\r\n\tHealth and mental health issues of both children and adults and evidence-based treatments will be included. The types of sexual violence that occur and prevention efforts that have – or have not – been made to address the occurrence of these types of violence will be covered.
\r\n\r\n\tCultural and governmental policies, as well as legal and jurisdiction issues to address victims of these crimes, will also be incorporated in the book. For instance, Meagan’s Law and its worthiness in protecting children will be incorporated as well as the Federal program to reimburse victims of online child pornography and the legal entanglements and ramifications of that program.
\r\n\r\n\tThe typology of offenders and the effectiveness of treatment will also be addressed.
\r\n\tFinally, the direction of prevention strategies, treatment needs for both victims and offenders, and policy issues to move the field forward, particularly in terms of research, will be presented. The field of sexual violence has made significant strides in the past 45 years in terms of understanding sexually deviant behavior, the impact on children who then experience the symptoms of that trauma in adulthood, how to effectively interview sexually victimized children, and finally, treatment and social mores that make disclosure possible and recovery hopeful.
Salinity is an abiotic stress factor that has severe negative impacts on agricultural crop growth and yield potentiality [1]. The seed germination, traits of growth and yield-related components of crop plants such as rice and wheat are seriously damaged under salinity conditions [1, 2]. Currently, 230 million hectares of world’s areas are used for cultivation in which 20% lands are affected by varying degree of salinity and amount of saline affected area is increasing continuously due to the effect of sea level rise, coastal subsidence, increased tidal effect and continuous reduction of river flow, particularly during dry periods [3, 4, 5, 6]. Therefore, soil salinity is the major obstruction to crop cultivation. When the crop plants are exposed to salt-affected soil, the plants primarily develop osmotic stress and instantly inhibits the normal plant growth and development [7]. Later, ion toxicity is created in crop plants due to excess salinity level and causes imbalance in mineral homeostasis [3]. Osmotic stress and ion toxicity are major salt-induced stresses which create secondary oxidative stress in plants and overall growth inhibition. Salinity stress also interferes with the photosynthetic process by severely damaging photosynthetic pigments [8] and ultimately results in huge loss of crop yield globally [9]. To feed up the huge global population and ensure the food and nutritional security of the rising population, it is urgent to increase the crop production at least 70% by 2050 [10].
Rice and wheat are the first two ranked cereal crops that jointly feed approximately 80% of the world’s population, and are sensitive to salt stress [11, 12]. Developments of salt tolerant rice and wheat varieties is a prerequisite for salt stress management. To improve rice and wheat production, a thorough understanding of physiological response, biochemical activity, metabolism, epigenetic response, and gene expression under salt stress conditions is required. In this chapter, we discuss the salt-induced oxidative stress, osmotic stress and mineral toxicity to rice and wheat plants. Moreover, we systematically summarize the current understanding of salt-stress response and morpho-physiological and molecular mechanisms, and epigenetic response underlying salt tolerance in rice and wheat. This theoretical basis could be further useful for developing salt-tolerant and high yielding rice and wheat varieties in future.
Plant showed several morphological and anatomical changes under high salinity stress conditions e.g. shorter shoot, root system impairment, total biomass reduction, shoot tip rolling, leaf chlorosis, fewer tillers per plant, lower grain weight, and fewer spikelets per panicle ultimately leading to decrease in harvest index and grain yield [13, 14, 15, 16]. Salt stress significantly affects plant physiology and biochemical activity at germination, seedling and reproductive stages [17, 18, 19]. Excess salt causes osmotic stress and ionic toxicity on rice plants leading to overall oxidative stress and nutrient depletion [20, 21]. Plants show various morpho-physiological or biochemical changes and salt injury symptoms and even may die under high salinity stress conditions (Figure 1). Higher amounts of sodium ion (Na+) directly cause cellular damage in plants and excess Na
Schematic diagram represents the morphological, physiological, biochemical and yield associated response of rice and wheat plants under salt stress conditions. High salinity stress severely damage the plants mineral homeostasis and osmotic maintenance, thereby retarded the plant growth and developments and finally reduce crop yield.
