Disease activity index (DAI).
\r\n\tDespite their limitations such as encapsulation efficiency, liposomes are a well-established choice for a number of unconventional and conventional biological applications. The versatility of these lipid-based vesicles presents the importance of these nanoparticles in the future applications of nanotechnology besides targeted drug delivery. Overall, this book provides the necessary and relevant information about various aspects of liposomes and their use in nanomedicine.
\r\n\t
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic disease resulting not only from the abnormal immune response but also from the activation of non-immune cells. Both, immune and non-immune cells are inducing inflammation that causes tissue injury [1, 2]. Platelets (Plt) are now recognized as proinflammatory cells, and aside from their primary role in a hemostasis they also enhance inflammation. The hypercoagulable state exists in the UC patients. Inflammation activates coagulation and coagulation amplifies inflammation [3, 4]. Platelets are unique cells without nucleus that have an important role in hemostasis and thrombosis, with a 5–9-day life span. Platelets have four granule types with stored numerous biologically active substances, such as platelet factor 4, fibrinogen, Von Willebrand factor (vWF), protein S, histamine, prostaglandin E2, platelet growth factor, thromboxane A2, transforming growth factor-beta, coagulation factors, angiogenic and growth factors, β-thromboglobulin, P-selectin (Psel), chemokines, regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and presumably secreted (RANTES), monocyte chemotactic protein-1, interleukin (IL) 8 (IL-8), IL-1β, IL-7 [5, 6]. Platelets can interact with many different cells and contribute to vascular inflammation [7]. Platelet factor 4 and β-thromboglobulin are exclusively released from Plt and are increased in the serum of the patients with active UC [8]. Platelet activation is of utmost importance for Plt functioning and is a result of Plt interaction with numerous active molecules. The first step is adhesion to the subendothelial matrix. After that Plt change their shape, resulting in pseudopodia formation [9]. Platelet activation, in the UC patients, takes place in mesenteric microcirculation after exposure to subendothelial collagen, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), arachidonic acid, Plt activating factor, thrombin, fibrinogen, and cytokines from other cells. Upon Plt activation, they degranulate and release a lot of Plt-derived microparticles (PDMP) and preformed mediators and interact with other immune and non-immune cells [10]. The PDMP represent 70–90% of all human cell-derived microparticles and have high procoagulant (due to tissue factor) and proinflammatory potential [11]. They also secrete ADP which in turn bind to the P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors on the membrane surface of the Plt and amplify initial Plt activation [12].
Upon activation, Plt express receptors on their surface, the most important being glycoprotein IIbIIIA (GPIIbIIIa), CD40 ligand (CD40L), Psel and receptors for cytokines, chemokines, and complement components [13]. A CD40L is a membrane protein, co-stimulatory molecule, presented mostly on the surface of the activated T lymphocyte (T Ly) and activated Plt. Its receptor is CD40, expressed on the surface of the immune cells, endothelial, epithelial cells, Plt, and other mesenchymal cells [14]. After Plt activation, CD40L and Psel are cleaved from the cell surface and secreted in the blood, being called soluble CD40L (sCD40L) and soluble Psel (sPsel). These soluble forms activate other cells, especially endothelial cells, fibroblasts, T Ly, monocyte, neutrophils, and B cells. The CD40/CD40L signaling pathway is a very important pathogenic mechanism in the UC, it amplifies inflammation and activates numerous immune and non-immune cells, including Plt [15, 16]. Platelets are the main source of sCD40L in UC. The number of CD40L positive T Ly and Plt is increased in colonic mucosa [17]. Also, the CD40L-CD40 signaling pathway is responsible for thromboembolic complications in UC patients and inflammation-induced angiogenesis. Platelet dysfunction exists in UC, meaning that Plt are becoming pro-inflammatory cells, and represent a connection between innate and adaptive immunity and between inflammation and coagulation [18].
P-selectin is expressed on the membrane surface of the activated Plt and endothelial cells. P-selectin has the most important function in leucocyte (Le) recruitment, mostly in the colonic mucosa [19]. The level of tissue expression of Psel is in strong positive correlation with the level of inflammation in colonic mucosa [20]. In severe inflammation, there is abundant Psel expression in colonic mucosa. Soluble Psel and sCD40L are excellent biomarkers of Plt activation [21].
