Electroencephalography (EEG) signal frequency bands.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7576",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Reimagining New Approaches in Teacher Professional Development",title:"Reimagining New Approaches in Teacher Professional Development",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Reimagining new approaches in teacher professional development is the focus of this book. It looks at different perspectives of teacher professional development. Most chapters directly or indirectly present and discuss new approaches in teacher professional development in general. The purpose of the book is to inform readers that there are new ways of developing teachers professionally, and to equip readers with the skills needed to teach or behave in a professional manner. The book aims at providing new knowledge about professional development to academics, universities, education authorities, teachers, parents, and governing body members. The authors have diverse perspectives about the issues or aspects pertaining to teacher professional development.",isbn:"978-1-78984-190-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-189-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-838-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77155",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"reimagining-new-approaches-in-teacher-professional-development",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7ebab0695715a9b2a759da32380ded9a",bookSignature:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",publishedDate:"October 10th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7576.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8975,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 21st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 9th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 8th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196797/images/7200_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu holds a B.A.Ed. (Vista University); B.Ed.; MEd; & Ph.D. degrees from the University of Pretoria, South Africa. He is an Associate Professor at the University of South Africa, Department of Educational Leadership & Management. He is responsible for teaching and research. He has presented papers at national and international conferences and is a recipient of Dean’s Award for Excellence in Teaching in the Faculty of Education (2011) at the University of Pretoria. He has published extensively in accredited journals and contributed a book and book chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of South Africa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1316",title:"Higher Education",slug:"higher-education"}],chapters:[{id:"63634",title:"Introductory Chapter: Reimagining New Approaches in Teacher Professional Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81120",slug:"introductory-chapter-reimagining-new-approaches-in-teacher-professional-development",totalDownloads:875,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63634",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63634",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}],corrections:null},{id:"61736",title:"Reflection in Teacher Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78257",slug:"reflection-in-teacher-development",totalDownloads:1500,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Correlative and empirical studies on reflection seem to have a lack of concern regarding teacher development. This chapter presents the reflective practitioner development model (RPDM) for professional development of teachers based on principles of reflection and measurement of the development of teachers’ reflective abilities and self-efficacy. The model focuses on reflective development of practitioners with self-efficacy, the procedure of the program, and the measurement of reflection and self-efficacy of teachers. It was tested through collecting quantitative and qualitative data. The findings suggest that the model had strong evidence for the educators to use, including the support to creating and promoting reflection and self-efficacy.",signatures:"Ulas Kayapinar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61736",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61736",authors:[{id:"232425",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulas",surname:"Kayapinar",slug:"ulas-kayapinar",fullName:"Ulas Kayapinar"}],corrections:null},{id:"62224",title:"A Critical Review of the Kind of Training or Professional Development Typically Offered to the Teachers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78741",slug:"a-critical-review-of-the-kind-of-training-or-professional-development-typically-offered-to-the-teach",totalDownloads:857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main aim of this research was to review the type of professional development or training that was offered to the teachers so that they can implement policies on teaching and learning. The researcher used critical theory as the basis of his research. Qualitative research assisted the researcher to review the type of professional development or training that was offered to the teachers so that they can be able to implement policies on teaching and learning. Data analysis included sorting, conceptualising, refining and organising data into a coherent new structure. Furthermore, the researcher discovered after data interpretation that some of the teachers were professionally developed or trained on the different policies for teaching and learning. The Department of Basic Education should provide teachers with pre-service and in-service training programmes or professional development programmes. Such professional development programmes or pre-service and in-service training programmes should be provided in order to empower teachers with knowledge and skills that will enable them to fulfil their roles as mediators of teaching and learning.",signatures:"Tebogo