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\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
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Secondary metabolites differ depending on the plant species. Secondary metabolites are molecules produced by plants that remain unknown in their roles in growth, photosynthesis, reproduction, and other primary processes. Secondary compounds are widely employed in plants, primarily in Asia [1]. Secondary metabolites boost human immunity because pharmaceuticals are mainly based on plant components. Secondary compounds in plants can serve as medicinal for humans [2]. Several criteria have been considered to classify secondary metabolites, including chemical structure, composition, solubility, and biosynthetic pathway [3].
Plants’ most critical secondary metabolites and bioactive chemicals are flavonoids and phenolic acids [4]. They’re also a natural antioxidant capable of scavenging free superoxide radicals, slowing the aging process, and lowering cancer risk. Flavonoids have been shown to reduce blood glucose levels in people. Phenolic acids Flavonoids have been found in several investigations [5]. Phenolic acid is a well-known class of secondary metabolites with a wide range of pharmacological effects. Phenolics are reported for various biological functions. Some of the effects of phenolics include enhancing bile secretion, lowering blood cholesterol and lipid levels, and antibacterial activity against bacteria such as
The phrase "phenolic acids" refers to phenolic compounds that have only one carboxylic acid group [9]. They are found in a different plant-based diet, with the most significant amounts in seeds, fruit skins, and vegetable leaves [10]. Plant phenolic acids are an essential part of the human diet because of their high antioxidant capacity and other health advantages. According to epidemiological studies, a diet with high antioxidant vegetables and fruits lowers the incidence of several oxidative disorders like cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. They also induced protective enzymes that positively affect signaling pathways, indicating indirect antioxidant activity [11]. Phenolic acids influence the action of glucose and insulin receptors. They increase the GLUT2 glucose transporter levels in insulin-producing pancreatic cells and stimulate GLUT4 transportation
Flavonoids are a type of polyphenolic chemical that occurs naturally. It’s one of the most prevalent combinations found in vegetables, fruits, and beverages made from plants. Flavonoids are dietary supplements that promote health and prevent disease. It is now measured as an essential part of a wide range of nutraceutical, pharmacological, medical, and other products [19]. Aside from their antioxidant properties, flavonoids have a wide range of biological activities that contribute to human health [20]. Anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, and cytotoxic actions are only a few examples. Flavonoids have shown various dietary benefits on antioxidant activity in multiple studies. Flavonoids also protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation-induced damage. As a result, flavonoids play an essential role as antioxidants in oxidative stress-related illnesses [21]. Inflammatory disorders such as leukemia, asthma, sepsis, atherosclerosis, sclerosis, allergic rhinitis, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ileitis/colitis, and others have been linked to flavonoids. To eradicate foreign pathogens and restore wounded tissues, recruitment of inflammatory cells and release of RNS, ROS, and proinflammatory cytokines. Inflammation is usually quick and self-limiting, but abnormal resolution and protracted inflammation can lead to various chronic diseases [22].
Flavonoids similarly inhibit phosphodiesterases involved in cell activation. According to a different study, flavonoid-rich extracts from plants have antibacterial properties [22]. According to numerous studies, natural flavonoids have been exceptional antiviral action since the 1940s. They aid in the blockage of several enzymes involved in the virus’s life cycle. According to many studies, flavonoids such as hesperetin, quercetin, and naringin have anti-dengue action [23]. Flavonoids have a prominent effect on the immunological implications that occur through the genesis and progression of cancer. They can affect various biological signals in cancer, including vascularization, apoptosis, cell proliferation, and cell differentiation. Flavonoids mainly increase carcinogenicity’s start and promotion stages and influence expansion and hormonal activity [19, 20].
Terpenes are a diverse group of secondary metabolites in plants, with over 40,000 distinct compounds [24]. Terpenes are categorized based on how many isoprene units they contain. Terpenes are combinations of volatile molecules with characteristic odors found in the flowers and fruits of many plants, including mint, lemon, ginger, eucalyptus, and great basil [25]. They have a variety of biological roles and are involved in plant’s metabolism. Terpenes are photosynthetic pigments, electron carriers, plant growth regulators, are part of cell membranes, and participate in protein glycosylation in the central metabolism [24, 26]. They combine as defense chemicals, poisonous substances, and food deterrents in the secondary metabolism of insects [1].