Abnormalities seen in UC are: elevated Plt count (>450,000 × 109/L), reduction in mean Plt volume (MPV), increased platelet distribution width (PDW) value, increased plateletcrit value (PCT), increase in granular content, increased Plt activation and aggregation, hyperreactivity to agonist stimulation, such as ADP and collagen. These abnormalities are mediated by IL-6, are not seen in a healthy person, and are more pronounced in UC than in other inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis. The MPV and PCT show a negative correlation with disease activity [22, 23, 24, 25]. Spontaneous platelet aggregation is observed in more than 30% of UC patients, a phenomenon that is not seen in healthy persons and rarely seen in other inflammatory disorders [26]. Histopathological studies found mesenteric vascular microthrombi to be the first finding in the mucosa of UC patients. Those microthrombi contribute to ischemia. Microthrombi are not found in mesenteric vessels in healthy persons [27]. Activated Plt form aggregates with Le and other Plt, so-called platelet-leukocyte aggregates (PLA) and Plt-Plt aggregates (PPA), via Psel [28]. Platelet-leukocyte aggregate number is increased in serum and colonic tissue of patients with active UC but does not correlate with disease activity, instead, there is a positive correlation with Plt number and serum sPsel concentration. But it is proven that Le within PLA are more active than free Ly or Plt [29]. Platelet-leukocyte aggregate react with endothelial cells, activate them, activate other free Plt and Le. Also, PLA activate endothelial cells more than free cells, leading to increased expression of adhesion molecules thus contributing to inflammation [30]. Increased Plt activation and aggregation, especially spontaneous platelet aggregation, are very much responsible for thrombosis and thromboembolic complications in UC, particularly arterial thrombosis [31, 32].
Platelet to Ly ratio, with cut off value of 175.9 (sensitivity 90.9%; specificity 78.4%; positive likelihood ratio 4.205, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 2.214–7.894; area under the curve (AUC) 0.897, 95% CI 0.802–0.992) can serve as a biomarker for disease activity in UC, and can help us distinguish UC from healthy controls, that is, to identify UC patients with active disease [33].
We can also use neutrophil to Plt ratio to identify UC patients with active disease, with cut-off point of 14.94 (sensitivity 87.95%; specificity 63.5%) [34].
With the developments in medicine, especially pharmacology, we have a lot of antiplatelet drugs, and the number is constantly increasing [35]. The most important antiplatelet drugs are:
Thienopyridines represent a group of drugs that blocks ADP-mediated Plt aggregation by blocking the P2Y12 receptor on the Plt membrane surface. After Plt activation, ADP is released from Plt and then binds to P2Y12 on Plt surface and amplifies Plt activation, aggregation, degranulation, and procoagulant activity. Two thienopyridines are most important: clopidogrel and prasugrel. They are prodrugs and require biotransformation to become active. Clopidogrel is used for secondary stroke prevention and after coronary stenting (with aspirin). Prasugrel is used for the prevention of thrombosis after percutaneous coronary interventions [36].
Cyclopentyltriazolopyrimidines: ticagrelor. It is an active drug, with a fast onset of action, 30 minutes after ingestion, and it is a reversible P2Y12 receptor antagonist [37].
The ADP receptor antagonists: cangrelor. It has a short action time and it is used preoperatively in patients with atherosclerotic disease [38].
Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid is the oldest antiplatelet drug that irreversibly inhibition both cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2 and suppresses the production of prostaglandins and thromboxane. Other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit COX-1 and Plt function, but their effect is short and reversible [39].
Phosphodiesterase inhibitors: dipyridamole that reversibly inactivates platelet cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-phosphodiesterase thus increasing cAMP and decreasing Plt activity. Cilostazol is a selective inhibitor of phosphodiesterase type 3 leading to accumulation of cAMP and inhibition of Plt aggregation. It is used for treating peripheral vascular disease [40].
GP IIb/IIIa antagonists are anti-Plt agents that block binding GP IIb/IIIa to fibrinogen and inhibit Plt aggregation. Three agents are now being used: abciximab (monoclonal antibody), and two smaller molecule drugs tirofiban and eptifibatide [41].
Protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) antagonists: a new class of drugs. Vorapaxar inhibits thrombin-related platelet aggregation [42].
They are used to prevent or treat arterial thrombosis.
