Overdependence on fish has led to overfishing resulting in the dwindling of diversity and abundance of stocks. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute has initiated marine stock assessment practices in India and its present report in 2016 recorded a total of 709 species which is lower than 730 species recorded in 2015 in the landings showing an alarming situation on the exploited marine fishery resources of India. This situation demands restorative measures such as restocking, stock enhancement and sea ranching.",signatures:"Mohammad Serajuddin, Farah Bano, Madhu Awasthi, Pragya\nGupta and Graish Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60228",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60154",title:"The Natural Ecology and Stock Enhancement of the Edible Jellyfish (Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye, 1891) in the Liaodong Bay, Bohai Sea, China",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75576",slug:"the-natural-ecology-and-stock-enhancement-of-the-edible-jellyfish-rhopilema-esculentum-kishinouye-18",totalDownloads:1047,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among the edible jellyfish species, Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye, 1891, is one of the most abundant jellyfish species consumed. Therefore, this jellyfish species is an important fisheries source in China. The jellyfish fisheries in China show annually considerable fluctuations and have a very short season. In the chapter, we firstly try to review the natural ecology of R. esculentum, which includes the distribution and migration, growth model, and survival rate in the Liaodong Bay (LDB) based on the results of our field studies for more than 20 years. Secondly, we focus on reviewing the jellyfish fishery and population dynamic in the LDB. Thirdly, we emphasize the themes, including the survey methods, catch prediction, enhancement assessment, and fishery management, based on our survey results from 2005 to 2010. Finally, we present our field and experiment results of resource restoration. The high commercial value of R. esculentum enhancement in the LDB has made this a very successful enterprise.",signatures:"Jing Dong, Bin Wang, Yan Duan, Aiyong Wang, Yulong Li, Ming\nSun, Yu Chai, Xiuze Liu, Xuguang Yu, Dong Guo and Xiaolin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60154",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60154",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60698",title:"Overview on Mediterranean Shark’s Fisheries: Impact on the Biodiversity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74923",slug:"overview-on-mediterranean-shark-s-fisheries-impact-on-the-biodiversity",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Bibliographic analysis shows that the Mediterranean Sea is a hot spot for cartilaginous species biodiversity, including sharks, rays, and chimaeras; 49 sharks and 36 rays were recorded in this region. However, they are by far the most endangered group of marine fish in the Mediterranean Sea. The IUCN Red List shows clearly the vulnerability of elasmobranchs and the lack of data; 39 species (53% of 73 assessed species) are critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. The biological characteristics of elasmobranchs (low fecundity, late maturity, and slow growth) make them more vulnerable to fishing pressure than most teleost fish. Overfishing, the wide use of nonselective fishing practices, and habitat degradation are leading to dramatic declines of these species in the Mediterranean Sea. In general, elasmobranchs are not targeted but are caught incidentally. In many fisheries, they are, however, often landed and marketed. A decline in cartilaginous fish species landings has been observed while fishing effort has generally increased. Better understanding of the composition of incidental and targeted catches of sharks by commercial fisheries are fundamentally important for the conservation of these populations. Moreover, problems encountered by elasmobranchs in the area are highlighted, and conservation measures are suggested.",signatures:"Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai, Bechir Saidi and Samira Enajjar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60698",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60698",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"59954",title:"An Update on Reproduction in Ghost Shrimps (Decapoda: Axiidea) and Mud Lobsters (Decapoda: Gebiidea)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75067",slug:"an-update-on-reproduction-in-ghost-shrimps-decapoda-axiidea-and-mud-lobsters-decapoda-gebiidea-",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this report, I review the taxonomic history, body adaptations, ecology, and reproduction of the infraorders Axiidea (ghost shrimps) and Gebiidea (mud lobsters). Known until recently as the “Thalassinidea,” modern classification divided Axiidea into six families and Gebiidea into five. Ghost shrimps are characterized by having the first and second pereiopod chelate and a soft and delicate body, whereas mud lobsters possess the first pereiopod chelate or subchelate and second pereiopod subchelate or simple with a hard and heavily calcified body. Among the main body adaptations of these organisms are distinguished: (i) carapace laterally compressed, (ii) pleon longer than the cephalothorax in ghost shrimps but usually shorter in mud lobsters, and (iii) anterior feet thrown directly forward. Current accounting of axiideans and gebiideans reaches around 781 and 240 extant species, respectively, with major number of species in Callianassidae and Upogebiidae within of each clade. Male reproductive system involves paired testes linked