Interventions for climate related MEAs implementation (source: [47]).
\r\n\tCell viability is defined as the number of healthy cells in a sample and proliferation of cells is a vital indicator for understanding the mechanisms inaction of certain genes, proteins, and pathways involved in cell survival or death after exposure to toxic agents. The methods used to determine viability are also common for the detection of cell proliferation. A cell viability assay is performed based on the ratio of live and dead cells. This assay is based on an analysis of cell viability in cell culture for evaluating in vitro drug effects in cell-mediated cytotoxicity assays for monitoring cell proliferation. Various methods are involved in performing a cell viability assay, including the dilution method, surface viable count, roll tube technique, nalidixic acid method, fluorogenic dye assay, and the Trypan Blue Cell Viability Assay. The cell viability assays can determine the effect of drug candidates on cells and be used to optimize the cell culture conditions. The parameters that define cell viability can be as diverse as the redox potential of the cell population, the integrity of cell membranes, or the activity of cellular enzymes.
\r\n\tCytotoxicity is the degree to which a substance can cause damage to a cell. Cytotoxicity assays measure the ability of cytotoxic compounds to cause cell damage or cell death. Cytotoxicity assays are widely used in fundamental research and drug discovery to screen libraries for toxic compounds. The cell cytotoxicity and proliferation assays are mainly used for drug screening to detect whether the test molecules have effects on cell proliferation or display direct cytotoxic effects. In a cell-based assay, it is important to know how many viable cells are remaining at the end of the experiment. There are a variety of assay methods based on various cell functions such as enzyme activity, cell membrane permeability, cell adherence, ATP production, co-enzyme production, and nucleotide uptake activity. These methods could be classified in to different categories: (I) dye exclusion methods such as trypan blue dye exclusion assay, (II) methods based on metabolic activity, (III) ATP assay, (IV) sulforhodamine B assay, (V) protease viability marker assay, (VI) clonogenic cell survival assay, (VII) DNA synthesis cell proliferation assays and (V) Raman micro-spectroscopy.
\r\n\tMedical devices have been widely used in various clinical disciplines and these devices have direct contact with the tissues and cells of the body, they should have good physical and chemical properties as well as good biocompatibility. Biocompatibility testing assesses the compatibility of medical devices with a biological system. It studies the interaction between the device and the various types of living tissues and cells exposed to the device when it comes into contact with patients.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe book will cover original studies, reviews, all aspects of Cell Viability and Cytotoxicity assays, methods, Biocompatibility of studies of biomedical devices, and related topics.
The phenomenon of climate change has been nothing short of spectacular. Recent scholarship confirms earlier evidence that change and variability in the climate system, primarily triggered by anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, will have far reaching global consequences [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The events associated with climatic phenomena, largely noticeably as extreme temperatures, storms, droughts and floods, are said to be more frequent and severe in developing countries [1, 3]. The reasons for such a regional risk divide in exposure to climate change are beyond climatic. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) captures them as non-climatic drivers of vulnerability, which summarily include poor governance, conflicts and instabilities, inequalities, hunger, poverty and disease [2, 6, 7]. Zimbabwe is not an exception to the climatic disturbances. The major climatic issues are evidenced by declining water resources, fall in agricultural productivity, biodiversity decline, geographical spread of vector-borne diseases and pestiferous nature of problem pests, and volatile weather and climatic disasters [8, 9, 10].
In its Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), the IPCC identifies challenges and opportunities in both mitigation and adaptation responses [6]. Generically understood as a proactive measure to prevent or minimise harm, mitigation in climate science and practice carries a dual meaning. From the distinction given by the IPCC as mitigation of disaster risk and disaster and mitigation of climate change through reducing GHG emissions and enhancing carbon sinks, both definitional strands are beneficial to societies practising climatic interventions, albeit with some challenges. Drawing from the conceptual scheme adopted by Wilbanks and Sathaye [11], which classifies mitigation as structural (technological) and unstructural (economic structure, societal organisation and individual behaviour), a number of opportunities could be unlocked, particularly in addressing the negative effects of climate change. On the other hand, the definitional scope of adaptation extends from the mitigation of disaster risk and disaster strand, primarily focusing on actions taken to respond to climatic events. As such, it is critical to evaluate what climatic responses can do to communities intended to benefit from those policy or strategy systems. The purpose of climate mitigation, therefore, is to stabilise the climatic system and lessen pressure on adaptation. Several scholars (for example, see [11, 12]) have pointed out the complementary roles of mitigation and adaptation, arguing that adaptation is difficult or even a futile if mitigation fails to minimise the magnitude of the costs to be handled. This argument tends to shape current climate policy regimes, the recent one being the Paris Agreement, which aims to “Strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change, in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty…” [13].
The dividends of such a global policy framework, where they exist, remain largely obscured by the attention to the magnitude of observed and anticipated climatic threats and, therefore, become poorly understood. Africa is one of the regions seriously affected by climate change. The reasons for this are reported by Boko et al. [14] and later reinforced by Niang et al. [15] as relating to other factors as unequal access to resources, enhanced food insecurity and poor health management systems, which exacerbate the vulnerabilities of many communities in the region. Despite low levels of adaptive capacity reported by Klein et al. [16], adaptation success stories associated with higher adaptive capacities have been noticed in some countries mainly in North Africa [17]. Overall, within the continent, individual, household or micro level adaptive capacities are shaped by functional institutions, access to assets and collective action [15, 18]. These opportunities enhance the ability of people to make informed decisions in exploiting the beneficial aspects of responding to climate change.
Realising the effects that climate change poses to its broad socio-economic development sectors, Zimbabwe has not been complacent in responding to climate change, albeit experiencing challenges. Current evidence of climate change in Zimbabwe portrays a predominantly challenging situation. Existing knowledge on the sectoral impacts of climate change in the agriculture, water, energy, industry and health sector point to a negative state (for example, see [8, 9, 19]). This article challenges this confinement by broadening the focus to examine opportunities associated with the phenomena of climate change. In this article, the effects of climate change are deciphered. To do this, the article adopts a sector-based analysis to show how the various socio-economic development sectors are experiencing climate change. The policy and institutional field is also evaluated to understand the supporting system for climate change responses. This background forms the basis for understanding the climatic interventions that have been made or planned for each sector identified. Within this exposition, it is shown that both challenges and opportunities exist. Given the limited scholarship treatment on the latter, the article draws from empirical evidence which shows that several opportunities have been unlocked and/or remain open for beneficial exploitation by individuals, communities and institutions as they take advantage of the climate change response agenda. The article underscores the need to take continuous stock of achievements made in the country’s development sectors as mitigation and adaptation interventions gather momentum. The sustainability question of these observed and anticipated benefits is given considerable examination throughout the article.