Salinity-induced continuous stress diminish the plant cell turgor pressure, which in turn decreases normal cell growth, and plants must enhance enzymatic activity to adjust osmotic potential and maintain cell expansion and growth [17, 25, 32, 33, 34]. Many investigations reported that Na+ accumulation in plant shoots is directly correlated with the rice and wheat plants’ survivability under saline condition [25, 26]. Therefore, lowering the cytosolic Na+ level is playing a vital role to enhance salt tolerance mechanisms in rice and wheat [25]. Because of osmotic stress in plants, water uptake is obstructed and due to lower water potential physiological drought is created in plants. Osmotic stress also results in interruption of nutrient uptake and rapid stomatal closure, which decline the CO2 assimilation capability of plants and highly inhibits photosynthesis [35]. Oxidative stress due to osmotic and ionic imbalance, causes higher accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which may severely damage the cellular macromolecules (e.g. DNA, lipids and enzymes) and structural components [36, 37]. Under salinity conditions, rice and wheat plants must amplify their physio-biochemical and enzymatic activity involved in the regulation of ion and osmotic homeostasis, oxidative stress, and nutritional balance [1, 23, 38, 39].
Soil salinity induced stress in crop plants is commonly caused by high concentrations of Na+ and Cl− [38, 39]. The ionic homeostasis must be regulated and re-established in saline stressed conditions [40]. The final determinants of salt tolerance mechanisms are different ion transporters that transport toxic ions at plant organ and cell levels [41]. Therefore, the most important fact of salinity tolerance studies is to find which transporters interfere with the entry of Na+ into the cell [42]. Na+ and K+ are normally transported into the plant cell by the same transporters, where these two cations compete for space [43]. Excess Na+ competes with K+ for absorption across the plasma membranes of plant cells, and K+ is required for the activities of several important catalytic enzymes [44].
Moreover, K+ is essential for the preservation of cell turgor, protein synthesis, osmoregulation, normal photosynthesis [45, 46]. Therefore, the regulation and adaptation of cellular Na+/K+ ratio is a crucial indicator that discerns the plant’s capability to survive in salinity stress conditions. Moreover, mechanisms to reduction in cytoplasmic Na+ uptake, compartmentalization of Na + in the vacuole and increase of Na+ efflux [1, 47]. It was reported that the removal of cytoplasms Na+ into the apoplast is due to the salt-inducible enzyme Na+/H+ antiporter of cell plasma membrane [3].
In the rice plants, the plasma membrane Na+/H+ antiporter (OsSOS1) excludes Na+ from the shoot and roots, adjusting the lower Na+/K+ ratio at cellular level and developing salt tolerance in rice [48, 49]. The vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporters (for instance OsNHX1, OsNHX2, OsNHX3, OsNHX4, OsNHX5 and OsARP/OsCTP) contribute a necessary roles in the vacuolar compartmentalization of Na+ and K+ which is accumulated by cells cytoplasm and so determine salt tolerance in rice [50, 51, 52]. In wheat, the accumulation of Na+ is controlled by the genes Nax1 and Nax2, located at 2A and 5A chromosomes position, respectively [53, 54]. These are also used as molecular markers in a wheat breeding program for salt tolerance. Under salt stress, vascular Na+/H+ antiporter (TNHX1, TNHX2, and TVP1) are responsible for wheat seedling growth and development by generating the pH gradient and facilitating sodium sequestration into [31].
Osmotic adjustment is critical for regulating cell turgor for the maintenance of plant metabolic activity, growth, and finally productivity [55]. Crop plants synthesize compatible osmolytes for example proline, polyamines, soluble sugars and proteins, betaine, glycine to provide osmotic balance at the cellular level [56, 57, 58]. Under salinity stress, those important osmolytes provide the plants osmotic adjustment under as they reduce osmotic potential, stabilizing proteins and finally maintain cellular structures [2, 59]. Proline, a dominant substance for osmotic adjustment, possesses high water solubility, low molecular weight and in a free state, thereby no net charge in the physiological pH range in crop plants. The plant cells tend to uptake soluble osmotic adjustment substances to mitigate salt-mediated osmotic stress caused, importantly the biosynthesis of proline is clearly activated [60]. Therefore, proline level may be used as a physiological indicator of plant stress tolerance, especially salinity [61]. Wheat Ta-UnP, can significantly enhance the salt tolerance of transgenic Arabidopsis and rice. Liang et al. [2] described that proline content in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana was significantly increased for maintaining the osmotic potential and protecting plant cells from salinity stress. The proline synthesis genes OsP5CS1 and OsP5CR enhances the proline production to improve the rice salinity stress tolerance [62]. A monosaccharide transporter, encoded by OsGMST1 increases monosaccharide accumulation and develops the salt tolerance in crop plants [63]. Glycine and betaine in rice, which is synthesized by the choline monooxygenase OsCMO and the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase OsBADH1, enhance salt tolerance by promoting glycine betaine accumulation [64, 65]. In wheat plants, some investigation proved that betaine can inhibit the transport speed and quantity of Naþ and Cl− from roots to the aerial parts and promote Kþ transport to enhance tolerance capability against salinity stress [33]. The salt-regulated gene OsSALP1 encodes a small plant-specific membrane protein that develops salinity tolerance mechanism by enhancing the expression of OsP5CS and free proline content under salt stress [66].