to the vas deferens that open in gonopores on the ventral coxal segment of the fifth pereiopod. In females, the reproductive system is composed of paired and colored ovaries, one ovary shorter than another, and a pair of short and translucent oviducts linking each ovary to the gonopore, this latter located on the ventral coxal of the third pereiopod. When present in males, the first pleopod is sexually dimorphic. Most ghost shrimps show distinct sexual dimorphism in body size and the major cheliped which become them in a promising group for growth studies. Hypertrophied chelipeds in males are often used to defend galleries against invasion from other shrimps from the same or opposite sex or during the intense male-to-male competition for sexual partners. Knowledge about sexual systems of these species remains limited; however, available information suggests that hermaphroditism might be commonly present in axiideans and gebiideans. Regarding mating systems, all species of ghost shrimp and mud lobster with solitary habits and remarkable sexual dimorphism in the major cheliped are expected to be polygamous. Finally, considerable variability among Axiidea and Gebiidea species in fecundity and egg size may indicate important differences in the reproductive strategy and may also reflect a latitudinal trend as observed in other decapods.",signatures:"Patricio Hernáez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59954",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59954",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"61371",title:"The Role of Microalgae in Renewable Energy Production: Challenges and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73573",slug:"the-role-of-microalgae-in-renewable-energy-production-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microalgae are one of the most effective sources of renewable energy production. It can grow at high rates and capable of producing oil along the year. Microalgae biomass was first suggested as a feedstock for biofuel production and received early attention for commercial application. Microalgae are expected to be a vital raw material for amino acids, vitamins and productions of valuable byproducts. The cultivation of microalgae is known to be the most gainful business in the biotechnological industry. It is a waste less, environmentally pure, energy and resource saving route. Biodiesel production from algal lipid is non-toxic and highly biodegradable. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical and biochemical methods, in addition to the large number of different agents for decomposing and hydrolysing. We can obtain the low-cost energy production from the wastewater treatment by using microalgae. 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Monoclonal gammopathies (MG) are a group of diseases characterized by proliferation of clonal plasma cells (PC). Physiological PC are terminally differentiated B cells, which secrete various types of antibodies used for neutralization of pathogens [1]. This essential function of PC is disrupted in MM patients, and abnormal cells overproduce monoclonal immunoglobulin (M-Ig) [2]. Multiple myeloma (MM) and its precursor disease monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) are two most common MG. The less frequent MG include Waldenström macroglobulinemia, solitary plasmacytoma, light chains amyloidosis and plasma cell leukemia [3].
\nMM is the second most common hematological malignancy [4]. It is caused by malignant transformation of PC, which infiltrate the bone marrow (BM) disrupting normal hematopoiesis. Moreover, they produce M-Ig that is found in serum and/or urine of MM patients. MM is characterized by a set of clinical features known as CRAB features (hypercalcemia, renal failure, anemia and bone lesions) [5, 6].
\nMM represents about 13% of all hematological and about 1% of all malignancies. The incidence in the Czech Republic has been reported at 4.8/100000 per year [7], while in Europe it is slightly higher, 6/100000 per year [8]. Interestingly, MM is quite common in North America, Europe and Australia, while it is rare in the Middle East and Asia [9].
\nIn 2003, the International Myeloma Working Group (IMWG) published diagnostic criteria for MM: infiltration of BM by malignant PC >10%, CRAB features and presence of M-Ig in serum and/or urine [2]. Thus, MM was treated only when CRAB feature(s) were fully developed. At that time, most treatment options were quite toxic, which is why treatment was postponed [10]. The past 10 years, however, have brought unprecedented new treatment options (immunomodulatory drugs, proteasome inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies) that improved survival rates as well as quality of life of MM patients. This led to revision of diagnostic criteria in 2014 from diagnostics based on clinical symptoms to diagnostics based on biomarkers allowing earlier treatment of the disease [6].
\nSince the new drugs have been introduced into clinics, detection of minimal residual disease (MRD) has become even more important as MRD negativity is a prognostic factor in MM. Moreover, sensitivity of the detection method is becoming an issue since new drugs induce deep response, and MRD needs to be measured with sensitivity up to 10−6. The two most common methods used for MRD detection are multiparametric flow cytometry and ASO-PCR (allele-specific PCR) [11, 12, 13]. ASO-PCR is based on the detection of patient-specific V(D)J rearrangement in bone marrow plasma cells (BMPC) [14]. Nowadays, next-generation sequencing (NGS) is gaining more attention as a more precise and modern method of detection. However, NGS needs to be standardized and more accessible before it can be used more broadly.