Mogashoa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62224",authors:[{id:"233676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tebogo",surname:"Mogashoa",slug:"tebogo-mogashoa",fullName:"Tebogo Mogashoa"}],corrections:null},{id:"61635",title:"Cyber Security Body of Knowledge and Curricula Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77975",slug:"cyber-security-body-of-knowledge-and-curricula-development",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cyber world is an ever-changing world and cyber security is most important and touches the lives of everyone on the cyber world including researchers, students, businesses, academia, and novice user. The chapter suggests a body of knowledge that incorporates the view of academia as well as practitioners. This research attempts to put basic step and a framework for cyber security body of knowledge and to allow practitioners and academicians to face the problem of lack of standardization. Furthermore, the chapter attempts to bridge the gap between the different audiences. The gap is so broad that the term of cyber security is not agreed upon even in spelling. The suggested body of knowledge may not be perfect, yet it is a step forward.",signatures:"Evon M Abu-Taieh, Auhood Abd. Al Faries, Shaha T. Alotaibi and\nGhadah Aldehim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61635",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61635",authors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],corrections:null},{id:"62448",title:"Moving from Training/Taming to Independent Creative Learning: Based on Research of the Brain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79373",slug:"moving-from-training-taming-to-independent-creative-learning-based-on-research-of-the-brain",totalDownloads:798,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Learning is the ability to cope with changes and to understand their interaction with the dynamic body. Animal brains, and specifically the human brain, are developed in such a way to make learning possible. Based on findings from brain research, we can show that this is the primary function of the brain. For survival and energy-saving purposes, the brain is developed in such a way that the learning process is as short as possible, while most energy is devoted to converting the results of learning into automatic activity. The move to automation of learning outcomes is based on mechanisms, which can be used to tame animals, including man. Humans yield most of the time to the processes of self-taming/training of the brain, even empowering them through the Western concept of learning, which idolizes focused narrow-specialization. I will present here findings from brain research and describe the characteristics of Western culture on which these claims are founded, as an expression of the threat to the continuing development of modern human culture due to characteristics which demonstrate a process similar to the cultural degeneration of past civilizations, which at their peak, could not have imagined such a fall to be possible.",signatures:"Yitzhak Ezuz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62448",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62448",authors:[{id:"234256",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yitzhak",surname:"Ezuz",slug:"yitzhak-ezuz",fullName:"Yitzhak Ezuz"}],corrections:null},{id:"62712",title:"Disciplinary Measures: A Survey from Selected Primary Schools",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77992",slug:"disciplinary-measures-a-survey-from-selected-primary-schools",totalDownloads:1767,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure has been abolished in South African schools since 1994. The chapter is about the views of the teachers on the different disciplinary measures they use as alternative to corporal punishment at the selected primary schools in Tembisa, South Africa. It used a descriptive research design, and it is quantitative in nature. A population of 100 teachers who are based at Tembisa was considered. Probability sampling techniques were used, whereby 28 teachers were sampled. Data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The findings revealed that the majority of teachers had not received any training pertaining to the management of discipline after the abolishment of corporal punishment in Tembisa schools. Teachers view poor academic performance of learners as affected by the lack of proper discipline.",signatures:"Welcome Mswazi Kubeka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62712",authors:[{id:"224363",title:"Dr.",name:"Welcome",surname:"Kubeka",slug:"welcome-kubeka",fullName:"Welcome Kubeka"}],corrections:null},{id:"61588",title:"Hiding Techniques in Physical Education – Categories, Causes Underlying and Pedagogy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77983",slug:"hiding-techniques-in-physical-education-categories-causes-underlying-and-pedagogy",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Previous research shows that some pupils find physical education (PE) demanding and difficult. Some pupils then use strategies to avoid participation in PE when this is the case. The chapter aims to illuminate and describe strategies used by pupils to avoid negative self-perception in difficult situations and activities in PE classes. This behaviour, called hiding techniques, arises out of the need to protect self-perception and save academic or social face in the PE subject. Research findings show that hiding techniques are experienced and practised in many different ways and that there is a wide range of causes behind them. Pupils’ hiding techniques are categorized into main types, and the causes underlying them are summarized in the chapter. In the last part, pedagogical issues are discussed in the light of research findings.",signatures:"Idar Lyngstad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61588",authors:[{id:"226630",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Idar",surname:"Lyngstad",slug:"idar-lyngstad",fullName:"Idar