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This is related to the way we, as teachers, deal with teaching, language, and culture and how we must favor in our teaching of English the increase of knowledge and cultural items. But during the pandemic, the teaching and learning contexts have changed and so the approach to this subject.
The purpose of this study is just to debate about the way interaction among students and teachers in synchronous classes based on Life’s materials, topics, methods, and critical or reflective thinking can be adapted by the teacher to the students’ closest environment to communicate in English as an international language (EIL).
First, we must define what culture means to us. Of course, the meaning of this word as a verb is to maintain (tissue cells, bacteria, etc.) in conditions suitable for growth. For example, “several investigators have attempted to culture biliary cells”; but, as a noun, there are two acceptations that can be found in the dictionaries:
1. the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively, e.g., “twentieth-century popular culture” and 2. the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group, e.g., “Caribbean culture, Ecuadorian culture.”
The word culture is a polysemy term, which means that it is understood from different angles. But, although there are multiple possibilities for its understanding, a single interpretation or concept is not defined. We have to analyze all necessary shapes to have a general view.
Culture as synonymous of “everything created by man,” as Sergio Valdés Bernal proposed, implies human civilization, the general magnitude in which rational beings have lived and live. As such, it includes all kinds of knowledge achieved by humanity and the ways in which that relationship established by men themselves in society creates wealth and establishes a form of global coexistence.
When culture refers to the intellectual and artistic product resulting from the interpretive appropriation of art, and which, therefore, is assumed as a personal category, the word meaning is incorporated into esthetic patterns achieved, and it reinforces the way in which it becomes people’s own meaning and the cultural phenomenon in which each person is immersed to be assimilated, but which could be recreated from their point of view, and developed through the encounter and social reflection of an era. In this case, culture means appreciation, traditions, and customs.
In the event that culture defines a way of training to obtain general and specific knowledge through educational channels, the concept is associated with educability as a result of development and growth organized by society in terms of universal and professional literacy, transmission of everything, types of content, and standards of behavior and training to understand social life; culture is the intellectual level reached by each individual before society or their level of education.
That meaning indicates developing knowledge through formal or informal instruction and is the one that aims to achieve educational levels in the school, as an institution that prepares and responds to the needs of the economic development of each country, and that some include as innate capacities by belonging to a social group, and others analyze it as assumptions and basic values that regulate the behavior and interpretation of this in the social framework, but in both cases, the cultural level is achieved with education.
Therefore, teaching cognitive, attitudinal, and procedural knowledge directly, at school, indicates teaching and learning culture. Teaching a language such as English implies referring to norms and patterns of the sociocultural behavior of one or several Anglophone countries, since transmission occurs through communication. If a language is taught, spoken, and learned in the country, the culture that surrounds the given context is taught. If this teaching-learning process is using a language that is not spoken in the place where it is learned, the knowledge system also transmits norms and values that, from that cultural point of view, differ from those of the language.
Traditionally, it is argued that the teaching of English teaches the norms and customs of English-speaking countries. Thus, the learning of the language is enclosed within the cultural canons of certain regions and countries, however, the learner is not always going to uproot himself from his own culture, and sometimes, he does not incorporate foreign cultural elements into his life.
Another, more recent position places the learning of a language such as English within a much more general cultural reference framework, as it is a universal language with worldwide influence in any context.
A language is learned but, at the same time, culture is acquired or at least the frame of reference is broadened. In this way, the idea of unity between culture and education when a language is taught has been an inalienable point in linguistic analyzes [1, 2, 3], although it is only taken as background in the studies on English as a foreign language, which place more emphasis on the purely linguistic aspect in which one of its components is precisely sociolinguistic [4].
In more recent years, the concept of culture has connoted the presence of the identity of social groups stratified by categories such as intellectual level, beliefs, behavior, among others, much more than the representation of a culture tied to a country and limited in teaching just to the customs and traditions of that place, as the assumption of correct patterns sketching of cultural input that does serve to what the learner expresses.
The teaching and learning of English must correspond to cultural and social norms and standards of accuracy for those countries that speak that language; but as for every person who develops bilingualism, there is a bicultural mind that represents facts of reality according to their own patterns and norms of identity, the cultural fact is present in the acquisition of a second language and constitutes a form of reaffirmation of one’s own identity of the subject [5, 6]. For this reason, some authors emphasize that the cultural context for language teaching, as the basis for international communication, must encompass much more than the borders established by a nationality.
One of the most important scholars on the subject is Sandra McKay of San Francisco State University. Her point of view begins precisely by distancing herself from the traditional way of thinking about the relationship between culture, teaching, and the study of a language that has an international impact: “the teaching and learning of an international language must be based on an entirely different set of assumptions than the teaching and learning of any other second or foreign language.”