\nThe genome of MM cells is highly unstable and harbors various cytogenetic abnormalities, including translocations, deletions or duplications. From the cytogenetic point of view, MM may be divided into two groups: hyperdiploid and non-hyperdiploid. Hyperdiploid genome is mostly characterized by trisomies of odd chromosomes (3,5,7,9,11,15,19,21) and is connected to better prognosis [5], while non-hyperdiploid genome is characterized by monosomies of chromosomes 8,13,14,16,17 and 22 and recurrent chromosomal translocations involving the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) locus at 14q32. In MM, the most frequent chromosomal translocations are t(11;14)(q13;q32) (15–20% of MM patients) and t(4;14)(p16;q32) (12–15% of MM patients). Other translocations are less frequent, found only in less than 5% of patients (t(14;16)(q32; q23), t(14;20)(q32;q11) and t(6;14) (p21;q32)). In MM cells with t(11;14)(q13;q32), cyclin D1 gene is translocated under the control of immunoglobulin heavy chain enhancer. Similarly, cyclin D3 gene at 6p21 is overexpressed in MM cells carrying t(6;14)(p21;q32) [14].
\nIn addition to MM being a genetically heterogeneous disease, it is also characterized by multifocal tumor deposits throughout the BM and focal lesions elsewhere. Malignant PC in these lesions carry various cytogenetic aberrations with varying level of prognostic value [15]. Diagnosis and monitoring of MM are routinely performed using BM aspiration and/or BM biopsy [6]. However, discrepant results were described from analyses of different biopsy sites within the same patient [16, 17]. Diagnostic biopsies of the BM are obtained only from a single site in the BM what creates a sampling bias and provides only a limited molecular profile as all subpopulations of PC, so-called subclones, are not present in the BM [18].
\nLiquid biopsies represent one of the possible solutions for more comprehensive analysis of MM patients. Various targets, which can be analyzed in MM samples, include circulating tumor cells [19], cell-free DNA (cfDNA) [20], microRNA (miRNA) [21] and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) molecules [22]. This review summarizes current knowledge of all aspects of liquid biopsies in MM.
\nIn some cases, PC may migrate out of the BM into peripheral blood (PB), then they are called circulating PC (cPC) [23, 24]. While the reason for the migration is unclear, it is clear that these cPC lose (in some cases only temporarily) their dependence on the BM microenvironment due to the loss of adhesion molecules, increased proliferation, increased number of chromosomal aberrations and increased angiogenesis [25, 26]. The presence of cPC in newly diagnosed MM patients has been associated with shorter survival of patients, and it is an independent negative prognostic factor [24]. It is also possible that it is the first feature of extramedullary relapse, which is characterized by infiltration of PC into soft tissues and bad prognosis for patients [27]. In case that the number of cPC increases to over 20% in PB, it may turn into progression to secondary plasma cell leukemia [28].
\ncPC can be detected in a small fraction of newly diagnosed MM patients (15%) by conventional morphology [29]. However, this frequency increases up to 50–70% once more sensitive techniques, such as flow cytometry, are used [30]. Interestingly, the presence of cPC has been associated with an increased risk of malignant transformation to symptomatic MM in MGUS patients as well as with an inferior survival among symptomatic newly diagnosed and relapse/refractory MM [31]. In a study by Paiva et al., cPC were analyzed by multiparametric flow cytometry, FISH and cell cycle analysis; cPC were compared to paired PC samples from the BM. Their results showed that cPC are a unique subpopulation of malignant PC in MM; cPC are characterized by decreased expression of integrins (CD11a/CD11c/CD29/CD49d/CD49e) and adhesion molecules (CD33/CD56/CD117/CD138). cPC were also mostly quiescent with higher clonogenic potential than BMPC [31].
\nMishima et al. investigated genomic characterization of MM patients using cPC and wondered if mutational profile of cPC is in concordance with mutational profile of PC from the BM. This study showed that both populations have similar mutations. Interestingly, 100% of clonal mutations found in PC from BM were also detected in cPC. Moreover, 99% of clonal mutations of cPC were also found in BMPC. Whole genome sequencing did not find any major differences between these two groups of MM cells, suggesting that the change in biological behavior of cPC could be based on the changes of expression of ncRNA molecules [32].
\nCell-free DNA are short fragments of DNA not associated with a cell and found in PB and other body fluids, such as urine, saliva, breast milk and others [33, 34, 35]. The term cfDNA is a general term that includes circulating DNA of both healthy and tumor origin. As circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) fragments represent only a fraction of total cfDNA, it is necessary to distinguish the origin of fragments during analysis. Physiological levels of cfDNA in PB of healthy individuals are generally low (10–100 ng/ml). This changes, however, in case of various pathological events. Elevated levels of cfDNA were described in patients with inflammation, trauma, sepsis, stroke or heart attack [36, 37, 38], but the highest levels of cfDNA were found in cancer patients, where they reached up to 1000 ng/ml [39, 40]. These findings suggest a correlation between levels of cfDNA and tumor burden. Nevertheless, cfDNA levels were not found to be cancer-specific. Stability of cfDNA is variable, ranging from 15 minutes to 2.5 hours; therefore, the amount of cfDNA cannot be used as a diagnostic marker [41].
