More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
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Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Functional foods are such types of foods that are highly nutritious and have a potential health benefits besides their basic nutritional values. Functional foods contain either supplements or other additional ingredients designed to improve the health of the general population. Foods are being examined and improved which may reduce chronic disease risk and optimize health. Japanese has first developed the concept of functional foods in 1980. At that time, their health care costs were escalating and the Ministry of Health and Welfare initiated to approve some foods which were documented with their health benefits and used for improving the health of the aging population [1].
1.2 Functional food components
Functional food components are bioactive compounds used in the manufacture of functional foods. They are potentially beneficial compounds found either naturally in foods or added to them as functional ingredients. The functional food components are carotenoids, isothiocyanates, dietary fiber, phenolic acids, fatty acids, plant stanols and sterols, flavonoids, polyols, soy protein, prebiotics and probiotics, phytoestrogens, vitamins, and minerals. Research-based evidence suggested that there is a relationship between functional food components, health, and well-being [2]. Therefore, functional food components can be used in the treatment and prevention of diseases, as they have health-promoting roles at various stages of disease control. Phytochemicals are plant-derived, non-nutritive, and biologically active functional food components that function in the body to prevent certain non-communicable diseases [3]. About 900 phytochemicals are found in foods and 120 g of foods or vegetables may have around 100 different types of phytochemicals [4]. The earlier concept was that functional food components occur mainly in plant foods, such as whole grain, fruits, and vegetables. However, functional food components are also found in animal products; these are milk, fermented milk products, and cold-water fish. These animal source food components are probiotics, prebiotics, symbiotic, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, -6, and -9 polyunsaturated fatty acids, etc.
1.3 Production of functional foods
Functional foods can be made by different approaches, such as (1) eliminating harmful components from the food (e.g. allergic protein), (2) increasing the concentration of a component in the food by fortification with micronutrients or any other ingredient, (3) eliminating excessive component mainly a macronutrient like fats and producing a beneficial component such as chicory inulin, (4) increasing stability or bioavailability of a component to produce a functional effect or to reduce the disease risk, and (5) adding a new component in the foods which has the beneficial effect, e.g. antioxidant.
In this chapter, functional food ingredients, including their sources and physiological functions, are discussed.
2. Sources and health benefits of functional food components
2.1 Carotenoids
The carotenoids are the most widespread and important fat-soluble pigments in nature and they have varied health functions. Most carotenoids consumed foods are beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, gamma-carotene, lycopene, lutein, beta-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and astaxanthin.
2.1.1 Sources
Carotenoids are available in plants, fruits, flowers, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria. The other sources of carotenoids are non-photosynthetic bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
2.1.2 Function
Carotenoids are used as antioxidants in dietary supplements. They are also used as colors in foods and beverages and as pigments in poultry and fish farm, and as food ingredients. Carotenoids have an important role in human health. The main dietary source of vitamin A is beta-carotene. Protective effects of carotenoids have been identified against serious disorders, such as cancer [5], heart disease [6], and degenerative eye disease [7]. The role of carotenoids as antioxidants and as regulators of the immune response system is also recognized.
2.2 Dietary fibers
Dietary fibers are the portion of plant-derived foods. They cannot be fully fragmented by human digestive enzymes. Fibers are non-starch polysaccharides, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, galactooligosaccharides, polyfructose, gums, mucilages, pectins, and lignin. These are soluble or insoluble fibers that pass through the stomach and small intestine undigested, but they are fermented by bacteria in the colon when they reach the large intestine.
2.2.1 Sources
Beans, whole grains, brown rice, popcorn, nuts, baked potato with skin, berries, bran cereal, oatmeal, and vegetables are the sources of dietary fibers.
2.2.2 Function
Fibers are fermented and produced short-chain fatty acids in the colon that provide important health benefits. Some fibers are manufactured and added to food products to provide similar health benefits without adding calories called functional fibers. These are cellulose, polydextrose, maltodextrin, and inulin. There are several potential health benefits of the consumption of dietary and functional fibers. Fibers reduce the incidence of constipation [8], irritable bowel syndrome [9], lower cholesterol, and reduce the incidence of coronary and cardiovascular heart diseases [10], prevent obesity [11] and diabetes [12], avoid colon cancer [13], and increase survival in breast cancer [14]. However, there are some adverse effects of excessive intake of dietary fiber, such as intestinal obstruction (in susceptible individuals), dehydration (due to a fluid imbalance), increase in intestinal gas, resulting in distention and flatulence, and reduced absorption of vitamins, minerals, proteins, and calories from the gut [15].