Oxygen is one of the essential biomolecules which involves in cellular metabolism, mitochondrial respiration, and oxidative phosphorylation for energy production in plants. However, oxygen is converted into reactive oxygen species (ROS) during plants metabolic process. Plants under salt stress conditions can up-regulate the excess production of ROS e.g. O2− (superoxide radical), H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), and OH− (hydroxyl radical) [67, 68]. Although lower presence of ROS can act as a signal to salt stress responses, excess uptake of ROS causes cytoplasmic membrane damage, DNA mutation, peroxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and protein degradation, irreversible metabolic dysfunction, and finally cell death [68, 69]. In other crop plants, several important antioxidant enzymes and non-enzymes are activated during salinity stress to alleviate ROS stress in rice and wheat [69, 70, 71]. Various Enzymatic scavengers includes catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutaredoxin (GRX), glutathione peroxidase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) [1, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. Nonenzymatic scavengers include ascorbic acid (ASH), alkaloids, carotenoids, flavonoids, glutathione (GSH), phenolic compounds, and tocopherol [45, 70, 79].
Catalase (CAT) and glyoxylic acid-circulating is found in plant peroxisomes and bodies, respectively, which is one of the main enzymes that remove H2O2 and APX. Studies revealed that CAT is a main enzyme for scavenging H2O2 and is essential for H2O2 tolerance of crop plants [45]. The increment of ROS in the crop plant leads to lipid peroxidation in the cell membrane during higher and continuous salinity stress. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), the first line of defense of the plant antioxidant enzyme system, can eliminate the excess superoxide anions in the cells. SOD can disproportionate O2 to form H2O2 and diminish the toxicity of the superoxide anion. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) is one of the main enzymes that remove excess H2O2 in cells Chloroplast APX mainly removes the H2O2 produced by the Miller reaction. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is the key product of membrane lipid peroxidation when plants are under salt stress, and its content represents the degree of cell membrane damage [80]. Therefore, MDA content can indicate plant salt stress and salt tolerance. OsAPX2, OsAPX7, OsAPx8, OsAPXa, and OsAPXb increase APX activity, lower H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, decrease oxidative stress damage, and enhance rice tolerance to salt stress [81, 82, 83, 84]. Glutathione responsive rice glyoxalase II (OsGLYII-2) functions in salinity adaptation by maintaining better photosynthetic efficiency and increasing the antioxidant pool [85]. All these studies suggest that enhancing ROS-scavenging ability can efficiently increase the salt tolerance of rice and wheat.
Phytohormone levels fluctuate downstream of the early salt signaling phase, and the salt-induced signaling cascade eventually leads to adaptive responses [14]. Phytohormones are important endogenous chemical signals that regulate plant growth and development in both ideal and challenging environments [14]. Multiple phytohormones must be integrated and coordinated in order to respond and adapt to salt stress, such as abscisic acid (ABA), indole acetic acid (IAA), cytokinins (CK), ethylene (ETH), jasmonic acid (JA), gibberellic acid (GA), cytokinin (CK), and salicylic acid (SA), brassinosteroids (BR), triazoles (TR) which regulate normal growth and mediate responses to abiotic stress [14, 38, 86, 87, 88].
Seed germination, seedling growth and development, vegetative and flowering stage growth, fruit setting, and root system structural development are all harmed by high saline levels. Crop yields will eventually suffer as a result of this phenomenon [89]. Modern agricultural research includes the use of biotechnological technologies and genetic engineering to study crop tolerance mechanisms, explore tolerant genes, and cultivated varieties of tolerant crops using molecular biology, molecular genetics, and other methods. The goal of plant tolerance research is to develop tolerant cultivars; nevertheless, the mechanism of plant stress tolerance is a difficult problem to solve. We can offer strategies to avoid salt damage and increase salt tolerance of plants based on basic research and a full understanding of the mechanisms of salt stress and salt tolerance of plants. A number of genes involved in salt stress have been investigated in order to better understand the salt tolerance process. It is hypothesized that overexpression of a single gene can increase transgenic plants’ salt tolerance.