\nCells can release cfDNA either actively, using exosomes [42], or passively by apoptosis and necrosis (Figure 1) [43, 44]. In 2016, however, a study by Bronkhorst et al. proposed that apoptosis and necrosis are not the source of cfDNA and that active secretion is primarily used for cfDNA release [45]. This proposal will require further investigation as it suggests a more active role of cfDNA in cell-to-cell communication. Since cfDNA is released directly from cells, circulating fragments contain the same genetic information as the original cell. In case of cancer cells, this allows detection of cancer-specific genetic and epigenetic aberrations, such as mutations, microsatellite alterations, changes in DNA methylation and others [41].
\nSchematic structure of release of circulating molecules and vesicles into bloodstream. miRNA – Micro RNA, lncRNA – Long non-coding RNA, cfDNA – Cell-free DNA and pre-miRNA – Precursor miRNA.
In the field of MM research, only a small number of cfDNA studies have been published so far. The first pilot study was published by Sata et al. In 2015 [23] they compared ASO-PCR data from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), BM mononuclear cells (BMMC), CD20 + CD38− B-cell population in BM and serum cfDNA. Even though the study was quite small and only 20 patients (out of 30 enrolled) were quantifiable, it provided interesting results suggesting further studies and validation are needed. A strong correlation between BMMC and PBMC was found, suggesting circulation of clonogenic PC in PB; PBMC also negatively correlated with treatment as ASO-PCR data from those cells always decreased after treatment. These results suggest a possibility to use PBMC instead of BMMC in monitoring of MRD in MM patients. In addition, DNA sequences found in cfDNA were identical to those found in BM cells in 18/20 cases at diagnosis and 16/20 cases of follow-up samples, while levels of cfDNA remained mostly stable during the course of therapy. Based on these results, the authors assumed that detection of tumor V(D)J rearrangement in cfDNA can reflect presence and persistence of MM clones in patients. However, because of insufficient number of patients who reached complete remission (CR), the potential of cfDNA analysis for MRD monitoring remained unclear [46].
\nIn 2017, three important studies on this topic were published [20, 47, 48]. The first by Kis et al. compared cfDNA analysis to BM analysis regarding molecular profiling of disease. This study screened 64 cfDNA samples from 53 MM patients for sequences of all protein-coding exons of
The second important study, although once again lacking a larger patient cohort, was conducted by Oberle et al. and focused on detection of clonotypic V(D)J rearrangement in circulating MM cells and cfDNA. A cohort of 27 MM patients with various treatment regimens based on bortezomib, lenalidomide and panobinostat was examined. NGS was used for identification and tracking of patient-specific V(D)J rearrangements. The identification of rearrangements was successful in only 23 out of 27 patients, and these patients underwent further screening of blood samples before and after initiation of therapy. Baseline screening detected patient-specific V(D)J rearrangement in 71% of cases in circulating MM cells and in 100% of cases in cfDNA. However, these values decreased in follow-up samples to 40% and 34%, respectively. The results also correlated with remission status of patients—91% of non-responders/progressors and 41% of responders to therapy had evidence of persistent MM in circulating cells or cfDNA. Interestingly, positivity in circulating MM cells and cfDNA associated with each other (P = 0.042) but disagreed in 30% of cases. This suggests that circulating MM cells are not the only source of MM cfDNA and that cfDNA may reflect tumor burden more comprehensively. All these results indicate that V(D)J analysis from PB samples may be used for evaluation of treatment efficacy and possibly even for MRD prediction [48]. However, validation on a larger cohort is necessary.
\nThe last study was published by Mithraprabhu et al., and the subject of this study was mutational characterization of MM. Paired DNA samples of BM PC and plasma derived cfDNA were analyzed for the presence of activating mutations of four oncogenes—
So far, not many cfDNA studies in MM have been conducted; however, the data are exciting and strongly suggest the future role of cfDNA in MRD monitoring.
\nProtein-coding genes comprise only about 1.5% of the genome. At the same time, it was shown that more than 90% is transcriptionally active [49]. Transcription of this so-called junk DNA leads to creation of thousands of RNA molecules that are not capable of coding proteins. Surprisingly, it was shown that the more complex the organism, the higher number of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecules it contains [50]. These molecules have many different functions in the most important cell processes, such as differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis and many others. They are involved in tumorigenesis as well.