3. Essential fatty acids
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) cannot be synthesized by the human body but the body requires them for good health and therefore, they must be obtained through diet. Essential fatty acids are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. They are called “good fats” and they increase the levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and decrease the levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Alpha linoleic acid and linolenic acid are the primary essential fatty acids in the human body.
3.1 Sources
Sources of essential fatty acids are mackerel, salmon, cod liver oil, herring, oysters, soybeans, sardines, flax seeds, anchovies, caviar, walnuts, chia seeds, and canola oils.
3.2 Function
Essential fatty acids help in the absorption of important nutrients and expelling of harmful waste products that support the reproductive, cardiovascular, nervous systems, and immune. They are also important for proper growth, neural development, and maturation of sensory systems in children. Other important roles of EFAs are to increase the production of prostaglandins that regulate body functions, such as blood pressure, heart rate, blood clotting, conception, and fertility. EFAs also play an important role in immune function by regulating inflammation and encouraging the body to fight infection [16]. Essential fatty acids are beneficial for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis [17] and reduce tenderness in joints, swelling, and diminish morning stiffness. It has also been observed that EFAs are important elements for asthma [18], depression [19], bipolar disorder schizophrenia [20], hypertension [21], heart diseases [22], burns [23], photodermatitis, acne or psoriasis [24], cholesterol [25], obesity [26], insulin sensitivity [27], osteoporosis [28], attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [29], age-related macular degeneration [30], dry-eye conditions, such as Sjögren’s syndrome [31]. Consumption of sufficient amounts of foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids reduces the risk of colorectal [32], breast cancer [33], and prostate cancer [34].
4. Isothiocyanates
Isothiocyanates are compounds produced by hydrolysis of glucosinolates that are precursors of cruciferous vegetables. Some isothiocyanates are volatile and evaporated below the boiling point. Isothiocyanates hydrolyze at higher cooking temperatures and their bioavailability is affected by microwaving at high power [35].
4.1 Sources
Good sources of isothiocyanates are cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli, brussels sprouts, watercress, Japanese radish, cabbage, cauliflower, and kale.
4.2 Function
Several studies revealed that isothiocyanates and their metabolites decrease the risk of developing different types of cancer, such as stomach, breast, liver, esophagus, lung, small intestine, and colon [36, 37]. Isothiocyanates effect Helicobacter pylori and reduce the risk of developing gastric cancer. On the other hand, sulforaphane inhibits the growth of multiple strains of bacteria [38] and there is a role in eradication in some cases [39]. People who consume isothiocyanates-rich vegetables have a lower incidence or severity of cardiovascular disease [40].
5. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are pigments synthesized by plants and there are many different subclasses, each comprising many different compounds, such as isoflavones (biochanin A, daidzin, daidzein, formononetin, glycitein, genistein); flavononols (astilbin, genistin, taxifolin, engeletin); anthocyanidins (cyanidin, malvidin, delphinidin, apigenin, peonidin, pelargonidin, petunidin); chalcones (okanin, butein); flavonols (isorhamnetin, quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin); flavanols (positive-catechin, negative-epicatechin, positive-gallocatechin, negative-epigallocatechin, negative-epicatechin gallate); flavones (apigenin, luteolin, chrysin, rutin); flavanones (eriodictyol, isosakuranetin, hesperidin, naringin, naringenin, taxifolin) [41].
5.1 Sources
Sources of flavonoids are fresh capers, elderberry juice, dried parsley, sorrel, red onions, rocket lettuce, fresh cranberries, goji berries, cooked asparagus, blackcurrants, dried oregano, grapefruit, lemons, orange juice, limes, oranges, grapefruit juice, artichokes, green tea, black tea, dried cocoa, dark chocolate, blackberries, cooked broad beans, pecan nuts, red table wine, apples, peaches, dried parsley, aronia, green pepper, bilberries, chickpeas, black currants, American bilberries, red cabbage, red currants, raspberries, and strawberries.