Histone post-transcriptional modifications, histone variations, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNAs are examples of chromatin state modification which can arrange diverse chromatin states that epigenetically define specific transcriptional outputs. The identification of epigenetic markers and their effect on plant response to abiotic stressors has been made easier because to recent advances in the field of -omics of important crops.
Recent research using –omics technologies have found a link between changed DNA methylation patterns and varied gene expression across the genome in three rice cultivars with variable susceptibilities to increasing salt and drought stress [100]. DNA methylation alterations were seen in both salt-tolerant and salt-susceptible rice varieties upon exposure into high salinity [101]. DNA immunoprecipitation with the 5-methylcytosine antibody and high throughput sequencing (MeDIP-seq) were used to determine the genome-wide methylation status of a salt resistant rice variety under increased salinity in a recent study [102]. These research identified new epigenetic variables and target genes linked to rice’s response to salt stress, which could be used to improve resistance under salt stress conditions. The role of miRNAs in rice response to abiotic stress has been the subject of a lot of research over the last few years [103, 104, 105, 106]. Rice tolerance to salt stress was boosted by overexpression of a
Based on 850 RNA-seq data collected from 32 tissues sampled at different growth stages and/or under different stress treatments, an analysis of the wheat whole genome expression pattern (e.g. “expression atlas”) found higher average methylation status in low expressed genes [108]. Gardiner et al. [109] discovered that methylation patterns in wheat are not evenly distributed across the A, B, and D subgenomes, indicating that methylation patterns in progenitor species are different. In recent years, several research on epigenetic modifications in wheat in response to abiotic stress have been published. Wheat drought stress response has been linked to heterochromatic small interfering RNA (hc-siRNA) and micro RNAs (miRNA), both tiny regulatory RNAs [110]. For example, 2055 putative sites for 113 conserved durum miRNAs and 131 targets for four novel durum miRNAs that may contribute to genotypic stress tolerance have been found [111]. Differential epigenetic modifications in certain genes such as HKTs (high-affinity potassium transporters) were discovered in the shoots and roots of wheat genotypes with variable levels of susceptibility to salt stress [112].
Salinity stress is the one of the main abiotic factors that limits crop growth, development and yield. In this chapter, we briefly summarize how crop plants, especially rice and wheat respond to salinity induced osmotic, ion, and oxidative stresses and collect a significant number of studies and progress on the effects of salt stress on plants. Much research was undertaken to clarify physiological and biochemical and molecular mechanisms of plants salt tolerance applying molecular biology and biotechnological approach which will further explain the plant salt-tolerance mechanism and provide sufficient theoretical guidance for the future cultivation of salt stress tolerance rice and wheat. Moreover, by understanding the role of epigenetics in gene expression under abiotic stress could provide guidance in the development of climate-smart crops. Further enhancing plant salt tolerance and rich salt tolerant crop plants still need further study.