\nBased on their length, ncRNA are divided into two groups: short (sncRNA) and long (lncRNA). SncRNA are smaller than 200 nucleotides (nt), while lncRNA are longer than 200 nt. The first ncRNA molecules that were identified more than 50 years ago were ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) [4, 5, 51]. While there are many classes of ncRNA, the most studied and well known are microRNA (miRNA) and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA).
\nMiRNA are short, non-coding, single-stranded RNA molecules about 21–23 nt long. They are involved in regulation of gene expression and influence various cell processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and tumorigenesis. MiRNA genes account for 1–2% of the human genome, and mature miRNA regulate around 50% of protein-coding genes [49].
\nBased on the canonical model of miRNA biogenesis, miRNA genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase II or III into primary precursors, stem-loop structures (pri-miRNA) that contain 5′ end cap and polyA on the 3′ end. Pri-miRNA are cleaved in the nucleus by RNAse II enzyme Drosha and Pasha leading to pre-miRNA [52]. Pre-miRNA are exported into cytoplasm by transport protein exportin 5 [53]. In the cytoplasm, the pre-miRNA molecule is processed by the RISC complex that contains RNAse III Dicer and protein Argonaute 2 (Ago2). RISC complex cuts the molecule into 20–23 nt long double-stranded miRNA duplex with 2 nt overhang on 3′ ends [54]. One of the strands is the so-called guide strand and is complementary to the mRNA sequence. The other (‘passenger’ strand) is degraded. Which one of these strands is degraded is based on the stability of pairing on the 5′ end of the miRNA duplex [55]. Based on the level of miRNA/mRNA complementarity, the target mRNA is either silenced translationally in case of non-complete complementarity or degraded in case of 100% complementarity [56, 57].
\nMiRNA regulate a large spectrum of physiological and pathological processes including oncogenesis; they can act as oncogenes or tumor suppressors. Several mechanisms of miRNA role in tumorigenesis have been described: increased expression levels, amplification, epigenetic silencing or loss of miRNA gene that regulates expression of a tumor suppressor gene [58]. On the other hand, deletion and epigenetic silencing of miRNA gene expression that silences oncogene expression have been described as well [59]. Moreover, mutations in target sequences of mRNA lead to failed translational repression or degradation of target mRNA [60].
\nIn a pilot study of miRNA expression in malignant transformation of PC, increased expression of miR-181a/b, cluster miR-106b-25 (miR-93, miR-106b, miR 25) and miR-21 in MGUS and MM patients in comparison to healthy donors (HD) was found. Interestingly, MM patients showed increased expression of cluster miR-17-92a suggesting a possible role of this cluster in disease progression [61].
\nEssentially, all human body fluids (PB, saliva, urine, breast milk, etc.) contain the so-called circulating miRNA [62]. Circulating miRNA are quite stable and resistant to RNases as they are part of protein (Ago2) or lipoprotein (high-density lipoprotein (HDL)) complexes or they are bound inside exosomes—small transport vesicles [63]. It seems that circulating miRNA are involved in cell-to-cell communication as they are exported outside of cells based on biological stimuli. These molecules can also take part in cell processes, such as communication, proliferation, differentiation and in case of tumors also metastases [64]. Specific profiles of circulating miRNA are diagnostic markers differentiating HD from patients, but they also correlate with progression and staging of the tumor [65, 66]. A major advantage of these molecules as potential biomarkers is their simple structure, easy access and measurability by standard laboratory techniques [64].
\nIn MM, circulating miRNA were first described in 2012. In a study by Jones et al., PB serum samples of MGUS and MM patients were analyzed in comparison to HD. They found that miR-720, miR-1246 and miR-1308 could serve as potential markers of MG [67].
\nThe success of this study led to other studies, especially in MM. However, different approaches lead to varying results. The main differences were type of samples (serum or plasma of PB), design of experiments (patients vs. HD) and used methods and platforms.
\nPlasma of PB was reported to have lower levels of miR-92a in newly diagnosed MM patients in comparison to HD. Moreover, the level of miR-92a fluctuated based on progression of disease and treatment response, which would suggest a possible role of this miRNA as a predictive biomarker [68]. Another study showed increased expression of miR-148a, miR-181a, miR-20a, miR-221 and miR-88b in plasma of PB of MM patients in comparison with HD. Expression level of miR-20a and miR-148a was connected to shorter time to relapse of MM; this study suggested that circulating plasma miR-20a could be a marker of worse prognosis of MM [69]. On contrary, another study showed mostly decreased miRNA expression in MM patients compared to HD. MiR-483-5p and miR-20a were shown to have diagnostic and prognostic potential [70].