Lyngstad"}],corrections:null},{id:"62073",title:"Professional Development and Physics Teachers’ Ongoing Learning Needs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78711",slug:"professional-development-and-physics-teachers-ongoing-learning-needs",totalDownloads:911,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study sought insight into the professional learning and development needs of physics teachers in New Zealand high schools. It used a mixed methods approach that comprised a national survey of high-school physics teachers as well as interviews with high-school physics teachers and physics teacher educators. Data from the teacher survey were analysed using descriptive statistical methods. Audio recordings from interviews were transcribed, analysed and used to triangulate and add depth to the survey data. Findings indicated that physics teachers were dissatisfied with the lack of formal physics-focussed professional development opportunities available to support their professional growth. Instead, teachers tended to rely on personal critical inquiry and infrequent practitioner meetings to inform practice. 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Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5382.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80529",title:"Effective EEG Artifact Removal from EEG Signal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102698",slug:"effective-eeg-artifact-removal-from-eeg-signal",body:'One of the most complex structures on this earth is the human brain with an estimated approximately weight of 3lbs. The human brain is so much sophisticated that it has given so many brilliant research works which seem superficial at first look likewise ultra-modern supercomputer, aircraft and one of the missile technologies LGM-30G Minuteman-III, etc. [1]. It controls one’s whole human body and consists of approximately 100 billion cells, known as a neuron, a part of the human nervous system. These neurons communicate with each other by sending an electrical potential (charge) down the axon and across the synapse to the very next neuron. Since neurons are not connected physically, it uses a chemical messenger entitled neurotransmitters, which crosses the synaptic gap to carry-forward messages to the next neuron [2]. This chemical messenger (neurotransmitters) then activates receptors corresponding to it in the postsynaptic neuron, this action generates postsynaptic currents this process keeps going on for the next synapse. As this communication passes current (electrical potential) using neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger, it can be considered as communication is a process that is electrical and chemical both.
As shown in Figure 1, the neurons are activated using an electrochemical concentration gradient, local current flows are produced.
Typical neurons structure.
EEG works as a good tool to explore brain activity and can detect changes within milliseconds. Depending upon the type of neuron, an action potential takes 0.5–130 milliseconds approximately to propagate across a single neuron. Whereas, other methods likewise fMRI and PET has time resolution in terms of seconds and minutes and makes these methods less efficient.
Moreover, EEG directly measures the brain’s electrical activity, whilst other methods such as SPECT, fMRI record changes in blood flow, or PET record changes in metabolic activity, which are indirect markers of electrical activity belonging to the brain. The electrical activity is a superposition of the huge number of electrical charges arising from multiple sources likewise brain cells i.e. neurons and artifacts. It is possible to place electrodes inside the human head via surgery for direct measurement from different centers in the human brain, but this is a painful and risky procedure for the subject [3, 4]. However, the desirable technique is to calculate electrical signals of interest invaded on the scalp as shown in the following Figure 2.
EEG electrodes placement on a subject, monitoring various sectors of the brain for activities.
Signals obtained by an above-maintained process are weighted sums of neuron activity, whose weights depend on the signal path from a specific brain cell to the connected electrodes. Since the same electrical potential is being recorded from more than one electrode, signals being occurred from those electrodes are supposed to be highly correlated [4]. Henceforth, Scientists and Researchers collect these recordings by attachment of tens or hundreds of electrodes, which are positioned in pairs, at various locations on the surface of the subject’s head. These electrical potentials (Charges) are tested simultaneously via individuals’ channels or amplifiers. Recording for each channel represents the difference in electrical potential between two areas under each electrode’s pair [5] as represented in Figure 3. In Figure 3, the differences between the two electrodes are measured through an operational amplifier for generating EEG signal recording. A machine that is used for this purpose is known as an electroencephalograph, and recordings collected through these amplifiers are known as electroencephalogram (EEG) signals.
Differential amplifier for EEG recording/signal.
Currently, so many different types of electroencephalographs are available; over which 10–20 system is the internationally standardized method for describing the location of scalp electrodes and is based upon the relationship between an electrode’s location and cerebral cortex underlying area and usually employs 21 electrodes. Its positions are determined by dividing the skull into the perimeters by connection of a few reference points lying on the human head.
In this, every perimeter has a letter, that helps in the identification of the lobe, and either a number or another letter for identification of the hemisphere location. Letters that are used are as follows:
“F”-Frontal lobe
“T”-Temporal lobe
“C”-Central lobe
“P”-Parietal lobe
“O”-Occipital lobe.