5.2 Function
There are several health benefits of flavonoids, including antiallergic, antioxidant activities, antiviral [42], antitoxic, antifungal [43], antibacterial [44] and anti-inflammatory [45]. Recent researches identified the many defensive roles of flavonoids, these are eye diseases [46], heart diseases [47], hemorrhoids [48], diabetes [49], neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s [50], gout [51] and periodontal disease [52]. Flavonoids are also used for the prevention and treatment of different types of cancer, such as prostate [53], ovarian [54], pancreatic, colon, breast [55], leukemia, lung [56], esophageal [57], hepatocellular carcinoma [58], and renal cell carcinoma [59].
6. Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids contain a phenolic ring and a carboxyl functional group. Some examples of phenolic acids are protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapinic acid, and syringic acid. Phenolic acids are absorbed through the walls of the intestine and serve beneficial roles, such as antioxidants and protect cellular damage by free-radical oxidation reactions.
6.1 Sources
Sources of phenolic acids are cereals, oilseeds, legumes, vegetables, fruits, beverages, and herbs. Besides these sources, they are also found in all food groups.
6.2 Function
Phenolic acids have several health benefits, such as intake of phenolic acids decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers, type II diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders [60, 61, 62], through multiple putative mechanisms of actions, including antioxidation, glucoregulation, anti-inflammation, antiproliferation, and microbial modulation. Russo et al. [63] found a negative relationship between dietary intake phenolic acids (e.g. ferulic acid and caffeic acid) and prostate cancer and they showed that both phenolic acids are associated with reduced prostate cancer. Also, immunoregulation diseases, asthma, and allergic reactions are protected by caffeic acid which is phenolic acid. Caffeic acid has a positive role against colon cancer [64] and it has inhibitor properties of HIV-1 that act as a potential antiviral therapy [65]. It is also found that a higher intake of phenolic acids is significant lower mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to a lower intake of phenolic acids [66].
7. Plant stanols and sterols
Plant stanols and sterols are a group of substances made in the plant. The most important and ample of plant sterol is sitosterol. However, campesterol and stigmasterol are also significant quantitative of sterol. They reduce the absorption of cholesterol in the intestine and help to lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood without affecting high-density lipoprotein (HLD) cholesterol levels.
7.1 Sources
Sterols and stanols are found in the highest amount in foods, such as fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, legumes, cereals, and vegetable oils.
7.2 Function
Plant sterols work as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant [67], and antiatherosclerosis. Phytosterols have antifungal activity and protect against ulcers [68]. The intake of plant sterols can prevent different types of cancer, such as the esophagus, prostate [69], lung [70], breast [71], ovary [72], stomach, and endometrial [73]. LDL-cholesterol is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Plant sterols or stanols prevent absorption of LDL cholesterol from the gut, as a result, serum levels of LDL are lower, and assumed that lowering LDL-cholesterol is expected to lower cardiovascular diseases.
8. Polyols
Polyol is an organic compound and low-calorie carbohydrate-based sweetener. It is a hydrogenated version of carbohydrates. Its taste and texture are like sugar with half the calories. Polyols are used as sugar-free and low-calorie ingredients in many foods. There are various types of polyols, such as erythritol, isomalt, polyglucitol, lactitol, polyglycitol, mannitol, sorbitol, maltitol, and xylitol.
8.1 Sources
Polyols are found in some fruits, vegetables, and mushrooms.
8.2 Function
Polyols are used in different industries for making foods, such as ice cream, chewing gums, frozen desserts, candies, and baked goods [74]. They are also used for frostings, canned fruits, beverages, yogurt, and tabletop sweeteners. Polyols have some important health benefits and they maintain good oral health [75]. They are also used for weight control and reduction of dietary glycemic load [74]. Polyols may play an important role in the maintenance of human digestive health as these are low digestible carbohydrates [76]. Sometimes overconsumption of polyol-containing foods may have laxative effects [74].
9. Soy protein
Soy protein is extracted from soybean and hence, it is a complete plant-based protein and it contains adequate amounts of all the essential amino acids. Health benefits of soy protein depend on consumption per day. Per person need to consume 25 g of soy protein or more every day to get results.
9.1 Sources
Whole soybeans are the source of soy protein and dietary fiber. Some selected soy food products are soya sauce (2 g protein of 18 g soy sauce), cooked and fermented soy (5 g protein of 28 g cooked and fermented soy), soybean curd (6 g protein of 84 g soybean curd), and soy veggie burger (11 g protein of 70 g soy veggie burger).