The article largely adopts an empirical methodological approach, which is inarguably more appropriate to exposit the climatic experiences in Zimbabwe. This has been complemented by case study reviews to deepen the empirical analysis on local evidence of climatic interventions and to draw from experiences of similar climate change-induced responses from other countries mainly drawn from Africa. Within this approach, the study utilised a combination of sector-based and policy and institutional analytic frameworks to evaluate existing climatic practices that the country has embraced since 1992, when the country started to participate in global climate change regimes. Essentially, climate change responses in Zimbabwe can be traced since 1992, the period that recorded a major milestone in embracing climatic responses following the signing and ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Given the evident influence of non-climatic factors of vulnerability that are reported by the IPCC [1], the analysis is broadened to incorporate the development policies that govern the broad socio-economic sectors in Zimbabwe. Thus, the empirical evidence presented in this discussion is largely drawn from existing official government reports, including other documents such as national budget statements. The utilisation of official documents might have marginalised some climatic activities and statistics outside the mainstream government records, particularly those not captured by the Climate Change Management Department (CCMD). However, given the coordinating role of climate change responses by the CCMD, the study was able to capture the official facts and statistics about climatic phenomena and response interventions in Zimbabwe. Where some figures required to be updated, particularly on funds that were received to implement climate change projects, officials from the CCMD were engaged to verify the recorded statistics.
The reports and documents reviewed were also mainly sector-specific, although at the level of analysis, some overlaps exist among the agriculture, water, energy and health sectors that are discussed. Sectoral analysis was used both to deepen the analysis of climatic impacts in each sector and to examine the adequacy of the current climatic practices. The policy and institutional review also informed the state of the support systems in place to tackle the climate change challenge. It was necessary to assess if the available institutions are adequately capacitated to drive the climate change response agenda, particularly in a context where the sustainability of climatic interventions is increasingly getting some attention in global policy regimes of climate change and disaster risk management [13, 20].
The evidence of climate change in Zimbabwe can best be presented by adopting a sector-based analysis, as noted earlier. This section presents observed and anticipated impacts of climate change in the agriculture, water, energy and health sectors, which are the most representative and highly vulnerable to climate change.
With reference to climate change impacts, one of the sectors that has drawn research, policy and practical attention is the agricultural sector. Climatic events such as extreme temperatures, increase in frequency of extreme weather events, and rainfall variability are projected to affect agriculture in many ways. Noticeable impacts are already being felt in increased crop failures, pests, crop disease, and the degradation of land and water resources [8, 9]. The role of agriculture as an economic enabler deserves emphasis. Agriculture promotes value chain systems and contributes about 60% to manufacturing, while consuming almost 40% of the industrial output. The sector also has a share of around 30% of export earnings, constitutes 60–70% of employment, and about 19% of GDP [21]. In this way, the sector provides a major source of livelihood for over 70% of the country’s population [21]. Owing to its deep intermesh with the rest of the economy, disruption in agriculture from climatic shocks could lead to overall economic decline. Clearly, this is a de-coupling challenge that needs appropriate interventions by taking advantage of the climate change situation.
More than 70% of crop farming practice is rain fed [22]. This suggests that agriculture, food security, and nutrition are all highly sensitive to changes in rainfall associated with climate change. Specifically, climate change has been observed to trigger shifts in agricultural farming regions, with consequential loss in productivity [23, 24]. Given the regional differentiation of the climate system, where productivity follows the agro-ecological zones, climate change is believed to cause shrinkage in the highly productive regions. Agricultural performance productivity generally shows an east-west productivity gradient mainly influenced by the rainfall and temperature. This scheme, however, has been dismissed as obsolete and largely misleading in representing the current farming and ecological regions [23]. The main documented reasons for threats in farming production are high temperatures and precipitation irregularities reported by Mutasa [25] and Unganai [26]. The situation is blamed for causing arid environments that make it difficult for most food and cash crops to grow. The crops that are highly sensitive to heat include maize (a staple crop), tobacco (the major cash crop), wheat, soya beans, among others. Studies have shown a suitability gradient of different crops under different climatic scenarios. The areas suitable for maize production are projected to decrease by 2080, while spatial suitability of crops such as cotton and wheat is expected to increase by the same year [9]. However, it is believed that the north central and eastern areas of the country will likely to be less vulnerable to support production of common crops such as maize, sorghum and cotton [9, 27].
In Zimbabwe, climate change also impacts heavily on livestock. Generally, evidence of climate adaptation in the agriculture sector is moving towards livestock production as a drought tolerant practice [10]. However, as shall be discussed in the next section, there are indications of limits to using livestock as a strategy to adapt to climate change that are pointed out by Tubiello et al. [28] and Chanza [10]. This is because the decline in plant productivity associated with arid environments will likely affect rangelands and feed. The direct impacts of changes in temperature and water scarcity on animals are expected to constrain adaptation efforts. Though not well documented and understood, the indirect effects are likely to be through increased pests and diseases of livestock and decline in pasture yield. The cattle population is estimated to be about 5.5 million. Instead of increasing by over 2% per annum, the national cattle herd has been facing climatic threats. For example, the drought experienced in 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 seasons is believed to have aggravated the foot and mouth disease. The disease rapidly spread as cattle moved wider in search of water and forage and was reported in six of the country’s ten provinces [21]. This affected commercial activities involving cattle and other livestock products.
It is also important to point out that the climatic impacts explained here are not uniformly experienced across the country’s tenure systems. Communal and small-scale farmers are more likely to be negatively affected by the warming temperature and variability in rainfall [8, 27]. As detailed in the next subsection, the situation also impacts heavily on food security particularly to small-scale subsistence farmers whose operations are not covered by irrigation schemes.
The total amount of water available for the country is estimated to be about 20 million megaliters of freshwater [9]. It is critical to point out that the availability of this water is largely climatic [29]. Replenishment of the water is through rainfall leading to runoff into streams, rivers, dams and lakes. Some of it collects into vleis and surface depressions or ends up as ground water stores in the form of aquifers. The country has an estimated dam population of over 8000 [8]. Zimbabwe also has seven river catchment areas, namely Mazowe, Manyame, Save, Runde, Sanyati, Gwayi and Umzingwane. The sensitivity of these catchments to climate change varies with their location and with the type of land use practices in the catchments. The 2080 model predictions generally show a significant reduction in surface water resources. The areas to the north eastern and the eastern of Zimbabwe are projected to have a surplus in surface water. However, the western and southern parts of Zimbabwe, where Umzingwane, Runde, Gwayi and Save are located, are projected to experience significant decrease in runoff and desiccation of the catchments [9, 30].