Furthermore, numbers (2, 4, 6, 8) refer to the right hemisphere, whereas odd numbers (1, 3, 5, 7) refer to the left hemisphere.
In the below-shown Figure 4, the “Z” refers to an electrode placed on the midline; the position of the electrode can be determined by the magnitude of the number, the smaller magnitude represents that electrode is much closer to the midline. The figure given below presents the actual electrode placement on the head and from these points, skull perimeters are measured in the transverse and the median planes [4].
The international 10–20 system seen from (a) left and (b) top (c) standard location and nomenclature of the intermediate 10% electrodes.
Figure 3.4 presents the system “10” and “20” shows the fact that the actual distances between two adjacent electrodes are in percentage of either 10% or 20% of the three main measurements:
nasion, is the delve at the upper portion of the nose, and in level with the eyes.
inion, is the bony lump at the base of the skull on the midline of the back of the head.
pre-auricular points and circumference of the head.
In the human brain, most of the neurons, which work in synchrony, possess common characteristics, that as much larger the amplitude (potential) of the electrical oscillations in microvolt (mV), will have much faster the neurons work together, and also much higher the frequency of the oscillations in Hertz (Hz). Hence, amplitude and frequency, and shape are important primary characteristics of human brain waves. EEGs are the recordings of these tiny electrical charges (potentials or waves) that are generally less than 300 μV [6]. EEG frequency bands or the brain rhythms arranged according to increased frequencies are shown in Figure 5.
Fundamental EEG bands classification.
The most common classification is based on the frequency of EEG signals (i.e. alpha, beta, theta, and delta). The brain waves with their frequency band and the corresponding brain activities are revealed in Table 1.
Name | Frequency band (Hz) | Predominantly brain activity |
---|---|---|
Delta | 0.5–4 | Sleeping |
Theta | 4–8 | Dreaming, Meditation |
Alpha | 8–13 | Relaxation |
Beta | 13–36 | Alert/Working Problem Solving |
Gamma | 36–100 | Multisensory semantic matching Perceptual function |
Electroencephalography (EEG) signal frequency bands.
The EEG signals have been broadly categorized into six classical categories as shown in Figure 5. They cause a high level of difficulty to interpret the huge amount of data/information being received from one single EEG recordings. Subsequently, it is highly required to understand every aspect of these categories, which have been explained below in brief:
The Alpha waves have been discovered around 1908 by Hans Berger. Its frequency ranges from 8 to 13 Hz and is usually seen in the posterior regions of the head on each side of an adult when the patient is relaxing [7]. It appears when closing the eyes and relaxing, and tends to attenuate with open eyes or alerting by any mental exertion.
Its frequency ranges from 14 Hz to about 30 Hz. Beta activity is a “fast” activity and is also called normal rhythm activity. It is usually seen on both sides of the hemisphere in symmetrical distribution and is most evident in the frontal areas. Sedative-hypnotic drugs affect this activity [7]. It may be missing or reduced in regions of cortical damage. It is accentuated in patients who are very anxious or have their eyes open.
It has a frequency range from 4 to 7 Hz and is classified as “slow” activity. It is found in every person during sleep and in meditation. It can be seen in the state of arousal for adults [7]. Excess theta in adults represents abnormal activity.
The Delta Waves have a frequency range of up to 4 Hz or below. It is likely to have a higher amplitude but has a low frequency. It is normal as the dominant rhythm in infants of up to one year and stages 3 and 4 of sleep. It is usually more prominent in the frontal part in adults and the posterior part in children [7].
Theta and delta waves are known collectively as slow waves.
Its frequency ranges from 30 to 100 Hz. Gamma rhythms represent the binding of an enormous collection of neurons assimilated for carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function [8].
The amplitude of EEG signals is very closely related to the level of consciousness of a person [9]. An example of these waves is shown below in Figure 6.
EEG activity is solely dependent on the level of the subject’s consciousness.
From Figure 6, the conclusion is drawn that the slow waves Theta and Delta occur in the third and fourth stages of human sleep. The awake condition presents a high level of consciousness with Beta waves. This 90 minutes of the cycle is repeated the whole night with repeated EEG wave activity.