9.2 Function
Soy protein has many potential health benefits. Beneficial effects of soy protein products on women are improvement of diet and cardiovascular status, prevention of certain types of cancer, health improvement following menopause, and obesity prevention [77]. Xiao et al. [78] have shown some chemopreventive activity of soy protein. The potential role of consumption of soy protein is reducing body weight and fat mass which reduces plasma cholesterol and triglycerides [79]. Soy protein may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and coronary heath disease.
10. Phytoestrogens
Phytoestrogens (PEs) are the compounds found in plans and they are not generated within the endocrine system in the human body and are consumed by eating phytoestrogenic plants. They have roles in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and minerals in the human body and they act as estrogen hormone in the reproductive cycle in women [80]. There are three types of phytoestrogens, such as lignans (enterolactone or enterodiol), coumestans (coumestrol), and isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, glycitein).
10.1 Sources
The greater sources of phytoestrogens are soybeans, soy beverages, tofu, tempeh, linseed (flax), wheat, berries, sesame seeds, oats, barley, lentils, dried beans, rice, alfalfa, mung beans, apples, wheat germ, carrots, rice bran, and soy-linseed bread.
10.2 Function
There are several health benefits of phytoestrogens. They affect the cardiovascular system [80] and skeleton and reduce the incidence of osteoporosis [81] and menopausal symptoms [82]. Phytoestrogens have cell proliferation inhibiting factors that prevent cancer. They have positive effect on prostate cancer [83], breast cancer [84], thyroid cancer [85], colorectal cancer [86], skin cancer [87] and endometrial cancer [88]. Soy foods containing PEs improve control of blood glucose and insulin levels [89]. There are antibacterial and fungistatic activities in some phytoestrogens which play an antiviral role [90].
11. Probiotics
There are two types of bacteria in our body, such as good bacteria and bad bacteria. Probiotics are living bacteria that provide health benefits by improvement of the balance of the intestinal microflora [91] when ingested in an adequate amount. Some yeasts also work as probiotics. There are so many types of probiotics, but Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus (or lactic acid bacteria—LAB), Lactococcus, Saccharomyces, Streptococcus thermophilus, and Enterococcus are common probiotics. Of them, Saccharomyces boulardii is a probiotic yeast and others are bacteria.
11.1 Sources
Some best probiotic foods are yogurt, traditional buttermilk, pickles, kombucha, kimchi, sauerkraut, cheese, and kefir.
11.2 Function
Probiotic is used for the treatment of diarrhea [92], Lactobacillus has probiotic action on infectious diarrhea and gastroenteritis in infants and children, and probiotic is used for the treatment of constipation. Probiotics therapy may help for irritable bowel syndrome treatment and inflammatory bowel disease [93]. Probiotic therapy is used for control other diseases, such as hypertension [94], lactose intolerance [95], hepatic encephalopathy [96], immune system [97], cancer [94], vaginal infections [98], H. pylori [99], kidney stones [100], cholesterol [101], allergies, and eczema [102]. Probiotics may reduce necrotizing enterocolitis and mortality in low-birth-weight infants [103].
12. Prebiotics
Prebiotics are non-digestible fibers present in plants and help healthy bacteria to grow in the gut and make the human digestive system work better. Most of the prebiotics are oligosaccharides that stimulate selectively the growth of bifidobacteria. Some prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides, lactosucrose, inulins, lactilol, isomalto-oligosaccharides, lactulose, soy oligosaccharides, pyrodextrins, transgalacto-oligosaccharides, and xylo-oligosaccharides.
12.1 Sources
Main sources of prebiotics are fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, such as apples, artichokes, asparagus, bananas, barley, berries, chicory, cocoa, dandelion greens, flaxseed, garlic, green vegetables, leeks, konjac root, legumes, oats, tomatoes, onions, soybeans, wheat, and yacon root. Also, some foods are fortified with prebiotics, for example, baby formula, bread, cereal, cookies, and yogurt.
12.2 Function
Prebiotics work as anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and antiosteoporotic activities. Prebiotics are also used for the treatment of constipation, hepatic encephalopathy, and inflammatory bowel disease. There is a beneficial role of prebiotics in diabetes mellitus. Prebiotics also have an important role in improving mineral absorption and balance and enhancing the colonic absorption of some minerals. Prebiotics also ferment foods faster in the intestine and prevent constipation. Prebiotics reduce sepsis and mortality in premature and low-birth-weight infants [104].