The most important indications are: acute coronary syndrome, after the percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stenting, acute ischemic stroke, after percutaneous intervention of peripheral arterial disease, stable angina, and primary prevention of coronary artery disease [43].
Not all anti-Plt agents are the same. Some of them affect mostly Plt aggregation, and some of them affect Plt aggregation and degranulation. The most significant contraindication for anti-Plt agents is active bleeding [44].
The most important antiplatelet drugs with the possibility to be used in UC are clopidogrel, ticagrelor, and GP inhibitors.
Clopidogrel is a prodrug, has 50% bioavailability. After biotransformation in the liver, its active metabolite binds to P2Y12 on the Plt surface and irreversibly inhibits ADP-mediated Plt aggregation and Plt activity. Due to the necessity of the liver biotransformation of clopidogrel by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes CYP3A4/3A5, there is potential for drug interactions and therapeutic failure. Some genetic alterations in the CYP2C19 gene can lead to a low Plt response to clopidogrel [45].
Ticagrelor is an orally active drug. It is a reversible antagonist of P2Y12 receptor on surface Plt membrane that inhibits ADP induced Plt aggregation. It is given twice daily. After ingestion, maximal Plt inhibition was measured at 2–4 hours. It almost completely inhibits Plt aggregation. It has faster and more profound action on Plt inhibition than clopidogrel. Its half-life is 7 hours. After P2Y12 inhibition there is decreased Plt degranulation and decreased releasing of bioactive mediators from Plt, and low expression of Psel and CD40L on Plt surface. Ultimately it leads to reduced generation of PLA and PPA which is considered to be the major mechanism responsible for anti-inflammatory effect. It also inhibits the reuptake of adenosine which leads to its accumulation in the extracellular matrix. Major adverse events are bleeding, dyspnea and bradycardia [46].
Glycoprotein inhibitors compete with fibrinogen and VWF for binding to GPIIbIIIa, which represent the final step in Plt aggregation. They are very potent inhibitors of Plt aggregation. Three GP inhibitors are approved in clinical use: abciximab, eptifibatide, and tirofiban. The route of administration for all three drugs is intravenous. Major adverse events are bleeding and thrombocytopenia. They are very potent in inhibiting Plt aggregation but do not have a potent anti-inflammatory effect [47].
Antiplatelet therapy is not a part of standard therapy for treating UC patients, but growing evidence suggest that it is safe in UC and might be useful addition to the standard therapy. I will summarize published results.
This chapter is based on an evaluation of antiplatelet therapy in patients with UC. We defined key questions as our literature searching algorithm. We searched literature from PubMed according to the adequate MESH terms (“ulcerative colitis,” “platelets,” “antiplatelet therapy,” “P-selectin,” “CD40 ligand,” “ticagrelor,” “clopidogrel,” and “glycoprotein inhibitors”) for the period from 2000 to the present.
The authors conducted an animal study about the usage of antiplatelet agents—ticagrelor and eptifibatide in mice. Forty C57BL/6 mice (inbred females, age: 2–3 months, and average body mass: 20–24 g) were used. The bodyweight of mice was measured every day. Mice were observed for stool consistency and rectal bleeding on a daily basis so that disease activity index (DAI) could be calculated daily as the sum of the weight loss score, the diarrheal score, and the hematochezia score based on the method used by Friedman et al., as shown in Table 1. The DAI was used to assess the severity of colitis [48].
DAI score | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |
Weight loss | 0% | 1–5% | 6–10% | 11–20% | >20% |
Stoll consistency | Well-formed pellets | Semi-formed pellets | Liquid stools | ||
Rectal bleeding | Hemoccult negative | Hemoccult positive | Gross bleeding |
Disease activity index (DAI).