No
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Jansen",authors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil"},{id:"28373",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"john-jansen",fullName:"John Jansen"},{id:"77058",title:"Dr.",name:"Seham",middleName:null,surname:"Alyafei",slug:"seham-alyafei",fullName:"Seham Alyafei"},{id:"82073",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Narayanan",slug:"subhash-narayanan",fullName:"Subhash Narayanan"}]},{id:"18415",doi:"10.5772/16936",title:"Osseointegration and Bioscience of Implant Surfaces - Current Concepts at Bone-Implant Interface",slug:"osseointegration-and-bioscience-of-implant-surfaces-current-concepts-at-bone-implant-interface",totalDownloads:12497,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu and Yoshiki Oshida",authors:[{id:"26726",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Oshida",slug:"yoshiki-oshida",fullName:"Yoshiki Oshida"},{id:"29841",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ramazanoglu",slug:"mustafa-ramazanoglu",fullName:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu"}]},{id:"48165",doi:"10.5772/60010",title:"3D Scanning, Imaging, and Printing in Orthodontics",slug:"3d-scanning-imaging-and-printing-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:6510,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"4574",slug:"issues-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Emilia Taneva, Budi Kusnoto and Carla A. Evans",authors:[{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans"},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",middleName:null,surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto"},{id:"172854",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia Taneva",middleName:null,surname:"Taneva",slug:"emilia-taneva-taneva",fullName:"Emilia Taneva Taneva"}]},{id:"18426",doi:"10.5772/18746",title:"Factors Affecting the Success of Dental Implants",slug:"factors-affecting-the-success-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:17464,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Carlos Nelson Elias",authors:[{id:"32438",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Elias",slug:"carlos-elias",fullName:"Carlos Elias"}]},{id:"32161",doi:"10.5772/38059",title:"Caries Through Time: An Anthropological Overview",slug:"caries-archaeological-and-historical-record",totalDownloads:6517,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"1742",slug:"contemporary-approach-to-dental-caries",title:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries",fullTitle:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries"},signatures:"Luis Pezo Lanfranco and Sabine Eggers",authors:[{id:"115399",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Pezo-Lanfranco",slug:"luis-pezo-lanfranco",fullName:"Luis Pezo-Lanfranco"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61046",title:"Optical Diagnostics to Improve Periodontal Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"optical-diagnostics-to-improve-periodontal-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:7053,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The performance of clinicians undertaking periodontal assessment or periodontal therapy can be improved by using optical methods as adjuncts to visual inspection and periodontal probing. Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2524,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2862,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. This chapter aims to describe the cause, clinical presentations, diagnoses, and current treatment methods on the basis of resent literature.",book:{id:"7572",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2611,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",book:{id:"5814",slug:"dental-anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy"},signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"E",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"174",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",abstract:"Breathing is essential for life in all of its stages. Cellular, mitochondrial respiration requires an adequate supply of oxygen, provided by the air we breathe, after airway conduction, treatment by the lungs, and transport to tissues. At different stages of life, pediatric dentists and orthodontists can intervene in the upper airway, expanding it, which helps with ventilation. The greater airway space, if used, contributes in different ways to the child’s development and the recovery of respiratory problems and should always be present as a weapon that physicians and the population should know. The value of the techniques becomes even more important when applied to children and young people with disabilities who can significantly improve their development and performance. Rapid Maxillary Expansion and Extraoral Traction Appliances are two important pediatric resources to treat these children. Clinical practice of the authors, is discussed, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and the need for multi and interdisciplinary collaboration in the follow-up of disabled people.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman"},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",abstract:"This study compared the perception of pain experienced by patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with conventional, self-ligating brackets and aligners, and investigated the impact that pain had on their daily lives. 346 consecutive patients were included in the study: 115 patients treated with conventional brackets, 112 Patients treated with self-ligating brackets, and 119 patients treated with aligners. The quantitative aspect of pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale, while the qualitative aspect of pain was evaluated using the Moroccan Short Form of McGILL Pain questionnaire. In all three groups experienced pain after activation tended to decrease in the following week. This pain was greater in patients with conventional braces and less in patients with aligners. Using the M-SF-MPQ to describe the qualitative aspect of the pain revealed that the “cramping مزير,” “aching تيألم ” aspect was most accentuated in the 3 groups. Medication intake was correlated with the intensity of pain experienced in all 3 systems. As for the impact of pain on daily activities, patients in groups of conventional and self-ligating braces showed more pain than those in the aligners group. Overall, aligners were less painful than conventional and self-ligating appliances. Patients did not suffer from an alteration in their quality of life due to orthodontic treatment.",book:{id:"10780",title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg"},signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani"},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",abstract:"Herbal medicine has long been used to prevent and control disease, and it can minimize the potential side effects of chemical products. However, side effects from herbs do exist. Most of the challenges with herbal medicine revolves around inadequate information about the effect of herbs in the oral cavity, the mechanism of action, and potential side effects. There are several herbs described in this chapter have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal in oral micro-organisms. It includes aloe vera, ginger, clove, cinnamon, garlic, neem, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, green tea, chamomile, fenugreek, anise plant, peppermint, bloodroot, caraway, eucalyptus, phyllanthus emblica, black seed, myrrh, rosemary, sage, and thyme; some may act as an alternative management option to current treatments for oral conditions such as caries prevention, gingivitis, periodontitis, oral burn, ulcers and inflammation, after extraction, dry mouth, pain reduction, anesthesia, intracanal medications, ill-fitting dentures, peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. It can be used in several forms such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, topical agents or local drug delivery devices. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms and potential side effects.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:63,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. 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