The EEG signal is one of those signals which are most widely used for studying brain functions and for the diagnosis of neurological disorders by physicians, researchers, and scientists. A single misinterpretation can become a cause of misdiagnosis. Henceforth, it is imperative to have a very right and clear image about brain activities being represented by EEG signals shown in Figure 7. Skull’s low conductivity is the main reason for the poor spatial resolution of scalp EEG.
One second recording of clean pure EEG signal.
Furthermore, scalp EEG signals are highly sensitive to the movement of the subject and noises being introduced due to externally likewise human head activation, eye movements, musculature, nearby electrical device interference and because of one’s movement conductivity in the electrodes get varies or physicochemical reactions occurred at the electrode sites [6]. Some of the EEG artifacts distributions are displayed in Figure 8. All these additional activities are indirectly associated with the subject’s current cerebral process and are collectively referred to as background activities. Henceforth, EEG signals are highly enervated and mixed with these non-cerebral impulses known as artifacts or noise. These artifacts or noise fall into two major categories being considered as physiologic and extra-physiologic [5]. Only after removing these artifacts, a true diagnosis can be achieved. Physiologic Artifacts can be produced by any of any sources present in the human body that has an electric dipole or which can generate an electrical or magnetic field that can become a cause of physiologic artifacts.
ECG and EOG artifacts.
The following are the types of physiologic artifacts:
Muscle artifacts
Glossokinetic artifacts
Eye blink artifacts
Eye movement artifacts
ECG artifacts
Pulse artifacts
Respiration artifacts
Skin artifacts
The following are the types of extra-physiologic artifacts:
Electrode popping artifacts
Alternating current artifacts
Artifacts due to movements in the environment
Some of the most EEG corrupting artifacts are discussed as follows:
This is mainly used to measure the eye artifacts. Since these measurements are contaminants of EEG signal and so it is not possible to remove this kind of artifacts from the subtraction process only when the exact model of EOG diffusion across the scalp is available [2]. These artifacts are of two types:
I. Eye Blinking.
It is an artifact that is very common in EEG data. This artifact possesses a very high amplitude signal sometimes much greater than the EEG signals of interest. Further, it can corrupt data availed on all electrodes, even those signals too, that are at the back of the head [2].
II. Eye Movement.
It is occurring because of the reorientation of the retained corneal dipole [4]. Eye movement’s diffusion across the scalp is greater than that being produced by the eye blink artifact.
EOG artifact can be given in the following form:
where,
Cardiograph is generally used to measure pulse or heartbeat, which occurs by an electrode on or near a blood vessel as shown in Figure 8. The voltage recording changes due to the expansion and contraction of the vessel [2]. The artifact signal generally has frequency proximity to 1.2 Hz and appears as a sharp spike or smooth wave but it can have a variation that solely depends on the state of the patient. An example has been illustrated below where an EEG signal mixed with ECG/EKG signal and got corrupted due to line interference.
Electrocardiogram signal artifacts can represent by using the following equation:
Where
Electromyogram (EMG) artifacts could be produced because of some movement disorders. Essential tremor and Parkinson’s disease could also be responsible for rhythmic 4–6 Hz sinusoidal artifacts which may be mimicked cerebral activity [2].
Following equation shows the EMG signal:
Where.
and
Extra-physiologic Artifacts
These include interference due to electrical equipment, kinesiology artifacts because of the human body or movements of electrodes, and mechanical artifact because of human body movement.
The movement of the patient or even disturbance just during the electrodes settling could become the cause of electrode pops variations of the conduction between electrodes and the skin. Linguistically these signals appear either in the form of single or multiple sharp waveforms due to abrupt variations in the impedance. It can be easily identified by its characteristic appearance and its usual distribution, which is restricted to a single electrode [4]. In usual manners, sharp transients which occur at a single electrode should be considered artifacts, until it has not been proven. Figure 9a and Figure 9b present the pure EEG signal and motion artifact contaminated EEG signal. Figure 9b shows the high amplitude broad spectrum distribution because of motion artifact in the EEG signal.
(a) Original EEG signal (b) EEG signal contaminated with motion artifact.