Colitis was induced in 30 mice by 5-day drinking water with 3.5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) (average molecular weight within the range of 35,000–55,000). All mice developed DSS colitis. After 5 days, DSS-induced mice were divided into three experimental groups, 10 each. The first (I) group, the DSS control group, received no intervention during the subsequent 5 days treatment period. The second (II) group, the ticagrelor treatment (PO) group, received 1 mg (in 0.5 mL) dosages per day of Brilinta® via gastric tube. The third (III) group, the eptifibatide treatment (IP) group, received 150 μg (in 0.2 mL) dosages per day of Integrilin® via intraperitoneal injection. Group of mice (
The primary outcome was bleeding, and the secondary outcomes were changes in platelet count, hemoglobin (Hgb) level, and hematocrit (HCT) level. Complete blood counts were determined for each group at baseline (day 0: before treatment; DSS1, PO1, and IP1 subgroups) and at 1 day after the last dose (day 5; DSS2, PO2, and IP2 subgroups). On day 5, all surviving mice were sacrificed, and an autopsy was performed. The Plt aggregation was measured using a multiplate Plt function analyzer with adenosine diphosphate and thrombin receptor-activating peptide.
Platelet aggregation was measured at baseline, after 2 h, and 24 h of ticagrelor and eptifibatide therapy. An autopsy showed signs of colitis and there was no evidence of recent bleeding in the liver, spleen, central nervous system, or serous cavities of any of the antiplatelet treatment groups. Histological findings of colonic mucosa in all three experimental groups after autopsy were that DSS2, PO2, and IP2 showed mild inflammation and ulceration.
Maximum weight loss was below 15% in all three experimental groups. Hematochezia was observed in all three experimental groups as blood around the anus and present in the sawdust or as hemoccult positive. Blood was seen from the fourth day of the experiment in all three experimental groups.
The DAI score was not significantly different between the three experimental groups (Kruskal-Wallis test;
Significantly lower levels of Hgb and HCT were found in all three experimental groups (PO1, DSS1, PO1, and IP1 vs. control; Kruskal-Wallis test:
Hemoglobin (Hgb) values before initiation of antiplatelet drug administration. Data are presented as mean ± SD. Groups DSS1, IP1, and PO1 represent DSS colitis mice before administration of drugs; K represents the experimental control group. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IP, eptifibatide treatment; PO, ticagrelor treatment.
Hematocrit (HCT) values before initiation of antiplatelet drug administration. Data are presented as mean ± SD. Groups DSS1, IP1, and PO1 represent DSS colitis mice before administration of drugs; K represents the experimental control group. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IP, eptifibatide treatment; PO, ticagrelor treatment (Kruskal-Wallis test:
Platelet (PLT) count for all groups. Data are presented as mean ± SD. Groups DSS1, IP1, and PO1 represent DSS colitis mice before administration of drugs; K represents the experimental control group. Groups DSS2, IP2, and PO2 represent DSS colitis mice after administration of drugs. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IP, eptifibatide treatment; PO, ticagrelor treatment (Kruskal-Wallis test:
Percent change in values of hemoglobin (Hgb) relative to basal values. Groups DSS2, IP2, and PO2 represent DSS colitis mice after administration of drugs. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IP, eptifibatide treatment; PO, ticagrelor treatment (Kruskal-Wallis test: HGB,
Percent change in values of hematocrit (HCT) relative to basal values. Groups DSS2, IP2, and PO2 represent DSS colitis mice after administration of drugs. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IP, eptifibatide treatment; PO, ticagrelor treatment (Kruskal-Wallis test: HCT,
Percent change in values of platelets (PLT) relative to basal values. Groups DSS2, IP2, and PO2 represent DSS colitis mice after administration of drugs. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IP, eptifibatide treatment; PO, ticagrelor treatment (Kruskal-Wallis test: PLT,
The authors concluded that administering eptifibatide and ticagrelor to DSS colitis mice did not cause serious adverse events. There was no significant decrease in Plt count or Hgb and HCT levels, and autopsy found no bleeding into the liver, spleen, serous cavities or intracranially. These observations support the potential use of antiplatelet therapy for treating UC in humans as an addition to the standard therapy. Ticagrelor could be used in the moderate form of UC and eptifibatide in the severe form, together with standard therapy.
The goal of this research was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of clopidogrel on an animal model for Crohn’s disease (TNBS model) and ulcerative colitis (oxazolone induced) in rats. Rats were weighing 150–200 g and were housed in standard conditions, on a standard diet and water ad libitum. Ulcerative colitis was induced by intrarectal administration of oxazolone on first day. Rats were divided into four groups, each consisting of six animals:
The goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) on DSS colitis in mice. Female C57BL/6 mice, average body weight 19–21 g, were divided into three groups:
The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of the CD40-CD40L signaling pathway in intestinal inflammation in DSS colitis in mice and the anti-inflammatory effect of Trapidil (triazolopyrimidine) on intestinal inflammation. Trapidil is an antagonist of platelet-derived growth factor and it was developed to inhibit the response of monocytes to CD40L. They found a 10-fold increase in CD40 expression in endothelial cells in the colon (an important result of CD40-CD40L signaling pathway), increased recruitment of Plt and leukocytes in colonic venules due to CD40-CD40L pathway and significant inhibition of CD40-CD40L signaling pathway with Trapidil [51].