The foundation, that for language teaching culture is an intrinsic element in the learning process, is still present because the relationship is obvious; but the view that English is a means of international communication transforms the achievement of that culture it transmits. In today’s world, various types of English are spoken, including English that incorporates a region or country whose speakers communicate with another language. Hence, it is important to observe the way culture can be transmitted with the teaching of a language, which, in turn, allows us to understand the cultural processes related to teaching or learning under pedagogical rules.
With the appearance of the COVID-19 pandemic, training in universities has become much more specific since it has considered the conditions of each student and has provided different solutions so that distancing does not stop education. This training during the pandemic has been characterized by promoting comprehensive learning in the student’s training [7]; in the synchronous and asynchronous lessons, the learners can incorporate their own important strategies and resources, such as time available for learning, and their will to do so.
The integral formation of the student, who is prepared for his professional life, starts from the socialization process that, through communication, expresses skills, moral values, ethical principles, critical and reflective thinking, and a much more adequate behavior in relation to the culture of his profession and the society in which he lives.
Education at the university and for society has as its main objective the integral formation that is expressed not only in knowledge acquired, but also in the modes of action in accordance with those principles established culturally and socially. This comprehensive training, therefore, assumes the humanist conception in which education means full life, the development of skills and abilities [8] for the current moment and for the future, full of transformations in which international communication will have to be more effective, and each global action has an impact on individuals regardless of location. Thus, education will respond to the demands of science and technology, society, and culture in general.
Consequently, the COVID-19 pandemic makes humanistic training focus on the teacher’s attention to the cultural elements of knowledge and the improvement of human sensitivity and social concerns based on real differences of all kinds. For this reason, the synchronous class begins not with the moment in which technology allows closeness of those present in different places, but in which the will and feelings of walking together create culture and also educate for life and for communication between social beings with rational understanding.
In the synchronous class, student communication, with verbal and nonverbal responses, is essential to establish a functional virtual classroom; hence, the dependence on technological tools is a fact. Face-to-face conditions are replaced by technological innovations, with which the student’s teaching-learning process can be guided and controlled in an equivalent way.
The constant use of platforms and videoconferences reveals the objectives fulfillment and the competence that is formed from remote conditions. Obviously, the development of the intellect and the individual student and the teacher’s cultures to manage efficiently the use of technology guarantee success of the training-educational work, or not. This implies that the students, based on the support from the teacher and peers, assume that they can know beyond what they intended to know [9].
The school in the pandemic has remained a social agent of change, but with its human content, it is also a social agent of hope to end the crisis with better conditions for human understanding, which is valid for developing the current culture in front of the crisis and, with it, international communication and the search for solutions to adversity with more noble and human sentiments. And this change in order to win life and all its implications inexorably contribute to understanding culture as part of the application of a much more accurate training and human education to assume the use of technology for the sake of humanity.
The pandemic has activated mechanisms in society for the educational orientation toward the preservation of life and the glorification of the created culture. For this reason, even in the current conditions, it is based on what cultural issues can be attended by educators in order to continue perfecting the process: the durability of formal education, the context in which education occurs, and the language or resources with which the transmission of knowledge materializes.
The student expands his learning and his theoretical and practical vision for the problems in life with his training, which at the end is achieved with reflective thinking, culture, and communication. The interaction is, therefore, the way that allows the organization of the classes with synchronous and asynchronous meetings between the teacher and the learner to achieve the horizontality of the process [10] and together achieve the social aspiration of generating culture with strong knowledge.
The view on synchronous and asynchronous classes has increased in recent years, especially to explain the necessary use of technologies [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17], whose realization is achieved through Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and the time conceived for the link, but following established didactic principles. The participants in the synchronous classroom are linked from different places coinciding in time, hence its definition “at the same time.” The student, to achieve his learning, has an asynchronous interaction, in which time is “distributed” or “dilated” throughout the entire teaching organization [18], and the participants establish their own learning strategies with their autonomy to meet their goals.
Significant and experiential learning in synchronous classes focuses on achieving the student’s objectives from the appreciation and usefulness of that experience, since the cultural and didactic purposes that each educational action facilitates are maintained. In other words, the subject is capable of putting into practice their cognitive, procedural, and attitudinal knowledge, based on their cultural context and perception of reality [19].
With a cultural approach, as a historical condition of knowledge, the transmission of knowledge occurs under the predominance of the synchronous experience in a communicative way and the strategic scaffolding of the individual for his asynchronous experience with which he develops his own knowledge.