Saponins, glycosides extensively distributed in plants, are a varied group of molecules that includes a triterpenoid or steroidal aglycone with one or more sugar chains [27]. Because their immune-enhancing qualities have been utilized as adjuvants in vaccine formulations since the 1950s [28]. Ginseng dammarane sapogenins’ chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic properties have encouraged the creation of anticancer medicines at various stages of development [29]. Maturation inhibitors are novel HIV medicines researched using betulinic acid derivatives [30]. Inflammation, infection, alcoholism, pre- and postmenopausal symptoms, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and coronary heart disease, prophylaxis, and dementia, ultraviolet damage including cataract, gastric ulcer, gastritis, and duodenal ulcer have all been treated with saponin-containing pharmaceutical compositions or plant extracts [27, 30, 31]. Saponins have also been patented for use as adjuvants to improve the absorption of bioactive chemicals and medications [32]. Plants that contain saponins, such as yucca, ginseng, chestnut, licorice, and sarsaparilla, have been utilized in traditional medicine for ages to prevent and treat various disorders by numerous cultures [31].
Tannins are phenolic chemicals that are found practically everywhere in plants. Fruit, the bark of trees, wood, and as well as in numerous wild plants and herbs, and forestry and agriculture [33], contain them. Chestnut tannin, is a renowned member of the commercial hydrolyzable tannins family, has been recommended as an antibacterial or a way to reduce mycotoxins [34]. Other uses for tannins, including ellagitannins and gallotannins, include treating bacterial infections, regulating cytotoxins production, antihistamine, antiasthma, and avoiding rhinitis, as well as blocking HIV propagation in human cells [33, 35]. There have also been reports on the usefulness of several tannin-derived chemicals in treating obesity, arteriosclerosis, and thrombosis, decreasing triglycerides, preventing Staphylococcus aureus and other gram-positive bacteria, and leukemia [33]. Patents have also been published on the non-commercial use of tannins to treat cognitive, neurological, and metabolic diseases, diabetes II and obesity, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia [35].
The word "Lignan" refers to a class of dimeric phenylpropanoids containing two C6-C3 phenylpropanoids are linked by a C8 phenylpropanol. Lignans can be found in over 60 different types of vascular foliage. Lignans are a nonflavonoid polyphenol subclass [38]. They have high functional importance, and eating a diet rich in them can lower your risk of cardiovascular disease. Lignans can be found in barley, flaxseed, wheat bran, almonds, legumes, sesame seeds, fruits, and vegetables. A 12-year study published in 1889 found that those with elevated enterolactone levels had a decreased incidence of heart failure compared with low levels [39]. Clinical trials have demonstrated that adding diets with 30–50 grams of flaxseed per day for 4–12 weeks reduced LDL cholesterol by 8%–14% [40]. Another possible study looked at the influence of dietary lignan on breast cancer risk; women who consumed dietary lignan had a 17% minor risk of breast cancer than those in the lowest quartile [41]. According to the study report, women who consume many dietary lignans have a lower risk of endometrial cancer. Enterodiol and enterolactone have been shown to reduce the risk of hormone-related cancers [42]. Lignans are hypotensive, anticarcinogenic, cardiac-protective, lower cholesterol, and lengthen the food’s time in the stomach [43]. Because lignans have antioxidant properties, they can reduce oxidative stress and reduce the risk of diabetes-I. In type II diabetes, it can also block the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, which activates glucogenesis in the liver [44]. For decades, silymarin has been used to cure liver, spleen, and gallbladder illnesses. Hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antidiabetic activities are found in silymarin [45].
In the last ten years, at least three decades, hydroxybenzoic acids have been shown to have biological activity among the diversity of natural phenolic acids. Grapefruit, olive oil, and medlar fruit are all sources of 3-hydroxybenzoic acid [46]. It’s a glycosylating enzyme [47]. Carrots, oil palm, grapes, and various other plants have been shown to contain p-hydroxybenzoic acid, including satinwood, peroba, yellow-leaf tree, taheebo, southern catalpa, red sandalwood, chinese chaste tree, betel palm, cuban royal palm, and medlar [46]. Antifungal, antimutagenic, antisickling, estrogenic, and antibacterial properties have been discovered. The freshwater green alga responds to p-Hydroxybenzoic acid by growing faster [48, 49].