Figure 9a shows the original EGG signal and (b) represents the motion artifact contaminated EEG signal. Figure 9b presented the motion artifacts contamination on the EEG signal.
Alternating Currents, ranging from 50 to 60 Hz, that is strong signals from Alternating Current (A/C) power supplies could also corrupt EEG data since it gets transferred to a recording device from the scalp electrodes. Issues co-related to power lines-based artifacts come into the picture when an active electrode has a higher impedance than impedance between the electrodes and the amplifier’s ground. In such kinds of scenarios, the amplifier’s ground starts to work as an active electrode which solely depends upon its location and implements/generates 50–60-Hz artifact. Usually for removal of these artifact notch filters are used, but still, it could produce a problem of useful information removal, furthermore lower frequency line noise and harmonics are undesirable [10]. If the line noise or harmonics produce in frequency bands of interest it interferes with EEG signals which occur in the same frequency band [9].
Power line noise as shown in Figure 10 can be presented mathematically as:
Line interference of 50 Hz.
In the above equation
During the recording process, there is always a possibility of occurrence of contamination in EEG data at multiple points. Over which most of the artifacts that occurred here belong biologically generated by sources and are external to the brain. By significant improvement in existing technology, these externally generated artifacts could be removed, thus it is important to study efficient de-noising (a process for noise removal) procedures that would be able to remove these biological overlays from EEG signals. Actual EEG recordings are the summation of artifacts with the pure EEG signal, and can be defined mathematically:
Where:-.
The presence of these artifacts introduces spikes that can create issues while reading neurological rhythms. So many methods have been proposed and presented by scientists and researchers to perform the artifacts removal process in EEG.
To remove artifacts from an EEG recording can be classified into two groups, which are following:
Artifact rejection—This method is used for removal of EEG signal that comprises the artifact and
Artifact correction—This method is used for the removal of artifacts from EEG signals while keeping and maintaining the pure EEG signal.
1. Basic Artifact Rejection.
The most commonly used de-noising techniques for eliminating all EEG epochs which comprise artifacts larger than some pre-defined threshold EEG voltage level, known as artifact rejection. This method is most commonly and widely used when a limited amount of data or artifacts such as EOG is available. These artifacts occur too frequently in nature that raises elimination of those epochs which are contaminated with the artifacts, which becomes the cause of considerable loss of information and which makes this process impractical for being used in clinical data. As EEG and some artifacts occupy the same frequency band, this method is not that effective [7].
2. Regression Method.
Conventionally artifacts correction processes used a regression-based approach which is based on either time domain or frequency domain [3]. In this method, after a clear measure of artifact signals, it is subtracted from EEG signals and has been recorded. The major issue that comes into existence is bi-directional contamination. As if artifacts potentials are capable of contaminating EEG recordings, then the electrical activity of the brain is also capable of contaminating the artifacts recordings. Henceforth, diminishing a linear combination of the recorded artifacts from the EEG recordings may not only abolish artifacts but also the cerebral activity of interest. Review work for these techniques is discussed in [4, 8].
3. Filtering Method
Low-pass filtering of the artifacts eliminates all high-frequency activity from EOG signal, from both cerebral and ocular origins [7]. Adaptive filtering usage before applying regression correction can substantially reduce issues produced due to bidirectional contamination [3]. However, it is imperative to use adaptive digital filters for artifact removal, which necessitates a suitable reference model for training the filter.
1. Principal Component Analysis (PCA).
These methods are based on EEG and artifacts decomposition into spatial components, which is inclusive of recognizing artifactual components and reassembling the EEG without those artifactual components that have been recognized, but it is problematic in the case of PCA. The PCA algorithm first decomposes the EEG signals into uncorrelated, but it is not required that these must be independent of each other which are spatially orthogonal and that’s why it cannot deal with higher-order statistical dependencies. Furthermore, it is not practically possible to completely separate artifacts from interested brain signals specifically when both of these signals have comparable amplitudes.
The following expression describes principal component decomposition:
where,
By maximizing the variance of
Successive principal components can easily be obtained iteratively by demising the first k principal components from
Now to find ϕk + 1,
Subject to
Alternatively, Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is the simplest and efficient way that can be applied to find a centered data-matrix
Where
UD matrix constitutes principal component scores, which are variable coordinates in the case of principal components [3].