13. Synbiotics
Synbiotics are the combined products of both probiotics and prebiotics. The advantage of the combination of beneficial bacteria is the encouragement of beneficial bacterial growth. Synbiotics are produced by combinations of lactobacillus GG and inulins, bifidobacteria and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), and bifidobacteria and lactobacilli with FOS or inulins.
13.1 Sources
As symbiotics are the combined products of prebiotics and probiotics, so the sources of symbiotics are the same as probiotics and prebiotics. However, this combination is produced commercially.
13.2 Function
Evidence suggested that symbiotics can reduce sepsis, lower respiratory tract infection, and mortality among low-birth-weight infants [105].
14. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules and essential for the proper functioning of the human body. Vitamins are required in small amounts obtained from a correct diet. There are two types of vitamins such as fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K and they can be stored in the body. On the other hand, water-soluble vitamins are C and B-complex, such as vitamins B6, B12, niacin (B3), riboflavin (B2), biotin (B7), thiamine (B1), pantothenic acid (B5), and folic acid (B9). They cannot be stored in the body because the excess ingested is eliminated through human fluids, such as urine and transpiration, and hence necessary to ingest a daily amount of these vitamins [106].
14.1 Vitamin A
There are different forms of vitamin A, such as retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and all known as retinoids.
14.1.1 Sources
The best sources of vitamin A are beef liver, cod liver oil, spinach, sweet potato, carrots, broccoli, black-eyed peas, mango, sweet red pepper, cantaloupe, dried apricots, pumpkin pie, tomato juice, and herring.
14.1.2 Function
Vitamin A plays an important role in many processes in the body, including immune function, reproduction, healthy vision, proper functioning of the heart, kidneys, lungs, and other organs, skink health and growth development. Vitamin A also helps to prevent lung and breast cancer [107]. Vitamin A can be used for the treatment of leukemia [108], skin disorders, and retinitis pigmentosa [109].
14.2 Vitamin B-complex
Vitamin B-complex is a product that is composed of B vitamins, such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), vitamins B6, biotin (B7), folic acid (B9), and B12.
14.2.1 Sources
Adequate amount of vitamins B sources are milk, cheese, eggs, liver and kidney, meat (chicken and red meat), fish (tuna, mackerel, and salmon), shellfish (oysters and clams), and dark green vegetables (spinach and kale).
14.2.2 Function
Vitamin B-complex has several health benefits:
Thiamin/thiamine (B1) is used for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease [110], congestive heart failure [111], and cancer [112].
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is used to prevent cataracts [113] and migraine headaches [114].
Niacin (B3) is used to prevent insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus [115]. It has a significant role to treat high cholesterol and cardiovascular disease [116].
Pantothenic acid (B5) can help in wound healing [117] and play an important role to maintain cholesterol levels [118].
Vitamin B6 has a vital role to prevent cardiovascular disease [119], kidney stones, and immune and cognitive functions [120]. It is also used for the treatment of premenstrual syndrome [121]. Vitamin B6 can protect from side effects of oral contraceptives, nausea, and vomiting in pregnancy [122] and reduce depression.
Biotin (B7) is used for the treatment of diabetes [123] and in the prevention of some birth defects [124]. It plays a vital role in the treatment of cholesterol [125], brittle fingernails [126], seborrheic dermatitis [127], and hair loss.
Folic acid (B9) is used to prevent some pregnancy complications, such as fetal neural tube defects [128]. It may be used to prevent certain heart defects and limb malformations [129] and birth defects [130]. Folic acid is used to prevent colorectal and breast cancer [131], heart diseases [132], Alzheimer’s disease, and cognitive impairment [133].
Vitamin B12 plays an important role in the prevention of neural tube defects, cancer [134], cardiovascular disease [135], depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and dementia [136].
14.3 Vitamin C
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a very effective nutrient and the main sources of vitamin C are citrus fruit (oranges and orange juice), strawberries, peppers, broccoli, blackcurrants, brussels sprouts, and potatoes. It plays an important role against immune system deficiencies, cardiovascular disease [137], prenatal health problems, eye disease, and skin wrinkling. Vitamin C works as an antioxidant and can prevent scurvy, lead toxicity, and cancer [138].