Increased water scarcity associated with climate change can also be seen in depreciation in ground water levels. The common understanding is that water tables are becoming deeper. Where communities used to easily access water through shallow wells, they now need to dig deeper to tap up the water [10]. This is clear evidence that the groundwater is getting depleted owing to a drier climate. A report by the IPCC [31] confirms that rural communities relying on low-cost dug wells and boreholes are now exposed to serious water stress owing to interruptions in recharges resulting from drought.
Climatic concerns in the energy sector are twofold. The sector is not only a driver of climate change due to GHG emissions, but is also affected by its impacts [32]. Given that the sector drives other socio-economic factors, such impacts need to be carefully examined. Currently, the country is not producing enough energy to meet demand and it covers the deficit through electricity imports. In rural areas, there are immense challenges facing attempts to extend the national grid. Energy deficits are high in the rural areas with an estimated 19% of the rural people only having access to reliable electricity. Without electricity, farmers cannot process their crops, add value or diversify their livelihoods thereby affecting agricultural productivity. In schools and homes, children struggle to study without light and are cut off from modern technology thus affecting education performance. Health institutions are also not spared from intermittent power cuts and this affect the national health delivery system [33].
Hydro-power contributes a significant proportion to the country’s electricity generation. Recurrent drought in the past few years coupled with changing rainfall patterns within the southern African region have led to the decrease in water levels of major reservoirs [34]. A conspicuous impact of climate change affecting the energy sector has been isolated in the 2015/2016 season. The water levels in Zimbabwe’s main lake, Lake Kariba, dropped to below 30%. This situation seriously affected power generation in the country. Similarly, in Kenya, droughts that occurred between 1999 and 2002 drastically affected hydro-power generation, falling by 25% in 2000. The resultant cumulative loss in generation was variously estimated at between 1.0 and 1.5% of total GDP. These negative climate impacts have affected other sectors of freshwater distribution and food production [35].
Zimbabwe uses a mix of energy sources. These include fossil fuels (coal, coal bed methane and imported petroleum) and clean energy sources (hydropower, biofuel and solar). The sector faces challenges from rising population and economic demands. Climate change is also expected to exacerbate the energy supply situation. The energy sector constitutes about 49% share of total GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent [36]. However, as shall be discussed later, there are also opportunities created by climate change in the sector.
Evidence suggests that climate change will affect human health in various ways. Africa is already experiencing high burdens of health outcomes whose frequency, magnitude and spatial range is anticipated to grow [15]. These challenges, largely triggered by temperature and precipitation extremes, manifest in malnutrition, diarrheal diseases, and malaria and other vector-borne diseases. Climate change is also expected to exacerbate the human exposure to heat waves and direct exposure to ozone owing to elevation of ozone in the troposphere [37, 38]. There is a gender dimension to these problems, with evident disproportionate impacts on women, children and people living with disabilities [39, 40].
In Zimbabwe, observed health burdens of climate disturbances largely emanate from high frequencies and severity of floods, storms and droughts, including geographic spread of infectious disease vectors. The geographical range of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue; increases in the problem of diarrheal diseases, and of water-borne pathogens such as cholera and typhoid, are worrisome [22, 41]. Hartmann et al. [41], using sixteen climate change scenarios, reveal that the geographical distribution of malaria could change, with previously unsuitable areas becoming suitable for transmission as the ecology of vectors and pathogens is altered. Matawa and Murwira [42] also projected expansion in habitats of certain disease vectors owing to changes in temperature and rainfall in some parts of the country. There are also fears that disease epidemics in addition to other stressors such as food insecurity, chronic malnutrition, and HIV and AIDS are eroding the resilience of households, rendering them less resilient and more vulnerable to health problems. Although mainly attributed to water contamination, the recent outbreaks in cholera and typhoid could also be partly blamed on climate change. A case in point is the repeated outbreaks of cholera that recorded over 98,000 cases and more than 4000 deaths between August 2008 and June 2009 [43] and over 6500 cases and 31 deaths reported by 20 September 2018 [44]. The Cyclone Idai, which was downgraded to a tropical depression on the 16th of March 2019 caused high winds and heavy precipitation in Manicaland Province, riverine and flash flooding and subsequent deaths, destruction of livelihoods and properties, with Chimanimani and Chipinge districts being the most affected. The Ministry of Health and Child Care (MoHCC), with support from development partners, had to urgently move in to lead the health response, including preventing outbreaks of epidemic diseases such as cholera [45].
In line with the climate mitigation and adaptation agenda articulated in multilateral environment agreements (MEAs), Zimbabwe’s policy space has largely been characterised by active participation in international environmental laws and subsequent ratification of the MEAs. Reviewing this policy space is necessary to show the main activities in the national policy regime and the reapable benefits thereof. Thus, the country’s response to the three main climate based MEAs, namely the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement is assessed in this section. These instruments unlock opportunities in the form of knowledge and skills acquisition through training, technical assistance, technology transfer, funds received, materials or equipment accessible to the country.
Zimbabwe signed and ratified the UNFCCC in 1992. The coordination for the implementation of this Convention is done by the Climate Change Management Department (CCMD) in the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement. The UNFCCC is supported by other important instruments namely, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The purpose of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. It covers climate change assessments, mitigation and adaptation. Focus of the Convention is on stabilising GHGs at a level to be achieved “… within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.” The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. Although drawing much attention to the developed countries as principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of industrial activity, Zimbabwe also ratified the Protocol in 2009 [9].
The Paris Agreement builds upon the UNFCCC and has managed, for the first time, to bring all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects, with enhanced support to assist developing countries to do so. Zimbabwe signed the Agreement on 22 April 2016, ratified it on 7 August 2017 and was entered into force on 6 September 2017. The Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping global temperature rise below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5°C. Additionally, the agreement aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate financial flows, a proposed technology framework and an enhanced capacity building framework will support action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own national objectives. The Agreement also provides for enhanced transparency of action and support through a more robust transparency framework. It requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead. This includes requirements that all Parties report regularly on their emissions and on their implementation efforts [13, 46].
Under these instruments, Zimbabwe has developed the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) in 2014; Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015; National Climate Policy (NCP) of 2017; the First, Second and Third National Communication to the UNFCCC. The country also conducted United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN REDD+) Capacity Needs Assessment. Table 1 summarises the interventions made so far and the benefits that accrue to the country.