\nSo far, most studies were performed using serum miRNA. Our own pilot study showed significantly increased levels of miR-29a, miR-660 and miR-142-5p in MM patients in comparison with HD. We showed that circulating serum miR-29a could be a biomarker for MM patients [71]. In our follow-up study, we showed dysregulation of five serum miRNA, miR-744, miR-130a, let-7d, let-7e and miR-34a in MGUS and MM patients in comparison with HD. Multivariate analysis showed that combination of miR-34a and let-7e distinguishes the patient cohorts with good sensitivity and specificity. Moreover, dynamics of serum miRNA with disease progression was shown [72].
\nIn another study, increased expression of miR-181a/b, miR-221, miR-222 and miR-382 was found in relapsed MM patients and MM cell lines [51]. On contrary, lower expression of miR-15a and miR-16 was described; these miRNA have been described in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and seem to be part of pathogenesis of this disease. The genes for these miRNA are coded in the 13q14 locus; this locus is often deleted also in MM [73]. MiR-15a and miR-16 support apoptosis and decrease proliferation of MM cells by AKT and MAP kinase signaling [51].
\nIn a study by Rocci et al., higher levels of miR-25, miR-16 and miR-30a in MM patients correlated with longer overall survival (OS) [74]. Another study showed that miR-19a and miR-4254 distinguish MM and HD. In addition, decreased level of serum miR-19a was positively correlated with international staging system (ISS) stage, presence of del(13q14) and gain 1q21 and shorter progression-free survival (PFS) and OS. Surprisingly, these patients responded to bortezomib better [75].
\nSerum miRNA were also analyzed at CR after autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT). MiR-16, miR-17, miR-19b, miR-20a and miR-660 were decreased in diagnostic samples in comparison with CR samples [76]. Patients with lower levels of miR-19b and miR-331 had shorter PFS after ASCT. Level of miR-19b was significantly lower in samples obtained at relapsed than at CR.
\nThe most common clinical manifestation of MM is osteolytic lesions. Increased levels of serum miR-214 and miR-135b were found in MM patients with osteolytic lesions, and their expression correlated with severity of the symptoms [77]. Moreover, increased level of miR-214 associated with shorter PFS and OS.
\nUsing NGS, miRNA (let-7b a miR-18a) from exosomes isolated from serum of MM patients significantly correlated with PFS and OS in univariate analysis and with ISS and cytogenetic abnormalities in multivariate analysis [78]. Moreover, it was shown that levels of exosomal miR-16-5p, miR-15a-5p, miR-20a-5p and miR-17-5p were significantly decreased in MM patients resistant to bortezomib [79].
\nAs for miRNA in other body fluids, our group performed analysis of circulating miRNA in urine of MM patients in comparison with HD. Unfortunately, we did not find any miRNA significantly dysregulated [13].
\nWhile a lot of work was done on circulating miRNA in MG, so far no clear biomarkers of the diseases have been identified. It is possible that MM as a heterogeneous disease will not have a single circulating miRNA as a biomarker. Further studies and standardization of sample processing, types of samples and analytical methods need to be performed.
\nIn our opinion, miRNA have a large potential for diagnostics of monoclonal gammopathies. Most studies were done on diagnostics samples; however, the data are not consistent and more standardization and optimization is needed. The possibility of using miRNA as prognostic or monitoring markers needs to be further validated.
\nLncRNA are an abundant class of RNA between 200 nt and 100 kb long [80, 81]. To date, approximately 16,000 lncRNA have been identified in the human genome (http://www.gencodegenes.org/). On the other hand, the functional characterization of most of them has not been determined yet.
\nGenes encoding for lncRNA are present in many types of organisms, including animals [82], plants [83], yeast [84], prokaryotic organisms [85] and viruses [86]. LncRNA do not possess protein-coding capacity due to the absence of open reading frames (ORFs) or because of insufficient length of ORFs [87, 88, 89, 90]. They can be classified according to their genomic localization into three major groups: long intergenic non-coding RNA (lincRNA), long intronic RNA and long non-coding RNA transcribed from specific genomic regions.
\nThe expression of lncRNA genes is developmental and tissue-specific, and they have been associated with a large spectrum of biological processes, for example, alternative splicing, modulation of protein activity, alternation of protein localization, epigenetic regulation and generally regulation of gene expression. These molecules can be precursors of small RNA and even tools for miRNA silencing [91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. LncRNA play an important role both in physiological and pathological processes. The deregulated expression levels of these molecules were identified in a large variety of tumor diseases: breast cancer [97], small-cell lung carcinoma [98] and also in MM [22]. It was shown that alterations in lncRNA can influence regulation of cancer progression [99]. Interestingly, lncRNA seem to have higher tissue specificity even in comparison with protein-coding mRNA and miRNA. Thus, they are even more interesting as new specific biomarkers [88].