Khadem and Marles [46] have summarized the pharmaceutical activities of different hydroxybenzoic acids as mentioned in the following. Pyrocatechuic acid is a radical scavenger, a siderophore, and an antioxidant. Gentisic acid reduces LDL oxidation in humans and is an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiarthritic, antirheumatic, and cytostatic drug. Resorcylic acid is a nematicidal substance. For dandruff, ichthyosis, acne, psoriasis, and other skin disorders, salicylic acid has anti-inflammatory, keratolytic, antipyretic, antiseptic, analgesic, and antifungal characteristics. It acts as a hormonal modulator of plant tolerance to disease assaults and environmental stress. 6-Methylsalicylic acid is a toxin found in plants. It works as an antimicrobial and antifeeding agent. Thyroid peroxidase is inhibited by -resorcylic acid. Orsellinic acid has antibacterial properties. Antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, free radical scavenger, apoptotic, chemopreventive, neuroprotective, platelet aggregation inhibitor, and LDL oxidation inhibitor are some of the bioactivities of protocatechuic acid. In addition to its antisickling and anthelmintic properties, vanillic acid has been shown to reduce hepatic fibrosis during liver injury. It’s also reported to be a 5’-nucleotidase inhibitor in snake venom. Antibacterial and antioxidant properties are found in isovanillic acid. Syringic acid possesses antibacterial and hepatoprotective properties in addition to being an antioxidant. Digallic acid is cytotoxic and anti-apoptotic. It has antigenotoxic and antioxidant properties as well. For lower plants, it has growth inhibitory and dormancy-inducing properties. Lunularic acid also exhibits antifungal, antialgicidal, and antihyaluronidase properties. Hydrangeic acid has anti-diabetic properties, lowering blood sugar, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels. Anacardic acid is effective against the larvae of the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata).
Anti-Helicobacter pylori action has been discovered in an anacardic acid combination. Ginkgolic acid suppresses protein SUMOylation in addition to its anticancer and antitubercular properties. SUMO proteins (small ubiquitin-related modifier proteins) regulate various cellular activities linked to cancer and neurological illnesses. Turgorins are thought to be chemicals that regulate thigmotactic and nyctinastic leaf movement. Current research has discovered that plant hormones do not control nyctinastic leaf movement but rather compounds that differ depending on the plant species. Platensimycin is a gram-positive bacterium (MRSA) inhibitor that inhibits cellular lipid production. Cannabidiolic acid inhibits cyclooxygenase-2 selectively and has antiproliferative properties. Cajaninstilbene acid contains anti-triglyceride and anti-glycemic properties. Cajaninstilbene acid, in addition to being an antioxidant, may be helpful for postmenopausal osteoporosis. It also had impermeability, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties [46, 47, 48, 49].
Tallow-tree, the mangosteen related bridelia, garcinia densivenia, sappanwood, cinnabar ebony, elephant-apple, peroba, guava, water-berry, staghorn sumac, tamarisk, grape, witch-hazel, and red toon all contain gallic acid [46]. It’s been used as a styptic and astringent. Gallic acid has antineoplastic and bacteriostatic effects and is antimelanogenic and antioxidant [50]. Evening primrose phenolic fractions containing gallic acid demonstrated antitumor efficacy. It is reported for anticancer effects [51]. Gallic acid is also thought to have the anti-angiogenic properties of sweet leaf tea extract. In the mammalian intestine, gallic acid inhibits sucrase and some disaccharidases. As an anti-HSV-2 agent, Gallic acid showed promise [52]. It inhibits cell survival, invasion, proliferation, and angiogenesis of glioma cells, making it a potential treatment for brain tumors. On the other hand, Tannins have cytotoxic effects on cells other than tumor cells. Apoptosis and necrosis were used to kill Gallic acid-mediated cervical cancer cells [53]. Many gallic acid derivatives have antioxidant and antibacterial properties in nature [46].
Ellagic acid is a polyphenol extractive (tannin) present in various dicotyledons. Ellagic acid is mainly found as ester-linked with sugars in the composition of tannins, which are secondary metabolites in higher plants [54]. The authors note the principal active component for ellagic acid’s considerable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and gastroprotective activities [55]. Furthermore, ellagic acid’s involvement in the GABAergic system, inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, aldose reductase, suppression of proinflammatory markers, protein tyrosine phosphatases, and interaction with the serotonergic and adrenergic systems offer a solid basis for potential advances in the treatment of a variety of medical complications [55, 56]. Recent research suggests that ellagic acid can operate as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, raising acetylcholine levels in the brain. As a result, there is the potential to partially mitigate or repair cognitive dysfunctions in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s [57]. Lastly, one of the ellagic acid’s most well-known effects, melanogenesis suppression, has been linked to the antioxidant properties of the compound [58]. Ellagic acid and its derivatives can be used in the supplement and functional food industries because of its anti-inflammatory properties in different cell systems. The development of medications necessitates additional investigation since delivery mechanisms will largely determine ellagic acid bioavailability [59].
Stilbenes are phenylpropanoids with a 1,2-diphenylethylene backbone belonging to a small phenylpropanoid category. Transresveratrol is the fundamental unit of most plant stilbenes [60]. Stilbenes are natural antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral; they have been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory characteristics, estrogen receptor agonist properties, and impacts on cell proliferation, cell signaling pathways, and apoptosis [61, 62]. The majority of natural stilbenes are in the trans form. Resveratrol is the only stilbene that has been thoroughly researched and found to have potent anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Pterostilbene has been demonstrated to have anti-diabetic characteristics [63]. Antitubulin properties have been reported for combretastatin [64]. Rhapontigenin has strong inhibitory potential on histamine release, responsible for various allergic reactions. In vitro, resveratrol and rhaponticin can prevent platelet aggregation [65].