MEA | Focal point | National action plans/strategies | Source of funds | Funds received (US$) |
---|---|---|---|---|
UNFCCC | CCMD | NCCRS, 2014 | COMESA, UNDP, Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) & Environment Africa | 100,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD | Energy and Water Efficiency Audit for 10 selected pilot companies | Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) | 250,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD | Climate Smart Agriculture Manual development | Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) | 100,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD/EMA | Coping with Drought Project | Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) | 1,000,000 |
Scaling Up Adaptation | Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) | 3,980,000 | ||
UNFCCC | CCMD | National Climate Policy (NCP) | Government of Zimbabwe, UNDP, Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) & Environment Africa | 130,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD | Third National Communication to UNFCCC | UNEP | 400,000 |
UNFCCC/Kyoto Protocol | CCMD/Forestry Commission | UN REDD+ Capacity Needs Assessment | UN-REDD | 50,000 |
Paris Agreement | CCMD | Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), 2015 | UNEP from Zimbabwe’s GEF STAR Allocation and French Embassy in Zimbabwe | 200,000 |
Paris Agreement | CCMD | Climate Change Technical Assistance-NDC MRV Framework development | World Bank | 1,500,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD/EMA | NIE Accreditation | Adaptation Fund/South-South Cooperation | 50,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD | GCF Readiness Programme | Green Climate Fund | 300,000 |
UNFCCC | CCMD/EMA | National Adaptation Plan | Green Climate Fund | 3,000,000 |
Interventions for climate related MEAs implementation (source: [47]).
Through the Adaptation Fund that is established to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, Zimbabwe is likely to benefit from this funding window. There is an on-going process for the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) to be accredited as a National Implementing Entity (NIE), to access the funds. The country also got support from the Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), UNDP, Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) and Environment Africa. These provided support towards the development of the NCCRS, NCP, UNFCCC COP participation and other capacity building on climate change issues negotiations, including development of a Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Manual, Technical Assistance on Climate Change readiness, and NDC MRV Framework development. So far, Zimbabwe has one Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) registered project known as the Sable Chemicals Tertiary N20 Abatement Project, which is supported by the United Kingdom. This large-scale project has potential to reduce an estimated 473,759 metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent per annum. Limited understanding of the opportunities associated with CDM projects, high upfront costs for baseline evaluation, and capacity to develop CDM project proposals, among other policy and institutional implementation challenges, have been cited as the main impediments to adoption of CDM interventions in the country [48].
The broad national climate policy regime has also enabled the engendering of climate change in national budgets. Figure 1 indicates the budgetary allocations given to the CCMD from 2016 to 2019. There has been a significant increase in funds allocated to support the climate change coordination activities of the CCMD since 2016. This increased attention to climate change can be attributed largely to the recognition of the climatic challenge in the recent national economic blueprints, in particular, the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZimASSET) (2013–2018) and the Transitional Stabilisation Programme (TSP) (2018–2020). While ZimASSET did not articulate clear guidance on climate change interventions, there has been increased consideration and guidance on climate change in the TSP.
Treasury allocations to the Climate Change Management Department, 2016–2019 (source: CCMD Official).
The sustainability of these policy interventions deserves critical analysis. The next section uses the sustainability lens in examining the challenges and opportunities associated with sectoral climate change interventions in Zimbabwe. The policy environment and the capacity of multi-sectoral institutions responsible for addressing climate change is also discussed.
Acknowledging the effects of climate change and guided by the policy and institutional framework presented above, the country, institutions and individuals have not been complacent. The responses, depending on the nature of the climatic event and the persons involved, have either been well-planned or spontaneously executed. This section discusses the sectoral responses to climate change by various stakeholders. Aside from sectoral analysis of the mitigation and adaptation practices in place, the discussion attempts, where possible, to disaggregate the analysis at the level of government, institutions and individuals. The interventions discussed here are intended primarily to identify opportunities that have been unlocked or that are potentially available within the sectors in question. It also ingrains the sustainability question in the analysis.
There is growing evidence that farmers in Zimbabwe are adapting to observed climate changes. This is through altering cultivation and sowing times and crop cultivars and species that can withstand climatic irregularities. Notable progress in the agriculture sector relates to the development of irrigation infrastructure. In 2001, about 152,000 hectares of land were under formal irrigation with a total of 5000–20,000 under informal irrigation. A further 600,000 ha of land nationwide was to be availed for irrigation development. In 2015, government availed a total of US$2.6 million towards completion of 13 irrigation schemes covering about 635 ha [21]. Since then, government with support from development partners has upscaled the irrigation programme as illustrated in Table 2. It is clear from the table that the adaptation agenda has got support largely from international players who have injected funds and equipment to increase the area that can be put under irrigation. The objective is to depart from a practice that has largely relied on rain-fed agriculture to subsequently harness the available water resources for irrigated farming. Within the irrigation policy drive, a number of projects on resilience capacity building in agriculture for communities to better cope with the negative impact of climate change have been implemented. These interventions have also strengthened the Agriculture Extension Services Department (Agritex) to be able to give advisory warnings on planting, crop maturing varieties, including varying of planting dates to spread risks.
Responsible authority | Funds (US$) | Target (ha) | Description |
---|---|---|---|
European Union (EU) | 7.8 million | 1206 | Technical support for 20 irrigation schemes in Chimanimani, Makoni, Chipinge, Beitbridge, Gwanda and Mangwe districts |
Swiss Development Cooperation | 1.3 million | 656 | Rehabilitation of 14 irrigation schemes, benefiting 1425 households in Bikita, Gutu, Masvingo and Zaka districts |
Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) | 15 million | 674 | Rehabilitation and development of Nyakomba irrigation scheme in Nyanga District along Gairezi River |
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) | 60 million | — | Smallholder Irrigation Revitalisation Programme commencing in 2017 |
Kuwait and Abu Dhabi funds supported projects | 28.7 million | 11,290 | Maintenance of irrigation schemes for over 2000 households’ beneficiaries across the country. This was to be complemented by US$8,6 million of support from development partners. Co-financing of Zhove Irrigation Scheme with government contributing US$7 million |
Department for International Development (DFID) | 48 million | — | Rehabilitating irrigation schemes for smallholder farmers and supporting training and extension services |
Irrigation support projects in Zimbabwe (source: [21]).
Climate change has also led to innovative ways of adaptation in the agriculture sector. These range from isolated practices such as moisture conservation practices by farmers to well-developed responses of CSA such as precise fertiliser application, manure application, agroforestry, crop rotations and intercropping and soil conservation [49]. Adoption of moisture conservation farming practices for example, enable farmers to extend the growing season and to do dual season cropping. In places such as Muzarabani, where climate change has increased the frequency and severity of floods, the practice of dual season cropping has been observed. This strategy enables the locals to harness opportunities associated with flooding [50]. However, floods bring mixed fortunes to the communities experiencing them such as improved soil fertility and ground water recharge [10, 51], but adaptation interventions being practiced in such areas may not be sustainable.