14.4 Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a combination of calciferol (vitamin D2) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). Vital sources of vitamin D are liver, egg yolks, red meat, fortified foods (e.g. fat spreads and breakfast cereals), and oily fish (sardines, salmon, herring, and mackerel). Several functions of vitamin D exist in the human body. Vitamin D promotes healthy bones and teeth, supports immune, brain and nervous health, and manages diabetes by regulating insulin levels. It has also a beneficial role in lung function and cardiovascular health and influences the expression of genes involved in cancer development.
14.5 Vitamin E
Vitamin E has several forms and the human body can use only alpha-tocopherol form. Good sources of vitamin E are plant-based oil (e.g. sunflower, soya, corn, and olive oil), nuts, seeds, fruits, and vegetables. The potential health benefits are moisturizing skin, wound healing, preventing cancer [139], reducing skin itching and eczema, psoriasis, preventing and minimizing the appearance of scars, uses for treatment of wrinkles, preventing sunburn, promoting nail health and enhance immune response [140]. Vitamin E is also used for the treatment of diabetes and dementia [141].
14.6 Vitamin K
Vitamin K is a group of compounds and of them, the main are vitamin K1 and vitamin K2. The main sources of vitamin K1 are leafy greens vegetables and other vegetables (brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage). However, sources of vitamin K2 are meats, fish, liver, cheeses, and eggs. Vitamin K plays an important role to prevent osteoporosis [142], vascular calcification [143], and cardiovascular disease. Besides these, it has other health benefit roles, such as bone health, cognitive health, and heart health.
15. Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements present in the soil and water and are important for the body to stay healthy. According to the human body demands, dietary minerals are two types, such as macro-minerals those are required in large amounts (e.g. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and sulfur), and micro- or trace-minerals those are required very small amounts (e.g. chromium, copper, cobalt, iron, fluorine, manganese, iodine, molybdenum, zinc, and selenium) [144].
15.1 Calcium
Calcium is a nutrient that all living organisms need and it is the most common mineral in the human body.
15.1.1 Sources
The main sources of calcium are milk, cheese, yogurt and other dairy products, green leafy vegetables (curly kale and okra), soya drinks with added calcium, and bread made with fortified flowers.
15.1.2 Function
Calcium has an important role in the human body. It is essential for the development of growth and maintain bone and reduces osteoporosis, helps regulation of muscle contraction, and maintains blood pressure. Calcium also prevents colorectal cancer [145] and preeclampsia [146].
15.2 Magnesium
Magnesium is one of the most important macro-nutrients for the human body.
15.2.1 Sources
Main sources of magnesium are avocados, legumes, nuts, seeds, tofu, whole grains, some fatty fish, dark chocolate, bananas, and leafy greens.
15.2.2 Function
Magnesium plays an important role in bone health and cardiovascular health, prevents diabetes and migraine headaches [147], premenstrual syndrome, and anxiety.
15.3 Potassium
Potassium is an important and necessary nutrient for the human body.
15.3.1 Sources
Potassium-rich foods are bananas, oranges, cantaloupe, honeydew, apricots, grapefruit, dried fruits, such as prunes, raisins and dates, cooked spinach and broccoli, potatoes, sweet potatoes, mushrooms, peas, cucumbers, and seafood. Milk, meat, yogurt, and nuts are also good sources of potassium.
15.3.2 Function
An adequate amount of potassium intake may prevent high blood pressure [148] that may reduce cardiovascular disease and stroke [149]. People who eat potassium-containing fruits and vegetables may have higher bone mineral density and it also helps to preserve muscle mass. High potassium may help kidneys’ ability to reabsorb calcium and reduce kidney stones [150].
15.4 Chromium
Chromium is an essential trace element that the human body needs in very small quantities to properly maintain some health functions.
15.4.1 Sources
The good sources of chromium are grape juice, whole wheat flour, brewer’s yeast, orange juice, beef, tomato juice, apples, and green beans.
15.4.2 Function
Some important health benefits of chromium are it may be helpful for type II diabetic patients. It can decrease glucose levels and improve insulin sensitivity. Chromium supplements can be used to build muscle or trigger weight loss. Some side effects including watery stool, vertigo, headaches, and hives are reported for taking chromium supplements.
15.5 Copper
Copper is required in small quantities but it is an essential nutrient for the body.
15.5.1 Sources
Main sources of copper are organ meats (liver and kidneys), oysters, spirulina, shiitake mushrooms, nuts and seeds, lobster, dark leafy greens, whole grains, dried fruits (prunes, cocoa, and black pepper), and dark chocolate.