The most extensive family of hydroxycinnamic acids comprises phenylalanine and tyrosine and has three-carbon side chains, e.g., p-coumaric, ferulic, caffeic, and sinapic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids can also be found as amides and esters. Although these forms have been described for industrial and biological potential, there is no evidence to support their use as cosmeceutical components [66]. They have various physiological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-melanogenic, and anti-collagenase activity, which drive a surge in using hydroxycinnamic acids in skincare formulations. Antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet aggregation, and other intriguing health effects have been discovered on coumaric acid and its derivatives [24]. Caffeic acid is produced via coumaric acid’s hydroxylation and possesses anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antidiabetic effects [67]. Ferulic acid has shown antioxidant, anticancer, UV-absorbing, and anti-inflammatory effects, and it is now being used in cosmetic emulsions for topical application [9]. Antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities of rosmarinic acid have been discovered [68]. Numerous studies have shown anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiviral, antioxidant, and anti-tyrosinase properties of chlorogenic acid [69]. Fruits and vegetables also contain sinapic acid [70].
Curcuminoids are phenolic chemicals used for spice, color, culinary additives, and medicinal agents. Curcuminoids have exhibited various pharmaceutical effects in preclinical cell culture and animal investigations, including antioxidant, neuroprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-acidogenic, radioprotective, and arthritis [71]. Curcuminoids have also been shown to have a potential therapeutic effect in various chronic disorders, including colon, lung, breast cancer, and inflammatory bowel disease [72]. Ex vivo AChE assay revealed dose-dependent inhibition of curcuminoids and their components in the frontal brain and hippocampus. In scopolamine-induced amnesia, their effect on memory was prominent and was comparable in memory-enhancing impact [73].
Curcuminoids have shown significant antioxidant activity in several in vitro and in vivo studies. They can help individuals with b-thalassemia/Hb E disease reduce oxidative damage. Curcuminoids are antioxidative polyphenols with radiomodulatory characteristics, which allow them to protect non-cancerous cells while radiosensitizing tumor cells [74]. Human cancer cell lines were used to test the antiproliferative effects of curcuminoids and two turmerones substances derived from the rhizome of C. longa. Curcuminoids and turmerone both reduced cancer cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Curcuminoids, turmerone, and Arturmerone’s immunomodulatory effects highlighted the potential for curcuminoids and turmerones to be used as chemopreventive agents [75]. Turmeric’s curcuminoids and other vital components inhibited the virulence features of Streptococcus mutants’ biofilms, for example, bacterial adhesion, acidogenicity, and aciduricity, without killing the target bacteria. These substances can be used to prevent the production of dental biofilms and, as a result, dental caries. Aqeel et al. [76] evaluated the antiacanthamoebic potential of resveratrol and curcuminoids utilizing adhesion and cytotoxicity experiments using primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells, which contribute to the blood-brain barrier. Amoeba binding was reduced by 57% and 73%, respectively, when organisms were pre-exposed to 100 mg resveratrol and DMC, whereas cytotoxicity of host cells was decreased by 86%. According to the findings, resveratrol and DMC have potent anti-acanthamoeba properties [71].
Secondary metabolites are organic compounds biosynthesized within an organism and not considered necessary for their growth, development, and reproduction. They are not involved in metabolic reactions and are considered neutral, especially in primary metabolic responses. However, they are generally regarded as the compounds of defense of an organism against environmental stresses and predators, signaling molecules, and involved in various molecular interactions like symbiosis, competition, and metal ions transport [77, 78]. They are engaged in improving health as many secondary metabolites act as antibiotics, anabolics, immunomodulators, and growth promoters. Some act as nutraceuticals, fighting against diseases (directly) and aiding the body to fight (indirectly). Some are pesticides, insecticides, and pheromones and displayed established health-promoting effects and significant roles as disease eradicators [79]. More than two million secondary metabolites are known to date, and they are generally classified into alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, phytosterols, and terpenoids. However, McMurry [80] classified them into five main classes: terpenoids and steroids, fatty acid-derived substances and polyketides, alkaloids, nonribosomal polypeptides, and enzyme cofactors. Secondary metabolites are reported mainly from plants (80%). However, many bacterial, fungal, and aquatic organisms like corals, tunicates, snails, and sponges are also reported to contain these compounds [81].