Climate-smart agriculture is farming that embraces the twin goals of mitigation and adaptation at the farm level. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) describes it as a sustainable climate sensitive response in the agriculture sector with co-benefits of increasing productivity and building the resilience of agricultural-based livelihoods communities while reducing GHG emissions. It is a planned intervention strategy encompassing agricultural practices, policies, institutions and financing to bring tangible benefits particularly to smallholder farmers and to enable them to be stewards of the environment that support them [49, 52]. With support from development partners, Zimbabwe has started implementing the CSA programme. The programme targets small-scale farmers, particularly women and poor households that are vulnerable to food insecurity under a changing climate. Elsewhere, successful results have been noted in Kenya and Tanzania as detailed in Box 1.
Successful climate smart agriculture practices in Kenya and Tanzania (source: [49]: xii-xiii).
The CSA pilot projects (2011–2014), implemented jointly with partners in Kenya and Tanzania, promoted integrated and diversified farming systems and agro-ecological principles. The programme was established to demonstrate that ongoing agricultural development programmes could bring co-benefits in terms of climate change adaptation and mitigation thereby increase the uptake of CSA at significantly larger scale. The pilot projects linked research activities, practical work in farmers’ fields and policy making at different levels to enhance the effectiveness of planning and programming for CSA on farms, throughout the landscape and at the national level. Results showed that: The main benefits of following the CSA approach resulted in higher yields, raised farm income and increased food availability. This is an indication that CSA can be an effective approach for improving food security, alleviating poverty and building more resilient livelihoods. It also indicates that smallholder farmers can be an effective part of the response to climate change and make a meaningful contribution to reducing GHG emissions. Scenarios, modelling and measurements serve an important role in evaluating and prioritising CSA practices for implementation and scaling up. By building research into ongoing development activities, the assessment of CSA practices can be undertaken more quickly, and the findings can be used to prioritise efforts in projects and programmes. Bringing sound, up-to-date evidence into decision-making processes can help shape policy making that effectively supports CSA. The findings from the pilot activities were presented in national workshops, which allowed decision makers to become familiar with the benefits of CSA practices and develop or adjust policies, plans and programmes to better foster CSA.
It is clear from the cited Kenyan and Tanzanian cases that for climatic interventions to be successful, they need to be driven by evidence-based policy formulation and trialled in participatory learning experiences with the concerned communities. Similar CSA approaches, though existing at small isolated scales, are also practiced in Zimbabwe. Many studies carried out in Zimbabwe identify the development of irrigation facilities, growing of small grains and short to medium term crops which mature early and are drought tolerant, and introduction of new agricultural techniques and practices as opportunities farmers were harnessing in adapting to drought [24, 26, 53, 54]. Chanza [53] collaborated with earlier views by Mararike [55] and Kaseke [56] that revival of indigenous food security strategies at village level is an important direction to adapt to climate change disturbances that lead to food insecurity.
The major concern, however, is that most of the climatic support to the farmers has largely been driven by the donor community and the direct support by government is insufficient to meet the assortment of farmers described earlier. As such, farmers who take long to be independent may not be able to continue with the new agricultural techniques without external support.
The unpredictable and potentially devastating effects of climate change puts a strain on the management of water resources. Zimbabwe’s water sector faces mixed challenges such as satisfying increasing competing and conflicting uses owing to climate change effects and increased water demand by other sectors and underutilisation of water resources in some areas. Degradation of water quality worsens the urban water supply situation in the country. This also creates potential for conflict among the different sectors and water users. With proper decisions however, climate change can guide society and water users to be water sensitive and adopt water conservation practices. The challenges related to unpredictable rainfall patterns have seen government, with support from development agencies, investing in irrigation development and maximising on use of existing water and irrigation facilities. Despite the capacity to irrigate more than 330,000 ha, only 80,000 ha were under irrigation in 2016 [21]. There are many ways in which investment in irrigation can bring benefits to the country and farmers involved. For instance, irrigation enables expansion of agriculture activities by turning dry areas into highly productive lands. Development of irrigation infrastructure allows continuous crop production and can facilitate increased productivity where farmers supplement rain fed agriculture. However, under the changing climate, irrigation cannot be business as usual since it is also likely to be affected by the increasing frequency of droughts. The government has moved in to promote centre pivot irrigation to save the water resources and address the high costs associated with the more efficient drip irrigation [57].
Beginning in 2016, Government of Zimbabwe started implementing the Climate Resilient National Water Resources and Irrigation Master Plan, whose objective is to integrate climate change modelling with development and management of water resources and irrigation infrastructure. Under this scheme, the government secured a US$98 million loan facility to buy irrigation equipment, tractors and implements through Brazil’s More Food for Africa programme. The programme has been extended to cover small-scale farmers. For instance, following acknowledgement that the available water bodies are being under-utilised, government mooted an integrated water use master plan beginning with Tokwe Mukosi Dam. The plan is expected to support irrigation farming, fisheries, hydropower supply and tourism. The dam reported as the largest inland reservoir in the country, has capacity to irrigate 25,000 ha and can supply 15 MW of hydropower. Clearly, this intervention has managed to resuscitate idle irrigation infrastructure to increase food production. There are also opportunities for technology, knowledge and skills transfer. For example, through using drip and canal irrigation that use less power as compared to the overhead sprinkler methods [21].
With reference to urban areas, the threats of water scarcity associated with climate change have caused water institutions to embark on water saving practices and recycling. It is a fact that urbanisation, whether with or without climate change, imposes increased water use and consumption demands. Accordingly, through adapting water sensitive practices such as recycling, more water can be availed into the supply system. If treated to meet specific water quality standards, wastewater can still be discharged back into public river systems for ecological support and use by downstream communities [10].
The key challenge, however, is that investment in the water sector or in setting up irrigation infrastructure requires large funding. Given the predominantly external based support in irrigation projects that is presented earlier in Table 2, there are notable deficiencies in upscaling climatic responses in the water and agriculture sectors. Therefore, unless government allocates adequate funding for irrigation development, the current practice is not only slow in implementation but also not sustainable.
The energy sector remains a key intervention focal area by the Government of Zimbabwe. In response to the UNFCCC’s global call to cut GHG emissions, Zimbabwe set the conditional mitigation contribution of reducing emissions by 33% below a business as usual (BAU) scenario by 2030. This goal is to be accomplished by uptake of robust responses in the energy sector. Projects that are currently running include ethanol blending, solar water heaters, energy efficiency improvement, increasing hydropower generation in the energy mix, and the refurbishment and electrification of the rail infrastructure. The country is on course to meet these target reductions in carbon-dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide (N2O) gases. Other mitigation strategies proposed include coal-bed methane power, solar powered off-grids, integrated waste management, changing thermal power station technologies, reviewing the transport system, upscaling the UN-REDD+ implementation and sustainable energy alternatives in the tobacco farming system [46, 58].