The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of Psel on leukocyte recruitment and the effect of its blockade with an anti-P-sel antibody. They induced DSS colitis in wild type and P-selectin−/− C57BL/6 J mice. Disease activity index, plasma IL-6, length of colon and rectum, histological damage of the colon, and MPO activity of the distal colon were evaluated. Leukocyte-endothelial interaction in colonic venules was assessed using intravital microscopy. Vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 expression on endothelial cells and expression of very large antigen-4 integrin on circulating leukocytes were obtained. They found that Psel has an important role in intestinal inflammation in DSS colitis. Its blockade or genetic deficiency offers protection against DSS colitis. They also found that treatment of DSS colitis with Psel antibody was very potent in reducing DAI, MPO activity, and leukocyte adhesion. The VCAM-1 over-expression in the colon and extracolonic organs and increased level of IL-6 in circulation were observed in P-selectin−/− mice, but not in mice treated with anti-P-sel antibodies. The conclusion was that Psel is a key molecule for the development of DSS colitis and that Psel antibodies administration or genetic deficiency offers protection against DSS colitis by diminishing leukocyte recruitment in the colon [52].
It was a retrospective analysis of 174 patients with pre-existing inflammatory bowel disease, who were taking aspirin, due to cardiac comorbidity, for at least 18 months and did not differ in age, gender, disease duration, smoking status, medication usage, or baseline C-reactive protein. They were looking for the connection between aspirin and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) related hospitalization/surgery/corticosteroid required during the period of follow-up. Their results indicate that aspirin use did not have a clinical impact on IBD patients [53].
A retrospective analysis of 36 patients with pre-existing IBD (test group), who started on combination therapy of aspirin and clopidogrel for at least 6 months, due to PCI for coronary artery disease. There was a control group with IBD matched for gender and age, not taking antiplatelet therapy. They found no change in frequency of IBD exacerbations between groups, after the initiation of the aspirin and clopidogrel in the test group [54].
After analysis of the PLATO study, the question was raised whether ticagrelor has antibacterial activity in standard anti Plt dosages against Gram-positive bacteria because patients treated with ticagrelor had a lower risk of infection-related death than patients treated with clopidogrel. Authors proved that in vitro ticagrelor has bactericidal activity against all Gram-positive strains tested, including drug-resistant strains glycopeptide intermediate
The author tested the antimicrobial activity of ticagrelor against different types of
The exact pathophysiology of ulcerative colitis is unknown. Except immune cells, it is important to take platelet function into the consideration so we could improve the response rate to the standard therapy in ulcerative colitis patients. Antiplatelet therapy is still not a part of the therapeutic armamentarium for this disease. We have increasing evidence that raises the possibility of using antiplatelet therapy in humans with ulcerative colitis. Antiplatelet therapy in UC is safe and it seems that ticagrelor could be the drug of the first choice.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
acetylsalicylic acid adenosine diphosphate area under the curve CD40 ligand colon mucosal damage index cyclic adenosine monophosphate cyclooxygenase cytochrome P450 dextran sulfate sodium disease activity index glycoprotein IIbIIIA hematocrit hemoglobin inflammatory bowel disease interleukin leucocyte magnetic resonance imaging mean Plt volume minimal inhibitory concentration myeloperoxidase plateletcrit percutaneous coronary intervention platelet distribution width platelet-leukocyte aggregates platelets P-selectin Plt derived microparticles Plt-Plt aggregates protease-activated receptor-1 regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and presumably secreted soluble CD40L soluble Psel T lymphocyte ulcerative colitis vascular cell adhesion protein 1 Von Willebrand factor 95% confidence interval