15.5.2 Function
Copper helps to produce red blood cells, regulates heart rate and blood pressure, the absorption of iron, prevents inflammation of the prostate, in development and maintenance of bone, brain, and heart, and activates the immune system [151].
15.6 Iodine
Iodine is an essential trace element and is required for the human body.
15.6.1 Sources
The important sources of iodine are fish (cod and tuna), shrimp, and other seafood. Dairy products (milk, yogurt, and cheese), eggs, prunes, lima beans, and iodized salt.
15.6.2 Function
Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroid hormone that is required for metabolism. The deficiency of thyroid hormone is called hypothyroidism can lead to issues with fatigue, joint pain, and fertility problems. Iodine plays an important role in proper bone and brain development.
15.7 Iron
Iron deficiency is associated with several health impairments.
15.7.1 Sources
Good sources of iron are organ meats, red meat, turkey, shellfish, white beans, pumpkin seeds, quinoa, nuts, dark chocolate, dried fruits, soybean flour, lentils, tofu, sardines, spinach, broccoli, cooked oysters, and fortified breakfast cereals.
15.7.2 Function
Iron is helpful for the treatment of anemia; it may reduce fatigue and improves muscle endurance. It has an important role in strengthening the immunity system. Iron improves cognitive function [152] and reduces bruising.
15.8 Selenium
Selenium is an important macromineral and essential for the human body. Selenium deficiency is common in a certain part of the world as it can be affected by pH.
15.8.1 Sources
The sources of selenium are Brazil nuts, fish, ham, enriched foods, pork, beef, turkey, chicken, cottage cheese, eggs, brown rice, sunflower seeds, baked beans, mushrooms, oatmeal, spinach, milk and yogurt, lentils, cashews, and bananas.
15.8.2 Function
Selenium has several health benefits, such as acts as a powerful antioxidant, may reduce the risk of certain cancers-lung [153], prostate [154], liver, colon [155], esophageal, and gastric [156]. It may protect against heart disease and prevents mental decline. Selenium is important for maintaining thyroid health, helping to boost the immune system, and reducing asthma symptoms.
15.9 Zinc
Zinc is a vital and second-most-abundant and essential mineral for the human body.
15.9.1 Sources
The best sources of zinc are meat, shellfish, legumes, hemp seeds, nuts, dairy, eggs, whole grains, some vegetables, and dark chocolate.
15.9.2 Function
Zinc is important for various functions in the body, such as helps to increase the immune system, uses in treating diarrhea, wound healing, works as an antioxidant and reduces chronic diseases, prevents age-related macular degeneration [157], improves sexual health, prevents osteoporosis, reduces neurological symptoms, protects from the common cold, boosts cognitive function, and increase learning and memory.
16. Conclusion
Functional food components are important compounds available in a variety of fruits, vegetables, and some animal products. They are also manufactured commercially. They have several health benefits for the human body. Many functional food components are antioxidants rich and help to neutralize free radicals, prevent cell damage, and reduce non-communicable diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, heart diseases and maintain health properly. To optimize health benefits and bioavailability of functional food components in the human body are critical factors. To maintain the levels required in the human body need an adequate amount of these components. Recent information in this regard is not sufficient. Therefore, need to provide more information to consumers to guide them effectively so that they can choose diets that contain adequate levels of health-promoting functional food components.
Conflict of interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
None.