The synchronous class includes the interaction between the teacher and the student in a virtual classroom [20], and it is valued as the natural continuity of face-to-face classes, in which the main characteristics that can be evaluated are appraised. It must be fulfilled in formal education. The asynchronous class is judged as it subordinates to the initial synchronous class and, as derived from the independent study, needs that every university student works. Although both are extremely important and currently they complement each other, the synchronous class continues to have a greater impact on the teacher-student relationship; hence, it is a priority to focus the attention in language classes as a transmission of cultural knowledge.
In the conditions of the synchronous class, not only the shared time is important, but also the context where the educational processes are taking place, especially since each place presents a wide variety of cultural development. Each student frames a different context that the teacher must attend to, and the teacher, as well, must analyze and understand their own context.
The synchronous context is not the sum of different places and technologies; it is to look for a possible environment where common needs, objectives, challenges, and aspirations converge from a real distance, but under a prism of consensual interaction and respect. The learning scenario is ecologically changing and widening the gaps, as César Coll [21] would say, “… not only the learning of the functional use for these technologies, but also the knowledge of the sociocultural practices associated with the management of these technologies (…) to participate in those practices using the mentioned technologies appropriately” (p.125). Of course, in a state-of-the-art technological development career, in most cases, is ahead of the economic possibilities of the students.
The place of the virtual synchronous class is quintessentially transformative of itself and of its asynchronous counterpart. It is based on connectivity through networks that, in order to fulfill their pedagogical role, must organize all interaction in a place where present, past, and future converge; reality and virtuality; physical and formal environment and media and informal environment; and also education and learning online knowledge and the direct emotion of feelings and affections.
The virtual language of a synchronous class is achieved through simultaneous ICTs between students and teachers because learning always indicates cultivating oneself with cultural tools contextualized to reality [22]. But such language under the context of the pandemic creatively occupies all possible forms, combining oral language, written language, kinesthetic and gestural language with logic mathematics, and the algorithms of computerized systems. For this reason, the new experience of synchronous learning relates technologies to man’s needs to communicate, needs that network his education and shape his training for his working life, among other concepts and possibilities that can only occur within virtual development.
Of course, there is no single path, nor can an educational process be uniform, which is becoming more flexible and more diverse, both in its methodologies and in its strategies for assuming them. The construction of knowledge of university students starts from their own realities, from the involvement they have in solving their problems and from the responsibility they feel to fulfill their social obligations. The teacher must be able to offer various resources and take advantage of virtual group work to achieve the objectives of the subjects.
A cultural approach in the synchronous classroom requires the teacher to be both, a flexible and a strict conductor, a friend and a facilitator of the student’s learning process. That dominates the content and the virtual learning environment, which promotes its appropriate and diverse use of meaningful language in communication. The teacher who prepares long for comprehensive training also creates and molds convictions and makes synchrony facilitate the empowerment of cultural baggage. A participant under the cultural approach of technological virtuality must be sensitive to appreciate the world and understand the social and natural realities of any part for his realization as a human being who is a biological, social being, and a transformer of those conditions in the development of the personality.
So, when we teach language, we also teach culture. Therefore, the course selected for teaching is of paramount importance to increase the students’ knowledge and their possibilities to understand the world. Then, we have to say that our teachers are using a very attractive course to teach English at our university, which contributes to have an extensive cultural background, in order to succeed in life and please demands of knowledge from that coming context students are going to live.
Lots of series from Cambridge University, Pearson, Macmillan, National Geographic Learning, among others, and their e-learning platforms have considered culture to teach and learn English; moreover, the focus of attention in each is quite different although their goals are directed to get an international standard from the official accreditation levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
In the course by National Geographic, Life, the approach to English is toward an international language where the language has been developed following links to wider notions of cultures than that of the country where the language is spoken. In this course, the skills to develop learning are a vehicle to an important incentive for students to know more about the world cultures, and two new issues are incorporated to the methodological analysis in each unit: real life functions and critical thinking, besides the common study of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, listening, reading, speaking, and writing.
National Geographic has established high standards in terms of interaction with different contexts and cultures around the world. It has been clearly defined the classification of sociocultural strategies [23] that students should learn how to use, which incorporates two inner strategies: one for establishing and maintaining intercultural contact to avoid intercultural problems, whose purpose tolerates to do the students’ interaction with several possible cultures and through different cultures, and the other for creating sociocultural portraits of an L2 context and the participants in intercultural communication, which allows keeping and increasing self-cultural identity for every person; in other words, it is about finding potential ways to understand the language users and different contexts, no matter their cultures, at the moment of communication, in which backgrounds that are similar to one’s own culture are distinguished from those in which they differ.
For this reason, National Geographic, which has been meticulous all the time in the way in which nature and society are echoed, is committed to reflecting the culture of the world in which we live, a general culture for the whole humanity, in which the most significant achievements are seen and treated within the course as if there were no distinctions of any kind. Teaching culture through language for the authors of Life means:
To accept a culture theory about the world, people included in it, and the ways communication reflects them.