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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High-quality wind data are required to build mathematical models of the Mars climate; therefore, powerful techniques are necessary to eliminate aerodynamic perturbations produced by the rover presence over wind measurements. This chapter is dedicated to the characterization of the aerodynamics around the Mars 2020 rover and its interaction with the rover Mars surface vehicle in order to get information to correct wind data coming from Mars.",book:{id:"8556",slug:"mars-exploration-a-step-forward",title:"Mars Exploration",fullTitle:"Mars Exploration - a Step Forward"},signatures:"Rafael Bardera, Suthyvann Sor and Adelaida García-Magariño",authors:[{id:"275076",title:"Dr.",name:"Suthyvann",middleName:null,surname:"Sor Mendi",slug:"suthyvann-sor-mendi",fullName:"Suthyvann Sor Mendi"},{id:"275078",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Bardera",slug:"rafael-bardera",fullName:"Rafael Bardera"},{id:"313617",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelaida",middleName:null,surname:"García-Magariño",slug:"adelaida-garcia-magarino",fullName:"Adelaida García-Magariño"}]},{id:"71209",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91021",title:"Psychosocial Aspects of a Flight to Mars",slug:"psychosocial-aspects-of-a-flight-to-mars",totalDownloads:693,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The first experiments modeling peoples’ behavior during a long-term cosmic flight revealed the need for a more systematic monitoring of the development of the crew’s mutual relationships, particularly in terms of collaboration and work-related communication. For this reason, in order to examine team dynamics, the sociomapping method was developed, which was first used in the HUBES 94 and ECOPSY 95 experiments. This method allows for an analysis and visualization of the continuous changes in communication and collaboration, including decreases in their quality and quantity. Sociomapping was used to monitor and analyze the communication and collaboration in simulations of flights to Mars in the Mars-105 and Mars-500 experiments. Based on the aforementioned experiments, it can be noted that statistically significant and nonrandom declines of the quantity and quality of team communication may occur during long-term missions, which may be related to changes in the team’s performance. These changes are influenced by exterior stress factors, as well as cultural and linguistic differences and the length of the flight itself. In this chapter, the main findings of the experiment, as well as the resulting recommendations for a successful management of the psychological aspects of a flight to Mars, will be summarized.",book:{id:"8556",slug:"mars-exploration-a-step-forward",title:"Mars Exploration",fullTitle:"Mars Exploration - a Step Forward"},signatures:"Radvan Bahbouh",authors:[{id:"155311",title:"Dr.",name:"Radvan",middleName:null,surname:"Bahbouh",slug:"radvan-bahbouh",fullName:"Radvan Bahbouh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71802",title:"Autonomous Navigation for Mars Exploration",slug:"autonomous-navigation-for-mars-exploration",totalDownloads:816,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The autonomous navigation technology uses the multiple sensors to percept and estimate the spatial locations of the aerospace prober or the Mars rover and to guide their motions in the orbit or the Mars surface. In this chapter, the autonomous navigation methods for the Mars exploration are reviewed. First, the current development status of the autonomous navigation technology is summarized. The popular autonomous navigation methods, such as the inertial navigation, the celestial navigation, the visual navigation, and the integrated navigation, are introduced. Second, the application of the autonomous navigation technology for the Mars exploration is presented. The corresponding issues in the Entry Descent and Landing (EDL) phase and the Mars surface roving phase are mainly discussed. Third, some challenges and development trends of the autonomous navigation technology are also addressed.",book:{id:"8556",slug:"mars-exploration-a-step-forward",title:"Mars Exploration",fullTitle:"Mars Exploration - a Step Forward"},signatures:"Haoting Liu",authors:[{id:"314772",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Haoting",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"haoting-liu",fullName:"Haoting Liu"}]},{id:"70846",title:"Aerodynamics of Mars 2020 Rover Wind Sensors",slug:"aerodynamics-of-mars-2020-rover-wind-sensors",totalDownloads:684,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Environmental factors in Mars atmosphere are a part of the research issues of the future Mars 2020 mission. The new rover surface vehicle will transport different instruments to investigate the geology, biology, and meteorology of Mars. Amongst these instruments, the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) will be dedicated to the measurement of environment parameters. Two wind sensors will be included in the meteorological station MEDA because wind plays a very important role in Martian climate. High-quality wind data are required to build mathematical models of the Mars climate; therefore, powerful techniques are necessary to