\nFunction of lncRNA can also be derived from their localization within the cell. These molecules can be found in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm. LncRNA are preferably located in the cell nucleus, deriving their significant effect on the DNA sequence [88].
\nThe classification of lncRNA can be based on their influence on the DNA sequence. From this perspective, there are two classes of lncRNA: cis-lncRNA (cis-acting lncRNA) and trans-lncRNA (trans-acting lncRNA). Cis-IncRNA can positively or negatively regulate expression of genes that are located in their genomic proximity [95]. On the other hand, trans-lncRNA regulate expression of distant genes [100]. Many lncRNA are transcribed by RNA polymerase II, just like protein-coding genes. If lncRNA are involved in the regulation of RNA polymerase II, they are transcribed by RNA polymerase III [87, 101, 102, 103]. High degree of evolutionary conservation, tissue-specific expression and stability of lncRNA point to significant functional role of these molecules [104].
\nDysregulation of lncRNA expression was observed in various human diseases, including cancer. LncRNA may be either oncogenes or tumor suppressors in development as well as progression of tumors [105, 106]. Changes of expression levels of several lncRNA have been reported in several malignancies; other lncRNA seem to be specific for a single tumor, suggesting that these molecules may be good biomarkers for tumor diagnostics as well as prognosis and prediction [107].
\nMoreover, it was shown that lncRNA are involved in regulation of hematopoiesis, including proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of hematopoietic stem cells as well as progenitors and precursors of mature blood cells [108, 109]. Dysregulated expression of lncRNA was reported in lymphomas, leukemias and MM. It seems possible that expression profile of these lncRNA could have a potential clinical significance in diagnostics and prognostics of hematologic malignancies.
\nCurrent information about the role of lncRNA in pathogenesis of MM is very limited. So far, MALAT1 has been described as a marker of early progression [110]. Expression level of this lncRNA was increased in BM cells of newly diagnosed MM patients and changed during progression of the disease. Patients with lower levels of MALAT1 had a higher risk of early progression.
\nHanda et al. showed higher expression level of MALAT1 in MM patients in comparison to MGUS and HD [111]. These results are in correlation with another study of Ronchetti et al. who showed dysregulation of 31 lncRNA, including MALAT1, in MM patients [112]. Moreover, this lncRNA may be important in MM pathogenesis through activation of TGF-β, a factor important for osteolytic lesion formation [113].
\nAn earlier study showed decreased expression of MEG3 in MM patients [114]. Decreased expression or loss of this lncRNA seems to be important in various types of human tumors [115]. In a study by Benetatos et al., MEG3 was reported to be lost in more than half of MM patients, and it seemed to have a prognostic significance for MM [116].
\nOur own study showed that UCA1 might be a marker of MM when HD, MGUS and MM plasma cells were compared (with sensitivity of 85.0% and specificity of 94.7%). UCA1 levels seemed to correlate with albumin and monoclonal immunoglobulin serum levels, cytogenetic aberrations, and survival of MM patients.
\nSimilar to circulating miRNA, even lncRNA may be detected in body fluids suggesting their possible role as biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and prediction. They were found in PB and urine, but they can also be found within exosomes where they are protected against RNases [117].
\nMost studies of circulating lncRNA published so far were studies of solid tumors. In prostate cancer, PCA3 specificity was so high that a new test from urine has been approved for usage in Europe; it can be used together with currently used PSA test (prostate-specific antigen) [118, 119, 120, 121].
\nIn urinary bladder cancer, increased level of UCA1 was detected not only in the tumor tissue but also in PB and urine of patients [79, 122]. It was shown that based on UCA1 expression, urinary bladder cancer may be distinguished from other urinary bladder diseases with high specificity [28].
\nUnfortunately, only very few studies were published about circulating lncRNA in MM. In a study of Isin et al. [123], five candidate lncRNA (TUG1, MALAT1, HOTAIR, GAS5, lincRNA-p21) were analyzed in plasma of PB of MM patients in comparison with CLL patients [103]. Plasma of PB of CLL patients contained significantly deregulated levels of lincRNA-p21. On the other hand, MM plasma contained deregulated levels of the other four lncRNA. When compared to HD, MM patients contained only TUG1 deregulated levels. There was a correlation of circulating lncRNA and clinical subgroups of MM, suggesting that TU1 could be a part of MM progression. Another study reported significantly higher levels of PCAT-1 in MM patients in comparison with HD. Its potential as a biomarker was proven by ROC analysis that showed sensitivity of 71.7% and specificity of 93.8%. A possible correlation with MM pathogenesis was suggested by a correlation with β2 microglobulin [123].