To include knowledge, gestures, beliefs, art, morals, laws, costumes, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society in the way people think and act.
To have the sense of the equality among cultures and an increased understanding of one’s native and target cultures.
In addition, many definitions have been written about English as an International Language (EIL) and the way people actually analyze it, alternating a view of EIL as a mix of the many varieties of spoken English today with another in which English includes second language speakers. However, the global use of English for communication is growing fast among speakers of other languages in places where English is not the main or second language and therefore the importance of EIL studies for teaching and theory [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Data collected and referred to constantly evidence English expansion and its impact in communication:
More than 350 million people around the world speak English as a first language.
More than 430 million speak English as a second language.
English is the international language of business, which includes travel and trade, and in jobs for multinational companies, it is required.
Much of the technical terminology in science and means of communication is based on English words, so the language is used for their discoveries.
English will provide the opportunity to study with the best educational programs.
English is the language most exercised on the Internet every day, as 52% or so of the world’s most visited websites have been surfed among the 565 million of daily visitors on the Internet.
This language opens the doors of entertainment and publishing in scientific journals, so the language users reach a vast enlightening world of music, movies, books, and awards that also increase culture [31].
That is why, this top language and general culture are very close to each other, because people communicate what they are and people are just the result of biological and social evolution in fact; in other words, people evolve constantly as they are the result of global understanding through language and culture.
Good English skills mean that learners are not reliant on translators and can work faster and more accurately with many English information and cultural sources. Teaching culture started under a theoretical foundation on foreign language education, which historical achievements were mentioned by Yang and Chen [32], but there has been a shift afterward as Culture is revealed at different layers of depth [33]:
The publication of Nelson Brooks’ Language and Language Learning: Theory and Practice, in 1960. This book started a discussion on the topic of teaching culture in the foreign language classroom.
At the turn of the twentieth century, the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the twenty-first century (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1996) enumerated culture as one of the five objectives for learning a foreign language.
In November 2001, a Common European Framework of Reference for Languages appeared. After that study, the European Union Council Resolution recommended using the six reference levels: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2, to control and support the ability of using the language. The CEFR ideas have been widely accepted as the standards for grading an individual’s language and culture proficiency.
In 2002, Teaching English as an International Language by Sandra McKay of San Francisco State University states that teachers can find a different approach to teaching and learning culture moving from teaching a foreign language to an international language.
And we dare say there must be a new landmark coming out soon related to culture as a result of this technological moment we are living right now.
In terms of how people can learn any language, there are different models. One of the most acceptable theories is that of three-circle one proposed by Krachu in [34], which was referred to McKay in 2002 to move the aim of teaching English from the ideal inner circle to others in which English is also valid for learning, through which people are reflecting a cultural representation in the language according to the place of learning and interaction (Figure 1).
The three-circle model as shades of usage.
It is correct to use English in any of those circles or levels, in order to differentiate the possibility of using the language in many types of countries with different cultures and languages, but just as usage shades of an international language. English rapidly develops more complex relationships within and between communities of speakers around the world; the dialog addressing its role as a global language needs to be continued to expand the analysis of this language.
The inner circle is composed of those countries where English is developed as the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English, i.e., the circle represents the core of the language, which share in common their Angle Saxon and some following roots of culture, but for every country, each individual develops a national identity competence, as English is the main language nationwide, so its teaching corresponds to that of a main language.
The outer circle represents a political relation to English through the institutionalized non-native varieties of the language which are in contact with other native or non-native languages that are official languages in those areas where long periods of language and culture exchange under political domination have raised accommodation and acculturation processes among the languages, because they have at least two important languages as official languages that provide a multicultural identity competence. This circle matches the concept of ESL teaching.
The expanding circle includes the countries where the varieties of the language are used essentially in EIL contexts. That means that English is used everywhere for different reasons and it is perceived as part of the different cultures of the world. Nevertheless, the users of English increase their national identity competence as the grasp of that language favors knowledge and the recognition of what group the person belongs to culturally speaking; so in our opinion, the speaker develops a reinforcing self-cultural identity competence to differentiate them for developing his or her own in a wider level. That is why, the circles are just shades that can vary from place to place. The number of people learning English in different regions of the world that keep their roots and values is vast, and then, English is perceived just as a culture growth. Therefore, countries like China are definitely greater in terms of language user than some populations living in the inner circle countries, but they develop their Chinese culture with proud.
As a result of that, we can say there is a new reality to approach the ELT that we as teachers have to know and adapt.