eliminate aerodynamic perturbations produced by the rover presence over wind measurements. This chapter is dedicated to the characterization of the aerodynamics around the Mars 2020 rover and its interaction with the rover Mars surface vehicle in order to get information to correct wind data coming from Mars.",book:{id:"8556",slug:"mars-exploration-a-step-forward",title:"Mars Exploration",fullTitle:"Mars Exploration - a Step Forward"},signatures:"Rafael Bardera, Suthyvann Sor and Adelaida García-Magariño",authors:[{id:"275076",title:"Dr.",name:"Suthyvann",middleName:null,surname:"Sor Mendi",slug:"suthyvann-sor-mendi",fullName:"Suthyvann Sor Mendi"},{id:"275078",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Bardera",slug:"rafael-bardera",fullName:"Rafael Bardera"},{id:"313617",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelaida",middleName:null,surname:"García-Magariño",slug:"adelaida-garcia-magarino",fullName:"Adelaida García-Magariño"}]},{id:"67679",title:"Oral Tissue Responses to Travel in Space",slug:"oral-tissue-responses-to-travel-in-space",totalDownloads:1027,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The oral cavity functions in taste, mastication, solubilization and digestion of nutrients, as well as in respiration and speech, and participates in innate and adaptive immunity. Saliva creates and regulates the environment of the oral cavity, and changes in its composition and rate of secretion have significant effects on oral tissues as well as on systemic health. The effects of microgravity on the salivary glands, mandible and teeth were studied in mice flown on US space shuttle STS-131 and STS-135 missions, and the Russian Bion-M1 biosatellite. Significant changes in morphology and secretory protein expression occurred in parotid glands; submandibular glands were affected only on the 30-day Bion-M1 mission, indicating tissue specificity of the effects due to changes in gravity which may be similar to those taking place in humans. Changes also occurred in mandibular bone and incisor teeth. Collection of saliva is a non-invasive procedure for assessing physiological status and diagnosis of several disorders and provides a simple method for monitoring astronaut health during extended spaceflight.",book:{id:"7632",slug:"beyond-leo-human-health-issues-for-deep-space-exploration",title:"Beyond LEO",fullTitle:"Beyond LEO - Human Health Issues for Deep Space Exploration"},signatures:"Maija I. Mednieks and Arthur R. Hand",authors:[{id:"296192",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Arthur",middleName:null,surname:"Hand",slug:"arthur-hand",fullName:"Arthur Hand"},{id:"296354",title:"Dr.",name:"Maija",middleName:null,surname:"Mednieks",slug:"maija-mednieks",fullName:"Maija Mednieks"}]},{id:"72944",title:"Aerocapture, Aerobraking, and Entry for Robotic and Human Mars Missions",slug:"aerocapture-aerobraking-and-entry-for-robotic-and-human-mars-missions",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of the aeroassist technologies and performances for Mars missions. We review the current state-of-the-art aeroassist technologies for Mars explorations, including aerocapture, aerobraking, and entry. Then we present a parametric analysis considering key design parameters such as interplanetary trajectory and vehicle design parameters (lift-to-drag ratio, ballistic coefficient, peak g-load, peak heat rate, and total heat load) for aerocapture, aerobraking, and entry. A new perspective on a rapid aerobraking concept will be provided. The analysis will include first-order estimates for thermal loading, thermal protection systems material selection, and vehicle design. Results and discussion focus on both robotic missions and human missions as landed assets and orbiters.",book:{id:"8556",slug:"mars-exploration-a-step-forward",title:"Mars Exploration",fullTitle:"Mars Exploration - a Step Forward"},signatures:"Ye Lu",authors:[{id:"313126",title:"Prof.",name:"Ye",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"ye-lu",fullName:"Ye Lu"}]},{id:"72974",title:"Introductory Chapter: Mars Exploration - A Story Fifty Years Long",slug:"introductory-chapter-mars-exploration-a-story-fifty-years-long",totalDownloads:663,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8556",slug:"mars-exploration-a-step-forward",title:"Mars Exploration",fullTitle:"Mars Exploration - a Step Forward"},signatures:"Giuseppe Pezzella and Antonio Viviani",authors:[{id:"14939",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pezzella",slug:"giuseppe-pezzella",fullName:"Giuseppe Pezzella"},{id:"216136",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Viviani",slug:"antonio-viviani",fullName:"Antonio Viviani"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"109",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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