The majority of the secondary metabolites are plant-based (especially tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids) and represent many vital functions in medicines, culinary, cosmetics, tannery industry,
Secondary metabolite | Category |
---|---|
Chrysin | Flavones |
Apigenin | |
Naringin and Naringenin | Flavonones |
Taxifolin | |
Eriodictyol | |
Hesperidin | |
Isosakuranetin | |
Quercetin | Flavonols |
Kaempferol | |
Rutin | |
Astilbin | Flavononols |
Engeletin | |
Genistin | |
Taxifolin | |
Daidzin and Daidzein | Isoflavones |
Genistein | |
(+)-Catechin, (+)-Gallocatechin, (−)-Epicatechin and (−)-Epigallocatechin, | Flavanols |
(−)-Epicatechin gallate and (−)-Epigallocatechin gallate | |
Cyanidin | |
Epigenidin | Anthocyanidins |
Delphinium | |
Pelargonidin |
Known natural secondary metabolites with proven antioxidant activities.
Source: Adapted and modified from Naczk and Shahidi [82]
As a result of metabolism, many free radicals are also generated within the living organisms’ bodies and are regarded as reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS cause oxidative damage to the bodies of living organisms, and the antioxidant species mitigate them by reducing oxidative damage. Hence, they are considered as the first line of defense. Peroxidases and metal chelating proteins help reduce oxidative stress damage together with free radical scavengers like vitamins C and E [83, 84]. There are a few examples of synthetic antioxidants which are used in industry. However, they are not believed to be safe, so the requirement for the antioxidants from natural sources increases, e.g., plants [85].
Naturally biosynthesized secondary metabolites with enormous antioxidant activity of phenolic nature include flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids, lignans, stilbenes, tocopherols, tannins,
The food consumed containing phenolic compounds displays an antioxidant role due to these antioxidant compounds (Figure 1) [90]. Terpenoids are a broad category of secondary metabolites regarded as strong antioxidants and used mostly in perfumery [91]. Stilbenes are phytoalexins biosynthesized in plants to overcome stresses are reported for antioxidant properties and resveratrol; for example, they are an active constituent of many medications. Isoflavones are polyphenolic biomolecules, biosynthesized in the Fabaceae family, especially in soybean in the form of glycosides, and exhibit antioxidant activities. Tannins are complex derivatives of phenolic acids, are found in many plant species, and are enormously effective antioxidants with promising cytotoxic and antiparasitic properties [92, 93].
Phenolic antioxidants. Adapted from Shahidi and Ambigaipalan [
There are few antioxidants synthesized and allowed to be used in the food industry, including butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), octyl gallate (OG), propyl gallate (PG), dodecyl gallate (DG) and tertiary-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) [94] to delay lipid oxidation and as processing agent of oils and fats [95].
Secondary metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other phenolic compounds; these molecules are linked to plant defense processes and protect against many diseases. Secondary metabolites are involved in antibacterial and antifungal activities [96].
Bacterial infections are considered a significant public health problem worldwide. Bacterial infection can also occur due to multi-drug resistance, which leads to mortality and morbidity [97]. For that reason, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. The increase in the multi-drug resistance of bacteria threatens the therapeutic efficacy of several drugs. Using different solvent systems, numerous researchers have studied plants’ antibacterial activities of leaves, flowers, stems, roots, and fruits [98]. Therefore, new antibacterial drugs are needed to treat various diseases with low toxicity and less price. For that purpose, secondary metabolites from plants are currently considered to develop new drugs because they are rich in natural compounds.
Gallic acid and its derivatives are potential antibacterial agents that reduce bacterial diseases. Gallic acid and methyl gallate have shown significant antibacterial activity against
Resistance to antifungal drugs has been spread in recent years. Resistance to antifungal drugs has led to increased morbidity and mortality. Since the molecular mechanisms in humans and fungi are so similar, there is always the possibility that the fungal cytotoxic agent is toxic to host cells. As a result, patients with compromised immune systems, such as transplants, cancer patients, and diabetics, who do not respond effectively to current antifungal treatments, need new antifungal therapies. Antifungal drugs currently used to treat fungal infections have significant side effects such as itching, diarrhea, vomiting,
Cancer is the cause of death worldwide; experts are developing new therapies less likely to cause side effects. Cancer is one of the most severe health concerns, despite substantial advances in cancer therapy [125]. Several new secondary metabolites from plants are discovered each year, opening new avenues for research in the fight against cancer. Plant secondary metabolites have substantially contributed to this topic, which has been at the heart of herbal medicines. Plant’s secondary metabolites have been shown to have anticancer effects, such as the ability to reduce cancer cell growth and development, kill cancer cells, and fight against multi-drug resistance in certain malignancies [126]. Plant secondary metabolites are thought to be helpful in drug development. The secondary plant metabolites are presently used in clinical and undergoing clinical trials as anticancer therapies [127, 128].