Language learning must be replaced with one that recognizes that individual classrooms within one culture can vary greatly in terms of the expected role of the teachers and students. That is, there are a lot of new ways to engage in the process of learning a language, and in each, the roles of the teacher and the students have been enlarged. So, there is no a single way to teach and learn English to communicate; therefore, there are lots of possible correct notions of English everywhere.
In the teaching of an international language, bilingual users should be allowed to take ownership not only of the language but also of the methods used to teach it. Because if people are going to use any language, they must keep on going the way their cultural background and identity must develop to belong to their social group forever. Besides, they must use the language with autonomy and creativity, because every individual is different and uses the language with their own strategies and methods.
The use of technology in education has increased fast lately, and new ways of interactions have been created. Therefore, interactions are freer than ever, so what people are incorporating to the language as embedded cultural output is more flexible and meaningful to everyone; thus, we have to approach culturally to the world people are living and make learning and teaching more significant for interaction by all means to all users.
These three points are the heart of teaching and learning in our university today. The series Life, which is a course to teach worldwide, can meet the expectations to learn English in which the students learn using their own cognitive and cultural structures, but other teachers can also have the same view to teach the language more significantly to incorporate culture from the whole world into the students’ mind. Life shows now the varieties of places, societies, and human results, so the teaching of English should show varieties of cultural issues the world around, incorporating the local reality as a valid tool for teaching.
Unfortunately, the issue of developing the reinforcing self-cultural identity competence has received insufficient attention in the context of teaching English as an international language yet. Traditional teaching methods and the influence of teaching English from an Anglophone context have not allowed other key developments for the indigenous and autochthonous culture of other people who use English as a cultural means of international communication.
In a study carried out by Kirkpatrick [35] on the use of traditional Chinese medicine and its therapeutic properties, beyond what has been described by scientific methods, it was noted that some points of view about what this procedure means now, and what it means traditionally for native people, have been modified for its acceptance in English-speaking countries, which reflects that important cultural elements are resized through the use of English.
In other words, the many versions of English as an international language must foster standards in cultural behavior, in which national identity will play an important role. This double growing in the development of English and the national culture from different countries, according to Anchimbe [36], needs a different user development: “… English as an international language to maintain its currency and vitality, it will have to be spoken by different voices yet understood by different ears. The differences, community-based as they are, are inevitable since, due to the specificity of ecology, no two communities can be found to use a language in exactly the same way…” (p. 284). This reinforces the need that from its conception must be done to destandardize the use of English and name any learning of English only as an international language and thereby erase the barriers created by the circles already mentioned.
This observation in favor of teaching English, only as an international language, adheres to a global conception of culture and the need to influence learning based on local recognition and the need to strengthen cultural identity patterns. For this reason, in Ecuador, and in any other part of the world, the users of the language can teach and learn different varieties of English, multiple English because the people’s cultures are multiple too.
In times of pandemic and seclusion, the students depend much more on their own strategies, to expand communication in English from virtual classes and get their own resources to enrich the English learning autonomy; but this time, when we think about teaching and learning English as an international language, the goal must let students reflect upon their reality and communicate to others about the surrounding context.
According to a cultural approach for teaching an international language, McKay stated that: “… the concept of thinking globally but acting locally is highly relevant to the teaching of EIL. The evidence clearly suggests that the use of EIL will continue to grow, as an international language that belongs not just to native speakers, but to all of its users. Given this shift in ownership, the time has come for decisions regarding teaching goals and approaches to be given to local educators so they can take their rightful place as valid users of English” ([27], p. 129).
It means that in any lesson we teach and learn, we can think globally, that is, we can show what humanity has achieved at this moment showing cultural issues referring to the virtual moment the world is living. But we must have the students act in the classrooms, talking and reflecting about their own experience and problems, and then, we must think about our goals in English in which the final objective must be interaction and communication among students concerning their surroundings and day-to-day life. Finally, teachers must think about the way the students are going to use the language meaningfully as valid users of English under present conditions, so that the need to speak and use the language arises from students’ real and authentic necessity to communicate.
The analysis of teaching English and universal culture through language has been debated. According to the current situation, teaching and learning English as an international language means the way possible interaction among students and teachers in synchronous classes has many opportunities for the growth of every student around the world and the way the formation of their personality gets integral results.