As explained earlier, responses in the energy sector are being supported by an enabling policy framework. Specific policies related to the energy sector include the National Climate Policy and the Transport Policy, alongside other climate mitigation instruments. Other policies expected to support GHG mitigation interventions include the Forest Policy, Renewable Energy Policy and Bio-fuels Policy, which are being finalised for adoption. The supportive policy framework has enabled the country to speed up the upgrading of hydro-power generation plants (the recent one being the Kariba Dam Project) and the completion of the Tokwe Mukosi Dam cited earlier. Already the country is on course in renewable energy drive although there are still some challenges to be addressed to scale up the implementation and uptake of renewable energy. Some of these challenges include un-viable tariffs and the low creditworthiness of the power utility who is the major offtaker. Table 3 shows some of the key projects that are at various stages of implementation, notably the Batoka and the Gairezi hydro-power plants, with others already been completed. The bigger projects capable of generating at least 100 MW have largely been spearheaded by the Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC), with independent power producers (IPP) concentrating on smaller projects. In addition to the projects indicated in Table 3, small hydro-power projects on run off river in the Eastern Highlands, and on inland dams around the country are variously taking course [21, 22].
Project description | Proponent | Energy contribution |
---|---|---|
Expansion of the Kariba South Power Station | ZPC | 300 MW |
Batoka Gorge Hydropower Project | Zambezi River Authority (ZRA) | 1200 MW (for Zimbabwe) and 1200 MW (for Zambia) |
Gwanda Solar Power Plant | ZPC | 100 MW |
Insukamini Solar Power Plant | ZPC | 100 MW |
Munyati Solar Power Plant | ZPC | 100 MW |
Pungwe Hydropower Plant | Nyangani Renewable Energy (IPP) | 3 MW |
Kupinga Hydropower | IPP | 1.4 MW |
Gairezi Hydropower Project | ZPC | 30 MW |
Clean energy project interventions (source: [21]).
Although still lacking the appropriate supporting policy instruments, fuel blending of E10, E15 and E85 have been introduced. The major challenge is related to limited awareness and low uptake of these products by the public. Solar energy technologies are widely being adopted especially for lighting, powering phones and solar-powered geysers in some households. Most of the large urban areas such as Harare, Bulawayo and Gweru have embarked on projects to use solar-powered traffic lights in the cities although these maybe low-key initiatives compared to what countries like South Africa, Kenya and Morocco have done in the solar energy space. The Rural Electrification Agency (REA) of Zimbabwe has scaled the uptake of solar systems in schools, clinics and public facilities. REA has also supported the uptake of biogas digesters to provide alternative energy for cooking for rural households. Overall, the mitigation initiatives highlighted here present enormous opportunities for a developing country like Zimbabwe. A number of development windows have been opened for international collaboration towards low carbon development pathways and economic development. Investments in low emissions development (LED) are still limited but have potential to grow. Therefore, the country is set to fully benefit from a LED trajectory [22].
In order to respond to the twin problems of energy poverty and land degradation, the Zimbabwe government implemented energy sector reforms that aimed at substituting biomass fuels with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Davidson et al. [59] reported a reduction in charcoal use, in favour of LPG consumption, which grew by an annual rate of 12%. The use of LPG also stopped the production of an estimated 337,500 tonnes of charcoal that would have destroyed about 40,500 ha of forest [60]. As argued by Johnson and Lambe [61], switching from a traditional biomass fuel source, for example, charcoal to an environmentally friendly source (LPG) can often lead to adaptive response mechanisms.
A renewable energy project supported by Oxfam and Practical Action in rural areas of Masvingo and Manicaland provinces has yielded positive benefits to the communities. As detailed in Box 2, the project has literally energised the beneficiaries as it led to improved health outcomes, widened access to education, increased agricultural production and boosted business and enterprise, strengthened livelihoods, and enhanced quality of life. Already the intervention has shown possibilities of creating green communities that are independent of the national grid and becoming self-sustaining [33].
Case study of a clean energy project in Zimbabwe (source: [33]).
The Rural Sustainable Energy Development Project (RuSED) in Zimbabwe ran from August 2011 to January 2016. The project was funded by a two million euros grant from the European Union and Oxfam and was led and implemented by Oxfam in partnership with Practical Action and in association with the Ministry of Energy and Power Development and the Rural Electrification Authority of Zimbabwe. The project aims to enhance the lives and livelihoods of poor rural people by harnessing energy from the sun and running water to bring electricity to remote and isolated communities in ways that are affordable and sustainable. Over the course of the project, Oxfam has implemented a solar energy scheme in Gutu District in Masvingo province, and Practical Action a micro-hydro project in Himalaya in Mature District in Manicaland. The Himalaya scheme was commissioned on 8 April 2015. The Gutu scheme has many elements, including a solar pumping extension to the Ruti irrigation scheme which was commissioned on 10 April 2015.
Results show that access to affordable and reliable electricity from the sun or from running water is crucial to boosting enterprise and increasing production. This has improved quality of life of the beneficiaries, in particular, the quality of women’s lives. Access to energy and water has also improved the social and psychological health of communities and their sense of empowerment.
The project cited above (see Box 2) presents numerous development opportunities for rural development in Zimbabwe. This is a clear demonstration that decentralised energy systems have a potential to contribute to a sustainable future in Zimbabwe. The sustainability of the project has been guaranteed since it enabled communities to take ownership, set their own priorities for energy use and devise payment systems such that they will be able to finance the ongoing operation and maintenance, and ultimately expansion and improvement. Notwithstanding the encouraging progress, much remains to be done in terms of activities to complement energy access that will enable enterprises to thrive [33]. The main challenge could be related to the fall in general economic development indicators that would make it difficult for poor households to access the energy resource.
Zimbabwe’s commitment in the health sector is generally reflected through international, regional and national frameworks. Within these instruments, health issues associated with climate or weather-related shocks and stresses are addressed. Some of the international obligations have been domesticated into national policies and legislation, starting with its Constitution, medium term policies and sectoral strategies in the health sector and in relation to climate change. The NCP and NCCRS give specific mention of health, while the 2016–2020 National Health Strategy makes explicit reference to the need to improve climate change awareness and the need to develop a Public Health Adaptation to Climate Change Plan [22].
Through a strong epidemiological surveillance system in place, the country is capable of giving an early detection of changes in incidence, mortality and geographic range of health outcomes associated with climatic change. One of the critical national programmes to respond to the observed and anticipated spatial spread of malaria mosquitoes is the National Malaria Control Programme, spearheaded by the Department of Disease Prevention and Control in the Ministry of Health and Child Care. The programme implements many strategies, including vector control, case management, epidemic preparedness and response, intermittent preventive therapy, research, monitoring and evaluation, and information, education and advocacy for malaria treatment and prevention. The programme receives support from two major donors: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria and the President’s Malaria Initiative [22].