For thousands of years, humans have used herbs to treat certain diseases. Researchers are particularly interested in generating anticancer drugs from the plant’s secondary metabolites. Plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, polyphenols, anthraquinones, triterpenoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, quinones, and others play an essential role in cancer prevention [129]. Flavonoids (6,7,30-trimethoxy-3,5,40-trihydroxy-flavone and 5,40-dihydroxy-3,6,30-trimethoxy-flavone 7-O- -d-glucoside) isolated from
Phenolic compounds are one of the most diverse and widespread groups of plant metabolites, and they have a wide range of biological roles in regulating carcinogenesis [143]. Polyphenols have several advantages as anticancer drugs, including high accessibility, minimal toxicity, and broad biological effects. The main advantage of polyphenols as anticancer drugs is cytotoxic effects on malignant cells growth [144, 145]. Many polyphenols have an anticancer effect in various cancer models, regardless of their different modes of action [146, 147]. Polyphenols of strawberries, including anthocyanins, Kaempferol, quercetin, coumaric acid esters, and ellagic acid esters, have been shown to inhibit the development of human oral and breast colon and prostate cancer cell lines [148]. The primary polyphenol of green tea, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), is anticancer in various cancer types [149]. Researchers suggested that EGCG regulation may stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species and inhibit angiogenesis in cancer cells by regulating different pathways, such as AMP-activated protein kinase, epidermal growth factor receptor, insulin-like growth factor receptor, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, cyclin D1, Akt, STAT3, Wnt, and mTOR signaling in cancer cells [150, 151, 152]. A key ingredient of
Isoquinoline alkaloid is a major alkaloid class with an anticancer effect in different cancer cells. Isoquinoline alkaloids are naturally isolated from the roots, and the bark of
Terpenes are a broad category of secondary metabolites that include low polarity fragrant scaffolds and isoprene derivatives with various pharmacological activities, including anticancer activity. Triterpenoids have previously been shown to have anticancer properties in both
This study shows that plant cells produce a variety of compounds, mainly secondary metabolites, for defense mechanisms against bacteria, fungi, antioxidants, and cancer. Secondary metabolites with antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anticancer effects are sources of natural bioactive molecules, which control disease-causing pathogens in plants and humans. In addition, the different plant families have shown a unique combination of secondary metabolites; therefore, exhibiting different antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. The emerging research on identifying secondary metabolites is ongoing, and further research is encouraged to advance our knowledge about these compounds. Secondary metabolites can help treat infectious diseases that have increased resistance to current antibiotics. They can offer alternative medical therapy to individuals, particularly in developing nations where people may not access health care.
The authors are thankful to the Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Medical Sciences, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, for supporting this study. We also apologize to the authors of many exciting studies omitted due to limited information.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10134",title:"Organic Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a9866f9df52191cc505b27fb2abdc687",slug:"organic-agriculture",bookSignature:"Shaon Kumar Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182210",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"shaon-kumar-das",fullName:"Shaon Kumar Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9712",title:"Genetic Transformation in Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c111fe32d4d7e3988e4ef2fd6775a265",slug:"genetic-transformation-in-crops",bookSignature:"Kin-Ying To",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9712.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"310646",title:"Dr.",name:"Kin-Ying",middleName:null,surname:"To",slug:"kin-ying-to",fullName:"Kin-Ying To"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8153",title:"Agronomy",subtitle:"Climate Change & Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c01368bbeacbbedeb3681ea0c037dbe",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",bookSignature:"Amanullah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8153.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",middleName:null,surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:54,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"40178",doi:"10.5772/52583",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23030,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:146,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"33765",doi:"10.5772/37578",title:"Nutrient Solutions for Hydroponic Systems",slug:"nutrient-solutions-for-hydroponic-systems",totalDownloads:71704,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:null,book:{id:"1781",slug:"hydroponics-a-standard-methodology-for-plant-biological-researches",title:"Hydroponics",fullTitle:"Hydroponics - A Standard Methodology for Plant Biological Researches"},signatures:"Libia I. Trejo-Téllez and Fernando C. Gómez-Merino",authors:[{id:"113365",title:"Dr.",name:"Libia I.",middleName:null,surname:"Trejo-Téllez",slug:"libia-i.-trejo-tellez",fullName:"Libia I. Trejo-Téllez"},{id:"113414",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Merino",slug:"fernando-c.-gomez-merino",fullName:"Fernando C. Gómez-Merino"}]},{id:"45745",doi:"10.5772/56824",title:"Current Advances on Genetic Resistance to Rice Blast Disease",slug:"current-advances-on-genetic-resistance-to-rice-blast-disease",totalDownloads:4528,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Xueyan Wang, Seonghee Lee, Jichun Wang, Jianbing Ma, Tracy\nBianco and Yulin Jia",authors:[{id:"168971",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulin",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"yulin-jia",fullName:"Yulin Jia"}]},{id:"68945",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88434",title:"Effect of Abiotic Stress on Crops",slug:"effect-of-abiotic-stress-on-crops",totalDownloads:1494,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"Crop yield is mainly influenced by climatic factors, agronomic factors, pests and nutrient availability in the soil. Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3737,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4044,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23030,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:146,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2759,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2297,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5600,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. Al-Shrouf",authors:[{id:"78245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Alhammadi",slug:"mohamed-alhammadi",fullName:"Mohamed Alhammadi"},{id:"159904",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shrouf",slug:"ali-al-shrouf",fullName:"Ali Al-Shrouf"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"29",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81888",title:"Reducing Soil Compaction from Equipment to Enhance Agricultural Sustainability",slug:"reducing-soil-compaction-from-equipment-to-enhance-agricultural-sustainability",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104489",abstract:"The compaction of agricultural soils cannot be solved, only managed. As a compressible media, soil travel without causing some collapse of the existing structure is impossible. If left uncorrected, farmers can see up to a 50% reduction in yield from long-term compaction. This chapter will describe the effects of soil compaction on the environment, crop quality, and economic sustainability. The base causes will be examined, along with the engineering designs for vehicles that minimize the problem. The tracks versus tires debate will be thoroughly discussed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each system will be detailed. It will be shown that although tires represent the likely current best economic option for vehicle support, the potential of tracks to reduce compaction has been fully exploited. The advantages of four-wheel drive vehicles in reducing soil compaction will be shown, along with the mitigation potential of independently driven wheels and active soil interaction feedback loops. The design of crop production tillage equipment and tillage tool working points will be explored, along with the concept of critical tillage depth. Equipment for compaction relief will also be discussed, as will the sustainable agricultural protocols of cover crops, crop rotation, and controlled traffic farming.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Michael M. Boland, Young U. Choi, Daniel G. Foley, Matthew S. Gobel, Nathan C. Sprague, Santiago Guevara-Ocana, Yury A. Kuleshov and Robert M. Stwalley III"},{id:"81378",title:"Sustainability-Based Review of Irrigation Schemes Performance for Sustainable Crop Production in Nigeria",slug:"sustainability-based-review-of-irrigation-schemes-performance-for-sustainable-crop-production-in-nig",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103980",abstract:"Irrigated agriculture has been identified as an important practice to achieving food security and socio-economic development in the face of rapid population growth and climatic uncertainties. In northern Nigeria, irrigation has long been identified as the key to achieving the much-desired increase in food production to meet the ever-increasing population. However, the existing irrigation schemes encountered several challenges coming from different dimensions including economic, social, environmental, institutional and technological. To attain sustainable crop production, this paper attempts to uncover the underline challenges confronting irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria that cut across sustainability pillars. The findings revealed that irrigation schemes contributed immensely toward achieving food security and improving the wellbeing of rural dwellers. However, the huge investment in large- and medium-scale irrigation schemes have resulted in massive economic losses. This could be attributed to their under-utilization, poor management and abandonment although few ones are performing remarkably well. The study recommends the need to adopt new water allocation and application methods that can improve water use efficiency, users-managers join approach (participatory), effective and competent institutions which include improved monitoring, evaluation and surveillance systems, frequent policy review to suit the situation, law enforcement, and timely sensitization and awareness campaigns.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nura Jafar Shanono, Nura Yahaya Usman, Mu’azu Dantala Zakari, Habibu Ismail, Shehu Idris Umar, Sunusi Abubakar Amin and Nuraddeen Mukhtar Nasidi"},{id:"81274",title:"Toward the Recent Advances in Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE): Strategies to Improve Phosphorus Availability to Plants",slug:"toward-the-recent-advances-in-nutrient-use-efficiency-nue-strategies-to-improve-phosphorus-availabil",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102595",abstract:"Achieving high nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and high crop productivity has become a challenge with increased global demand for food, depletion of natural resources, and deterioration of environmental conditions. Higher NUE by plants could reduce fertilizer input costs, decrease the rate of nutrient losses, and enhance crop yields. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the most limiting nutrients for crop production in many of the world’s agricultural areas, and their efficient use is important for the economic sustainability of cropping systems. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of N and P in soil-plant systems creates a unique and challenging environment for its efficient management. Although numerous fertilizer recommendation methods have been proposed to improve NUE, technologies and innovative management practices are still lacking. Therefore, maximizing crop phosphorus (P) use efficiency (PUE) would be helpful in reducing the use of inorganic phosphorus fertilizers and their escape in the environment for sustainable agriculture. Improvement of PUE in cropping systems can be achieved through two main strategies: optimizing agronomic practice and breeding nutrient efficient crop cultivars that improves P-acquisition and -utilization efficiency. These strategies are needed for future food security and sustainable agriculture. The major revised points are the following: concept of NUE, application of nutrient stewardship, cereal-legume intercropping, regulating soil pH, etc., for enhancing phyto-availability of P and breeding P-efficient crop cultivars that can produce more biomass with lesser P costs and that acquire more P in P-stress condition. These approaches consider economic, social, and environmental dimensions essential to sustainable agricultural systems and afford a suitable context for specific NUE indicators.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Addisu Ebbisa"},{id:"81179",title:"Crop Diversification an Effective Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture Development",slug:"crop-diversification-an-effective-strategy-for-sustainable-agriculture-development",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102635",abstract:"Sustainable agricultural practices involve a variety of approaches. The most important approached for sustainable agriculture development is crop diversification. It allowing the farmers to employ biological cycles to minimize inputs, conserve the resource base, maximize yields and also reduce the risk due to ecological and environmental factors. It serves as an important opportunity to augment income and employment generation for rural communities. Crop diversification promotes the interaction of beneficial soil bacteria, interrupts the disease cycle, and reduces the quantity of weeds. Crop diversification boosts land-use efficiency and crop output by improving the physical and chemical qualities of soil. Crop diversification shows a lot of scope to alleviating the problems such as resurgence of insects-pests and weeds, soil degradation, environmental pollution, soil salinity, decline farm profit and climate change. Crop diversification through crop intensification system enhanced the net returns, B:C ratio, and overall system productivity of a farm. In order to achieve the benefits of crop diversification farmers are shifting from low value low yielding crops to high value high yielding crops. Thus, crop diversification has the sound capacity for achieving the goal of nutritional security, income growth, food security, employment generation and sustainable agriculture development.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Anamika Barman, Priyanka Saha, Shashank Patel and Anurag Bera"},{id:"80867",title:"Potential Applications of Rhizobacteria as Eco-Friendly Biological Control, Plant Growth Promotion and Soil Metal Bioremediation",slug:"potential-applications-of-rhizobacteria-as-eco-friendly-biological-control-plant-growth-promotion-an",totalDownloads:67,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102657",abstract:"Modern agriculture has an immense problem in the depletion of agricultural productivity owing to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Agriculture’s sustainability and safety are dependent on ecologically friendly practices. Plant rhizobia have been proven to have an important role in disease control, as well as promoting plant growth, productivity, and biomass. Rhizobacteria are soil bacteria that live on the root surface and either directly or indirectly contribute to plant development. Rhizobia are used to induce mediated immune resistance through the manufacture of lytic enzymes, antibiotics, phytoalexins, phytohormone, metabolites. It supports the growth of plants through nitrogen fixation, nutrient enrichment, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone synthesis. In addition, it supports plants during different stresses such as temperature, osmotic, heavy metal and oxidative stress. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have the ability to control heavy metal pollution of soils as well as enhancing plant growth in these soils. Efficient bioremediation is possible by using rhizobacterial inoculants, still, the distribution and functioning of microbes in the rhizosphere need to be fully explored. This review focuses on the effectiveness, biomonitoring processes and function in promoting plant development. Rhizobia application can be considered an alternative method for the improvement of biodiversity, agriculture, and the environment.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nafeesa Farooq Khan, Aatifa Rasool, Sheikh Mansoor, Sana Saleem, Tawseef Rehman Baba, Sheikh Maurifatul Haq, Sheikh Aafreen Rehman, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Simona Mariana Popescu"},{id:"80653",title:"Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables and Their Toxic Effects on Human Health",slug:"heavy-metal-contamination-in-vegetables-and-their-toxic-effects-on-human-health",totalDownloads:130,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102651",abstract:"Vegetables are a prevalent nutrition for people all over the world because they are high in important nutrients, antioxidants, and metabolites that function as buffers for acidic compounds created during digestion. Vegetables, on the other hand, absorbed both vital and poisonous substances through the soil. Possible human health concerns, including as cancer and renal damage, have been linked to the consumption of heavy metal-contaminated vegetables (HMs). Heavy metals like Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg were found in high concentrations in popular vegetables such as Amaranthus tricolour L., Chenopodium album L., Spinacia oleracea, Coriandrum sativum, Solanum lycopersicum, and Solanum melongena. The toxicity, fortification, health hazard, and heavy metals sources grown in soil are detailed in this review study.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Seema Manwani, Vanisree C.R., Vibha Jaiman, Kumud Kant Awasthi, Chandra Shekhar Yadav, Mahipal Singh Sankhla, Pritam P. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. 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He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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