The fact that English is taught and learned as an international language means that any training must be based on materials, topics, methods, and critical thinking adapted by the teacher to the students’ closest environment to communicate in English as a real international language, which must reflect a more thoughtful culture and identity in people’s development.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
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\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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René"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"70c3ce4256324b3c58db970d446ddac4",slug:"smart-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Usama Ahmad, Md. Faheem Haider and Juber Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10885",title:"Snake Venom and Ecology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc4503ed9e56a7bcd9f2ca82b0c880a8",slug:"snake-venom-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah, Umar Sharif, Tijjani Rufai Buhari and Tijjani Sabiu Imam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10885.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9dbafb0b297cf5cbdb220707e022a228",slug:"electrocatalysis-and-electrocatalysts-for-a-cleaner-environment-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"236596",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindiwe Eudora",middleName:null,surname:"Khotseng",slug:"lindiwe-eudora-khotseng",fullName:"Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10900",title:"Prunus",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9261926500acb26c4ae5a29eee78f0db",slug:"prunus-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ayzin B. Küden and Ali Küden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"200365",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayzin B.",middleName:"B.",surname:"Küden",slug:"ayzin-b.-kuden",fullName:"Ayzin B. Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"658",title:"Volcanology",slug:"volcanology",parent:{id:"104",title:"Geology and Geophysics",slug:"geology-and-geophysics"},numberOfBooks:8,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:206,numberOfWosCitations:153,numberOfCrossrefCitations:125,numberOfDimensionsCitations:272,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"658",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:"progress-in-volcanology",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9992",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"Transdisciplinary Nature of Volcano Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9f71037866aa5450cf23c0fb74711d1",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-transdisciplinary-nature-of-volcano-science",bookSignature:"Károly Németh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7677",title:"Forecasting Volcanic 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Aiello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6104.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",middleName:null,surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5311",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a579041bbfa682d2376a58326d0483e6",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",bookSignature:"Karoly Nemeth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5311.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Maged",middleName:null,surname:"Marghany",slug:"dr.-maged-marghany",fullName:"Dr. Maged Marghany"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"409",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39ff133e87b1d1f1a07d872ff755762b",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-a-comprehensive-approach-to-volcanological-problems",bookSignature:"Francesco Stoppa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/409.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"25980",doi:"10.5772/25264",title:"Hydrovolcanic vs Magmatic Processes in Forming Maars and Associated Pyroclasts: The Calatrava -Spain- Case History",slug:"hydrovolcanic-vs-magmatic-processes-in-forming-maars-and-associated-pyroclasts-the-calatrava-spain-c",totalDownloads:2862,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"409",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-a-comprehensive-approach-to-volcanological-problems",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems"},signatures:"F. Stoppa, G. Rosatelli, M. Schiazza and A. Tranquilli",authors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"},{id:"62737",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluigi",middleName:null,surname:"Rosatelli",slug:"gianluigi-rosatelli",fullName:"Gianluigi Rosatelli"},{id:"62738",title:"Mr",name:"Mariangela",middleName:null,surname:"Schiazza",slug:"mariangela-schiazza",fullName:"Mariangela Schiazza"},{id:"62739",title:"Mr",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Tranquilli",slug:"andrea-tranquilli",fullName:"Andrea Tranquilli"}]},{id:"51948",doi:"10.5772/64129",title:"Fumarolic Minerals: An Overview of Active European Volcanoes",slug:"fumarolic-minerals-an-overview-of-active-european-volcanoes",totalDownloads:2270,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The fumarolic mineralogy of the Icelandic active volcanoes, the Tyrrhenian volcanic belt (Italy) and the Aegean active arc (Greece) is investigated, and literature data surveyed in order to define the characteristics of the European fumarolic systems. They show broad diversity of mineral associations, with Vesuvius and Vulcano being also among the world localities richest in mineral species. Volcanic systems, which show recession over a longer period, show fumarolic development from the high-temperature alkaline halide/sulphate, calcic sulphate or sulphidic parageneses, synchronous with or immediately following the eruptions, through medium-temperature ammonium minerals, metal chlorides, or fluoride associations to the late low-temperature paragenesis dominated by sulphur, gypsum, alunogen, and other hydrous sulphates. The situation can be different in the systems that are not recessing but show fluctuations in activity, illustrated by the example of Vulcano where the high-temperature association appears intermittently. A full survey of the mineral groups and species is given in respect to their importance and appearance in fumarolic associations.