In some places such as Muzarabani, it can be argued that the desiccation of wetlands and ponds that previously harboured vectors and acted as breeding grounds for mosquitoes has significantly reduced disease incidences. Drought has also led to serious water scarcities prompting the government and other development partners to sink boreholes in order to improve access to portable water. This means people can now easily access portable water, which previously they could not. In this thinking therefore, climate change is arguably an opportunity for community development through interventions to improve water and sanitation [50]. The major threat to this drive emanates largely from the depletion of ground water sources described earlier. This means communities in some dry regions may only have seasonal access to the portable water as drought events worsen.
Existing policies also create adaptation opportunities that can assist in evading adaptation barriers. Worth mentioning is the National Water Policy of 2012 that provides an enabling environment for climate change response. Within it, the Zimbabwe National Water Act specifies the need to use water efficiently and applies a user pays principle that regulates water use. Alongside other development policies, the water policy aims to promote uptake of cleaner and more efficient technologies across all water consumption sectors. This has seen sectoral and institutional collaborations in funding the construction of solar powered boreholes in dry areas of the country such as Chivi District in Masvingo Province. This has been supported by construction of Blair toilets to improve the hygiene and sanitation of the communities [22]. Zimbabwe’s Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector is managed and coordinated by an inter-ministerial committee, the National Action Committee (NAC) with the National Coordinating Unit (NCU) as the Secretariat. WASH components comprising of Hygiene Promotion, Water Supply, Excreta Disposal, Vector Control, Solid Waste Management and Drainage require protection from damage and disruption by climate change induced disasters. Should they be damaged, they urgently require restoration to avert deaths, diseases and malnutrition. The NAC has been strategic in engaging partners, mobilising resources and ensuring timeous response to WASH disasters. Undoubtedly, the sector interventions lessen the impacts of climate change as people have access to adequate water supply and sanitary facilities, which are key provisions in reducing diarrhoea and other infectious diseases.
Emerging from this exposition is that if exploited well the potential benefits of climate change could be realised in all the socio-economic development sectors discussed in this article. The country needs to identify the best alternatives that do not involve lots of capital and are adaptive to local communities in Zimbabwe. With reference to the agriculture sector, there are opportunities for livelihoods diversification pointed out by Chikodzi et al. [24] and Chanza [53] where adaptation on ensuring food security under climate change could have the most direct benefits on livelihoods. There are also multiple benefits for food security, including enhancing food production, access to markets and resources, and reduced disaster risk. Effective adaptation of cropping can help ensure food production and thereby contribute to food security and sustainable livelihoods by enhancing current climate risk management. It is also important to point out that climate change has allowed climate sensitive budgeting in the broad socio-economic development sectors of the country.
The situation in benefits of climate adaptation in the water sector appears blurred. There are places, particularly in urban areas, which are expected to experience serious water supply challenges while other areas, mainly rural communities, are evidently harnessing opportunities brought about by climatic events. From a social development perspective, water and sanitation interventions have also impacted on the gender dimension of the rural community. In a study in Muzarabani, one of the dryland rural community largely regarded as the epicentre of climatic disturbances [51, 62, 63], women and girls who used to travel long distances to access water are now travelling less distances owing to proximity and improved access of portable water from boreholes drilled in their villages [50].
Effective responses in the energy sector tend to be constrained by limited funding for project development, lack of feasibility studies for wind power generation to prove the achievable capacity, lack of financing to upgrade feasibility studies of some small hydropower sites which were carried out back in the 1990s and lake of capacity to install and maintain renewable energy systems. In addition, there are weaknesses in institutional capacity for support mechanisms. Notwithstanding the existing challenges, there are promising nuances in unlocking development benefits to the country, institutions and individuals. Specifically, Zimbabwe should strengthen the policy on energy efficiency along with supporting instruments that can be used to support energy efficiency adoption by industries. The country is challenged to fully develop the market for energy services. Apparently, decision makers lack in awareness on markets for energy services; service providers are unable to deliver the appropriate market services to unlock the market for energy services; and financiers are not appreciative of the energy efficiency business and therefore fail to deliver sustainable financial products. Elsewhere, it has been proven that putting in place mechanisms for accessing energy efficient technologies can create energy security, energy access, employment generation, cost-savings and health benefits to countries adopting such a practice [64, 65].
In order to fully realise the benefits of climate change in the health sector, the government would need to strengthen its health warning systems on climate-related disturbances. Generally, the early warning systems (EWS) are still weak as they tend to be poorly supported by early action. In other places, the health sector has employed EWS to predict disease for adaptation planning and implementation [66]. For example, studies done in some parts of Africa have assisted in predicting conditions expected to lead to an outbreak of Rift Valley fever [67] and in predicting meningitis against weather and climatic extremes [68] to facilitate early disease interventions. Confalonieri et al. [66] indicate that through public awareness, individual-level responses and adaptation to climate change can be improved. It has been established that the effectiveness of health warning systems, for extreme events such as heat waves and floods, depends on individuals taking appropriate actions [66, 69]. Hence, to achieve maximum benefit from climate response, it is imperative that the disaster affected population has the necessary information, knowledge and understanding to take appropriate action.
Health benefits of responding to climate change are well documented. Ludi et al. [17] explain that health benefits can be achieved by greener and more sustainable choices in broad sectors covering household energy, electricity generation, transport, urban planning and land use, buildings, food and agriculture. For example, the use of cleaner fuels and cooking technologies can reduce the large burden of disease from household air pollution in developing countries; greater use of renewables in electricity generation can cut ambient air pollution; behavioural shifts towards walking and cycling can reduce the burdens of both physical inactivity and air pollution [70, 71, 72]. Zimbabwe can take advantage of existing health sector interventions such as public education and awareness campaigns to reduce the risk of diarrhoeal and vector-borne diseases whose incidences may be worsened by climate change. Accordingly, adaptation strategies to climate change in the health sector can result in development of capacity building to evade barriers associated with climate change. If attention can be given to such critical institutions as the Meteorological Services Department (MSD), rural district councils (RDCs) and health institutions, for example through funding, the health system can be strengthened to address climatic challenges.
Overall, although a range of benefits are evident in the broad socio-economic development sectors of the country, much still needs to be done to enhance the sustainability trajectory of climate change responses. Most of the interventions discussed here have mainly been spearheaded by the external driven initiatives, mainly in terms of policy direction and funding. The main reasons for an external driven orientation relate largely to the macro-economic problems that the country has been facing over the past two decades and partly to the heterogeneous acknowledgement of climate change as a development priority on the policy and institutional front.