\nWhile lncRNA molecules are generally described as being more tissue-specific than miRNA, not enough data have been published on circulating lncRNA in MM. Further studies that are more comprehensive are needed to verify their claim as the more specific marker.
\nWhile not many studies have been published dealing with liquid biopsies of circulating molecules in multiple myeloma, they show a great promise. Liquid biopsies could be used as an adjunct to standard BM biopsy for disease monitoring to enable obtaining more complex results and easier follow-up of patients. While there are many candidate molecules that have been described in this review (cfDNA, miRNA and lncRNA), more studies are needed to validate these findings.
\nThis work was supported by grant AZV 15-29508A.
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Evidence indicates that 20-50% of children with ADHD meet criteria for ASD, and 30-80% of ASD children meet criteria for ADHD.",book:{id:"4611",slug:"adhd-new-directions-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",title:"ADHD",fullTitle:"ADHD - New Directions in Diagnosis and Treatment"},signatures:"Maria Carmen Carrascosa-Romero and Carlos De Cabo- De La Vega",authors:[{id:"61718",title:"Dr.",name:"María Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascosa-Romero",slug:"maria-carmen-carrascosa-romero",fullName:"María Carmen Carrascosa-Romero"},{id:"61719",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"De Cabo De La Vega",slug:"carlos-de-cabo-de-la-vega",fullName:"Carlos De Cabo De La Vega"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71112",title:"Stress 0.0. Experimental Program of Meditations for Stress Reduction",slug:"stress-0-0-experimental-program-of-meditations-for-stress-reduction",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Welcome to the 0.0 Stress program. A practical trip integrator to reduce stress to its minimum expression. In this chapter, we will deepen our transpersonal experiential program, which can be very useful for anyone who experiences any signs or symptoms of stress such as anxiety, irritability, muscular tension, burnout, apathy, restlessness, headache, fatigue, digestive problems, concentration difficulties, worry, overwork, substance abuse, smoking, eating disorders, sleep disturbances, or simply feeling overwhelmed by events. 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Evidence indicates that 20-50% of children with ADHD meet criteria for ASD, and 30-80% of ASD children meet criteria for ADHD.",book:{id:"4611",slug:"adhd-new-directions-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",title:"ADHD",fullTitle:"ADHD - New Directions in Diagnosis and Treatment"},signatures:"Maria Carmen Carrascosa-Romero and Carlos De Cabo- De La Vega",authors:[{id:"61718",title:"Dr.",name:"María Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascosa-Romero",slug:"maria-carmen-carrascosa-romero",fullName:"María Carmen Carrascosa-Romero"},{id:"61719",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"De Cabo De La Vega",slug:"carlos-de-cabo-de-la-vega",fullName:"Carlos De Cabo De La Vega"}]},{id:"49032",title:"Mindfulness Meditation — A New Preventive Intervention for ADHD",slug:"mindfulness-meditation-a-new-preventive-intervention-for-adhd",totalDownloads:2096,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Medication and behavioral treatments have been used for ADHD treatments; however, both have limitations. 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It was reported that it is a disease that affects 5.29% of children and adolescents in the entire world. Although ADHD is a disorder with high inheritability, genetic factors are not the only explanation to ADHD etiology. ADHD is a disorder etiology which has genetic and environmental components and gene-environment interaction. In spite of the fact that many environmental factors are linked to ADHD, the number of environmental factors that are proven to be in significant cause-effect relation is too small. In other words, in presence of proper genetic basis, disease appears in presence of many environmental factors each of which have a slight effect, its severity or prognosis is variable. Environmental factors that are most commonly linked to ADHD pathophysiology are; complications during pregnancy, natal and postnatal period, several toxins and food substances. It has been considered that exposure to risk factors that may affect development of the brain in any of these periods will have long-term effects on behavior. Along with mother’s cigarette or alcohol use during pregnancy, emotional difficulties, medical diseases and complications of pregnancy; natal complications, low birth weight, premature birth, post mature birth, physical traumas that may affect brain development in early childhood, psychosocial difficulties are also found to be related to ADHD. Studies of gene-environment interaction also note the importance of environmental factors. For example, a study showed that in cases which carry 7 repeated alleles of DRD4, exposure to prenatal cigarettes causes more severe symptoms of ADHD. 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