This method was developed to handle issues that occurred due to Blind Source Separation, abbreviated as BSS to form the components which must be as independent as possible [8] and can be represented mathematically:
Where
Where
After a thorough investigation and deep analysis and research work conclusion has been drawn that ICA provides much better results for de-noising [6]. A whole chapter has been devoted to describing ICA, which belongs to existing work in Single-Stage Artifact Removal Algorithm.
This algorithm has been developed by
Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) is first proposed by Hotelling. CCA is an algorithm for the determination of the linear association between two set variables. This is done with the help of the variance and covariance matrix of the data [6].
A set of linear combinations named A and B are considered as:
Let
This
This
This canonical pair will be calculated and separated by calculating self-correlation and a mutual decorrelation between input sources.
Wavelet Transform (WT) has good localization properties in the time and frequency domain [6], and so it is a widely accepted and successful method being used for de-noising [11]. Currently, so many approaches are available at the algorithmic level to de-noise using Wavelet Transform, which is mainly based on shrinkage, where the EEG signals get decomposed in the form of wavelets and then noise removal is performed using shrinkage and thresholding. The quality of Wavelet Transform in transforming a time-domain signal into time and frequency localization assists in comprehending the signal’s behavior in a much better way.
The Wavelet Transform could be defined as the following equation, which is the inner product or cross-correlation of {
where,
Empirical mode decomposition is a non-linear method to represent a non-stationary signal into the sum of zero-mean sub-components. This method decomposes a signal into several intrinsic mode functions through an iterative method known as sifting. At the first level, the Intrinsic Mode function (IMF1) is the mean of the upper and lower envelop of the original EEG signal x(t). Then the residual signal is obtained by subtracting IMF1 from x(t). This process is iterated till the stopping criterion is fulfilled (Residual signal energy content is close to zero). The remaining residual signal is
where,
Finally, the signal is reconstructed by adding all IMFs and residual signals as
The method of detecting IMFs is sensitive to the amalgam of undesired signal components present in surroundings. These noises affect the EMD process. Thus, mode mixing is used to overcome the disparate scale oscillations with amplitude in the near range of the IMFs peaks which can be available randomly in the whole dataset. Consequently, a more powerful and noise-assisted version of the EMD algorithm was presented termed as Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD), which solves this mode mixing quandary and employs the average value of EMD ensembles that filters out the IMFs for the given signal. Moreover, this method also depends on the added noise amplitude to the input signal and the number of trials [6, 9].
In this Chapter, Electroencephalograph Signals and their generation process have been discussed; the EEG signal has been compared with fMRI and PET signals. The classification of the EEG signals on the amplitude, frequency, and shape have been elaborated in wave analysis of EEG, and applications of these components are presented.
The artifacts of EEG have been explained in detail. There are two main types of artifacts to be considered; namely, physiological and non-physiological artifacts. Non-physiological contain artifacts such as movement artifacts, electrode pop artifacts, sweat artifacts, and 50/60 Hz noise. Typically, these artifacts are not explicitly monitored, and as such, they need to be filtered out by their characteristics alone. For example, sweat artifacts tend to be of really low frequency, 50/60 Hz noise is contained within a narrow frequency band, and electrode pop artifacts are not necessarily time-aligned in two corresponding electrodes on the two sides of the scalp. Physiological artifacts take the form of ocular artifacts, cardiac artifacts, muscle artifacts, glossokinetic artifacts, and respiratory artifacts. Most of these artifacts can be monitored with another channel, which in turn can be used during the EEG artifact removal.
Subsequently, artifact removal methods have been classified in the form of artifact correction and artifact rejection. The artifact rejection comprises Regression and filtering as the main method. Whereas, artifact correction method comprises Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Independent Component Analysis (ICA), Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA), Wavelet Transform (WT), and Empirical Mode Analysis (EMD). These all single-stage artifact removal methods and their implementation with results are discussed in the subsequent chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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",metaTitle:"Publishing Process Steps and Descriptions",metaDescription:"This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with InTechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Publishing Process Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/publishing-process-steps",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
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\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
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\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"