From the analysis given in this article, Zimbabwe, like many developing countries, faces climate change in its main socio-economic development sectors. Although the article only concentrated on the agriculture, water, energy and health sectors to show climate change impacts and the country’s responses to the climate agenda, it is proper to conclude that climate change brings mixed experiences that need to be carefully studied. The study challenges the current discourse that have tended to project climate change as a development hindrance. Instead, the article revealed several development opportunities that exist. If these opportunities are carefully considered, government, communities and individuals will be able to take advantage of the climate change phenomena to reshape the development trajectory. At the policy front, climate change has intensified policy formulation whose benefits go beyond environmental to cover co-benefits in the broad socio-economic development sectors. This has unlocked investment opportunities in clean energy and the associated health benefits, improved energy access, improved energy security particularly in remote and newly developed settlements, access to portable water, expansion of irrigation facilities, climate-sensitive budgeting, improved agriculture production, and improved food security. Essentially, most of the climatic interventions associated with these benefits have also managed to articulate cross-cutting issues of gender, poverty and marginalised groups. In the context of the energy sector, communities that are otherwise far from the grid could benefit as they get closely connected to the world through off-grid energy systems, modern communications and information technology. Clearly, the climate response regime that Zimbabwe embraces has opened up several avenues for addressing poverty. However, these benefits are not evenly experienced but tend to be isolated across the Zimbabwean communities.
The sustainability question on whether the current and anticipated benefits of climate change responses can be guaranteed to continue accruing to individuals, institutions and the country at large has been investigated. One way of making climatic responses sustainable would be to leverage the current predominantly external funding to get the necessary knowledge and best practices implemented to inform necessary government budgetary allocations that is supported by climate-sensitive development plans and policies. The government should depart from external funding but promote blended financing approach to allow for ownership and enhance impact investment by all players. Essentially, benefits of responding to climate change are only fully realised when the country embraces both mitigation and adaptation practices in its response decision mix. Mitigation should not only be understood as concerned with cutting carbon emissions but should be designed to take advantage of technological advances in renewable energy, for example, among other opportunities that it offers.
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\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"54226",title:"Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Optical Fiber-Sensing Applications",slug:"localized-surface-plasmon-resonance-for-optical-fiber-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"It is well known that optical fiber sensors have attracted the attention of scientific community due to its intrinsic advantages, such as lightweight, small size, portability, remote sensing, immunity to electromagnetic interferences and the possibility of multiplexing several signals. This field has shown a dramatic growth thanks to the creation of sensitive thin films onto diverse optical fiber configurations. In this sense, a wide range of optical fiber devices have been successfully fabricated for monitoring biological, chemical, medical or physical parameters. In addition, the use of nanoparticles into the sensitive thin films has resulted in an enhancement in the response time, robustness or sensitivity in the optical devices, which is associated to the inherent properties of nanoparticles (high surface area ratio or porosity). Among all of them, the metallic nanoparticles are of great interest for sensing applications due to the presence of strong absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared regions, due to their localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). These optical resonances are due to the coupling of certain modes of the incident light to the collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metallic nanoparticles. The LSPR extinction bands are very useful for sensing applications as far as they can be affected by refractive index variations of the surrounding medium of the nanoparticles, and therefore, it is possible to create optical sensors with outstanding properties such as high sensitivity and optical self-reference. In this chapter, the attractive optical properties of metal nanostructures and their implementation into different optical fiber configuration for sensing or biosensing applications will be studied.",book:{id:"5721",slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Nanoplasmonics",fullTitle:"Nanoplasmonics - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Rivero, Javier Goicoechea and Francisco J. Arregui",authors:[{id:"69816",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Goicoechea",slug:"javier-goicoechea",fullName:"Javier Goicoechea"},{id:"188796",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rivero",slug:"pedro-j.-rivero",fullName:"Pedro J. Rivero"},{id:"197277",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Arregui",slug:"francisco-arregui",fullName:"Francisco Arregui"}]},{id:"25297",title:"Nanofabrication of Metal Oxide Patterns Using Self-Assembled Monolayers",slug:"nanofabrication-of-metal-oxide-patterns-using-self-assembled-monolayers",totalDownloads:3443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"860",slug:"nanofabrication",title:"Nanofabrication",fullTitle:"Nanofabrication"},signatures:"Yoshitake Masuda",authors:[{id:"12385",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshitake",middleName:null,surname:"Masuda",slug:"yoshitake-masuda",fullName:"Yoshitake Masuda"}]},{id:"77225",title:"Piezoelectricity and Its Applications",slug:"piezoelectricity-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The piezoelectric effect is extensively encountered in nature and many synthetic materials. Piezoelectric materials are capable of transforming mechanical strain and vibration energy into electrical energy. This property allows opportunities for implementing renewable and sustainable energy through power harvesting and self-sustained smart sensing in buildings. As the most common construction material, plain cement paste lacks satisfactory piezoelectricity and is not efficient at harvesting the electrical energy from the ambient vibrations of a building system. In recent years, many techniques have been proposed and applied to improve the piezoelectric capacity of cement-based composite, namely admixture incorporation and physical. The successful application of piezoelectric materials for sustainable building development not only relies on understanding the mechanism of the piezoelectric properties of various building components, but also the latest developments and implementations in the building industry. Therefore, this review systematically illustrates research efforts to develop new construction materials with high piezoelectricity and energy storage capacity. In addition, this article discusses the latest techniques for utilizing the piezoelectric materials in energy harvesters, sensors and actuators for various building systems. With advanced methods for improving the cementations piezoelectricity and applying the material piezoelectricity for different building functions, more renewable and sustainable building systems are anticipated.",book:{id:"10511",slug:"multifunctional-ferroelectric-materials",title:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials"},signatures:"B. Chandra Sekhar, B. Dhanalakshmi, B. Srinivasa Rao, S. Ramesh, K. Venkata Prasad, P.S.V. Subba Rao and B. Parvatheeswara Rao",authors:[{id:"335022",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sekhar",slug:"b.-chandra-sekhar",fullName:"B. Chandra Sekhar"},{id:"422021",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanalakshmi",slug:"b.-dhanalakshmi",fullName:"B. Dhanalakshmi"},{id:"422022",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Srinivasa",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.srinivasa-rao",fullName:"B.Srinivasa Rao"},{id:"422023",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"s.-ramesh",fullName:"S. Ramesh"},{id:"422024",title:"Dr.",name:"K.Venkata",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"k.venkata-prasad",fullName:"K.Venkata Prasad"},{id:"422025",title:"Dr.",name:"P.S.V",middleName:null,surname:"Subba Rao",slug:"p.s.v-subba-rao",fullName:"P.S.V Subba Rao"},{id:"422026",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Parvatheeswara",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.parvatheeswara-rao",fullName:"B.Parvatheeswara Rao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:72,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:78,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö 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Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. 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