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Tonči Balić-Žunić, Anna Garavelli, Sveinn Peter Jakobsson, Kristjan\nJonasson, Athanasios Katerinopoulos, Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos\nand Pasquale Acquafredda",authors:[{id:"183593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonci",middleName:null,surname:"Balic-Zunic",slug:"tonci-balic-zunic",fullName:"Tonci Balic-Zunic"},{id:"183700",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Garavelli",slug:"anna-garavelli",fullName:"Anna Garavelli"},{id:"183701",title:"Dr.",name:"Sveinn Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Jakobsson",slug:"sveinn-peter-jakobsson",fullName:"Sveinn Peter Jakobsson"},{id:"183702",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Katerinopoulos",slug:"athanasios-katerinopoulos",fullName:"Athanasios Katerinopoulos"},{id:"188833",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristjan",middleName:null,surname:"Jonasson",slug:"kristjan-jonasson",fullName:"Kristjan Jonasson"},{id:"188834",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Kyriakopoulos",slug:"konstantinos-kyriakopoulos",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos"},{id:"188835",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Acquafredda",slug:"pasquale-acquafredda",fullName:"Pasquale Acquafredda"}]},{id:"51105",doi:"10.5772/63486",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1943,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]},{id:"49656",doi:"10.5772/61974",title:"Optical Satellite Remote Sensing of the Coastal Zone Environment — An Overview",slug:"optical-satellite-remote-sensing-of-the-coastal-zone-environment-an-overview",totalDownloads:2469,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Optical remote-sensing data are a powerful source of information for monitoring the coastal environment. Due to the high complexity of coastal environments, where different natural and anthropogenic phenomenon interact, the selection of the most appropriate sensor(s) is related to the applications required, and the different types of resolutions available (spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal) need to be considered. The development of specific techniques and tools based on the processing of optical satellite images makes possible the production of information useful for coastal environment management, without any destructive impacts. This chapter will highlight different subjects related to coastal environments: shoreline change detection, ocean color, water quality, river plumes, coral reef, alga bloom, bathymetry, wetland mapping, and coastal hazards/vulnerability. The main objective of this chapter is not an exhaustive description of the image processing methods/algorithms employed in coastal environmental studies, but focus in the range of applications available. Several limitations were identified. The major challenge still is to have remote-sensing techniques adopted as a routine tool in assessment of change in the coastal zone. Continuing research is required into the techniques employed for assessing change in the coastal environment.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Ana C. Teodoro",authors:[{id:"18485",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Teodoro",slug:"ana-teodoro",fullName:"Ana Teodoro"}]},{id:"49851",doi:"10.5772/62122",title:"Detection of Tree Crowns in Very High Spatial Resolution Images",slug:"detection-of-tree-crowns-in-very-high-spatial-resolution-images",totalDownloads:3240,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The requirements for advanced knowledge on forest resources have led researchers to develop efficient methods to provide detailed information about trees. Since 1999, orbital remote sensing has been providing very high resolution (VHR) image data. The new generation of satellite allows individual tree crowns to be visually identifiable. The increase in spatial resolution has also had a profound effect in image processing techniques and has motivated the development of new object-based procedures to extract information. Tree crown detection has become a major area of research in image analysis considering the complex nature of trees in an uncontrolled environment. This chapter is subdivided into two parts. Part I offers an overview of the state of the art in computer detection of individual tree crowns in VHR images. Part II presents a new hybrid approach developed by the authors that integrates geometrical-optical modeling (GOM), marked point processes (MPP), and template matching (TM) to individually detect tree crowns in VHR images. The method is presented for two different applications: isolated tree detection in an urban environment and automatic tree counting in orchards with an average performance rate of 82% for tree detection and above 90% for tree counting in orchards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Marilia Ferreira Gomes and Philippe Maillard",authors:[{id:"177110",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Maillard",slug:"philippe-maillard",fullName:"Philippe Maillard"},{id:"177172",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marilia",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Gomes",slug:"marilia-gomes",fullName:"Marilia Gomes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66703",title:"P-Wave Teleseismic Tomography: Evidence of Imprints of Deccan Mantle Plume below the Kachchh Rift Zone, Gujarat, India",slug:"p-wave-teleseismic-tomography-evidence-of-imprints-of-deccan-mantle-plume-below-the-kachchh-rift-zon",totalDownloads:2602,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Indian plate had experienced the Deccan volcanism at 65 Ma when it moved over the Re-union hotspot, which has altered lithospheric structure below the Kachchh rift zone (KRZ). To quantify the influence of Deccan volcanism on the crust-mantle, the present chapter focuses on the delineation of the upper mantle structure below the KRZ, through the modeling of crust corrected P-residuals and P-wave teleseismic tomography. The crust corrected normalized P-residuals suggest dominant negative residuals associated with the central KRZ, indicating crustal and lithospheric thinning below the KRZ. A low velocity down to a depth of 170 km below the central KRZ is detected through the teleseismic tomography using these P-residuals. However, these residuals also show positive values for the surrounding un-rifted zones. Note that a low shear velocity zone extending from 100–120 km to 170–220 km depth beneath the central KRZ has already been revealed by the modeling of P-RFs. This reduction in seismic velocity in the upper mantle could be explained by the presence of trapped carbonatite/partial melts related to the Deccan volcanism. The influx of volatile CO2 emanating from the carbonatite melts in the asthenosphere might be generating lower crustal earthquakes occurring in the KRZ.",book:{id:"7677",slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",fullTitle:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions"},signatures:"Prantik Mandal",authors:[{id:"279344",title:"Dr.",name:"Prantik",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"prantik-mandal",fullName:"Prantik Mandal"}]},{id:"49608",title:"Remote Sensing of Mountain Glaciers and Related Hazards",slug:"remote-sensing-of-mountain-glaciers-and-related-hazards",totalDownloads:2386,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Mountain glaciers are highly sensitive to temperature and precipitation fluctuations and active geomorphic agents in shaping the landforms of glaciated regions which are direct imprints of past glaciations, providing reliable evidence of the evolution of the past Cryosphere and contain important information on climatic variables. But most importantly, glaciers have aroused a lot of concern in terms of glacier area changes, thickness change, mass balance and their consequences on water resources as well as related hazards. The contribution of glacier mass loss to global sea-level rise and increasing number of glacier-related hazards are the most important and current socioeconomic concerns. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of the changes and constant monitoring of glaciers are essential for studying climate, water resource management and hydropower and also to predict and evade glacier-related hazards. The recent advances in the techniques of earth observations have proved as a boon for investigating glaciers and glacier-related hazards. Remote sensing technology enables extraction of glacier parameters such as albedo/reflectance/scattering, glacier area, glacier zones and facies, equilibrium line, glacier thickness, volume, mass balance, velocity and glacier topography. The present chapter explores the prospective of remote sensing technology for understanding and surveying glaciers formed at high, inaccessible mountains and glacier-induced hazards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Pratima Pandey, Alagappan Ramanathan and Gopalan\nVenkataraman",authors:[{id:"18342",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramanathan",middleName:null,surname:"Alagappan",slug:"ramanathan-alagappan",fullName:"Ramanathan Alagappan"},{id:"177179",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratima",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"pratima-pandey",fullName:"Pratima Pandey"},{id:"178231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gopalan",middleName:null,surname:"Venkataraman",slug:"gopalan-venkataraman",fullName:"Gopalan Venkataraman"}]},{id:"60548",title:"Volcanic Glass and its Uses as Adsorbent",slug:"volcanic-glass-and-its-uses-as-adsorbent",totalDownloads:1601,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Volcanic glasses are an amorphous phyllosilicates formed by the fast cooling of the magma. The physicochemical properties of volcanic glasses are directly related to their chemical composition. Thus, the rhyolitic magma, which presents the highest SiO2 percentage, displays a high viscosity, which leads to explosive eruptions by the ex-solution of H2O, CO2, and SO2, when the pressure diminishes generates a macroporous structure with interesting applications in construction, as abrasive, acoustic, filter as well as in the agriculture field. The macroporosity of volcanic glass allows to host large molecules as biomolecules, tensoactives, or dyes. On the other hand, the existence of hydroxyl groups in this amorphous aluminosilicate also favors the adsorption of cations and anions, so the volcanic glass is an economical adsorbent to retain heavy metals or radioactive cations.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Juan Antonio Cecilia, Miguel Armando Autie-Pérez, Juan Manuel\nLabadie-Suarez, Enrique Rodríguez Castellón and Antonia Infantes\nMolina",authors:[{id:"126325",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Castellón",slug:"enrique-rodriguez-castellon",fullName:"Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón"}]},{id:"57502",title:"The Characteristics of Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia",slug:"the-characteristics-of-volcanic-eruption-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:1846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter discusses the unique characteristics of the volcanic eruptions in Indonesia. We know that Indonesia has 147 volcanoes and 76 of them are active volcanoes and spread along the islands of Java, Lesser Sunda, Sumatra, and Celebes. The characteristics of Indonesian volcanoes are quite unique in terms of the formation process, eruption phenomenon, and the resulting natural disasters. Most volcanoes in Indonesia consist of stratovolcanoes, but this does not mean that the resulting eruptions are always explosive and they have a long period. This can be seen from the activity of Semeru that always erupts effusively every day, Sinabung that has a very short eruption period, Tangkuban Perahu eruption that occurs suddenly with the lack of early signs, and Merapi and Kelud that have eruption period that is getting shorter. Based on the results of our study it can be known that the types of volcanic eruption are influenced by the structure of the constituent rocks of the volcanoes. However, the presence of external control factors in the form of large-scale earthquakes will affect their periodicity. The large earthquakes can affect the stability of the magma chamber that can trigger a premature eruption.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Eko Hariyono and Liliasari S",authors:[{id:"214360",title:"Dr.",name:"Eko",middleName:null,surname:"Hariyono",slug:"eko-hariyono",fullName:"Eko Hariyono"},{id:"219699",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliasari",middleName:null,surname:"S",slug:"liliasari-s",fullName:"Liliasari S"}]},{id:"51105",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"658",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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