\n',keywords:"functional food, components, nutritional, physiological",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81122.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81122.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81122",totalDownloads:33,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 20th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 1st 2022",datePrePublished:"April 5th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Functional foods are the foods claimed that have additional health benefits beyond their basic nutritional values, and functional food components are bioactive, potentially beneficial compounds that are found either naturally in foods or added to them as functional ingredients. Some important functional food components are carotenoids, isothiocyanates, soluble and insoluble dietary fiber, phenolic acids, fatty acids, plant stanols and sterols, flavonoids, polyols, soy protein, prebiotics and probiotics, phytoestrogens, vitamins, and minerals. Most of the functional food components occur mainly in plant foods (whole grains, fruits, and vegetables), however, few functional foods components, such as omega-3, -6, and -9 polyunsaturated fatty acids are also found in animal products (e.g. milk, fermented milk products, and cold-water fish). Evidence suggested that there is a relationship between functional food components and health benefits. Functional food components can be used for the treatment and prevention of different diseases. Biologically active functional food components can reduce the risk of certain non-communicable diseases, such as cancer, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, inflammation, and lowering of blood cholesterol. Thus, people should consume a wide variety of foods to assure the ingestion of functional food components in their body, such as fatty acids, fiber, carotenoids, flavonoids, prebiotics and probiotics, vitamins, and mineral.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81122",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81122",signatures:"Saijuddin Shaikh",book:{id:"11363",type:"book",title:"Functional Food",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Functional Food",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi and Ph.D. Anna Savitskaya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11363.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-793-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-792-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-794-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 What are functional foods?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Functional food components",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Production of functional foods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Sources and health benefits of functional food components",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Carotenoids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Dietary fibers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Essential fatty acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Isothiocyanates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Flavonoids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Phenolic acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"7. Plant stanols and sterols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"7.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"7.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27",title:"8. Polyols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"8.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"8.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"9. Soy protein",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"9.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"9.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33",title:"10. Phytoestrogens",level:"1"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"10.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"10.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36",title:"11. Probiotics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"11.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37_2",title:"11.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39",title:"12. Prebiotics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"12.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_40_2",title:"12.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_42",title:"13. Synbiotics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_42_2",title:"13.1 Sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_43_2",title:"13.2 Function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_45",title:"14. Vitamins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_45_2",title:"14.1 Vitamin A",level:"2"},{id:"sec_45_3",title:"14.1.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_46_3",title:"14.1.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_48_2",title:"14.2 Vitamin B-complex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_48_3",title:"14.2.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_49_3",title:"14.2.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_51_2",title:"14.3 Vitamin C",level:"2"},{id:"sec_52_2",title:"14.4 Vitamin D",level:"2"},{id:"sec_53_2",title:"14.5 Vitamin E",level:"2"},{id:"sec_54_2",title:"14.6 Vitamin K",level:"2"},{id:"sec_56",title:"15. Minerals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_56_2",title:"15.1 Calcium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_56_3",title:"15.1.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_57_3",title:"15.1.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_59_2",title:"15.2 Magnesium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_59_3",title:"15.2.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_60_3",title:"15.2.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_62_2",title:"15.3 Potassium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_62_3",title:"15.3.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_63_3",title:"15.3.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_65_2",title:"15.4 Chromium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_65_3",title:"15.4.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_66_3",title:"15.4.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_68_2",title:"15.5 Copper",level:"2"},{id:"sec_68_3",title:"15.5.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_69_3",title:"15.5.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_71_2",title:"15.6 Iodine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_71_3",title:"15.6.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_72_3",title:"15.6.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_74_2",title:"15.7 Iron",level:"2"},{id:"sec_74_3",title:"15.7.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_75_3",title:"15.7.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_77_2",title:"15.8 Selenium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_77_3",title:"15.8.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_78_3",title:"15.8.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_80_2",title:"15.9 Zinc",level:"2"},{id:"sec_80_3",title:"15.9.1 Sources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_81_3",title:"15.9.2 Function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_84",title:"16. 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Nutrition. 2001;2:2-12'},{id:"B81",body:'Roudsari AH, Tahbaz F, Hossein-Nezhad A, Arjmandi B, Larijani B, Kimiagar SM. Assessment of soy phytoestrogens\' effects on bone turnover indicators in menopausal women with osteopenia in Iran: A before and after clinical trial. Nutrition Journal. 2005;4:30'},{id:"B82",body:'Kronenberg F, Fugh-Berman A. Complementary and alternative medicine for menopausal symptoms: A review of randomized, controlled trials. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2002;137:805-813'},{id:"B83",body:'Bosland MC. The role of estrogens in prostate carcinogenesis: A rationale for chemoprevention. Revista de Urología. 2005;7:S4-S10'},{id:"B84",body:'Ziegler RG. Phytoestrogens and breast cancer. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;79:183-184'},{id:"B85",body:'Horn-Ross PL, Hoggatt KJ, Lee MM. Phytoestrogens and thyroid cancer risk. The San Francisco Bay Area thyroid cancer study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2002;11:43-49'},{id:"B86",body:'Cotterchio M, Boucher BA, Manno M, Gallinger S, Okey A, Harper P. Dietary phytoestrogen intake is associated with reduced colorectal cancer risk. The Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136:3046-3053'},{id:"B87",body:'Widyarini S, Domanski D, Painter N, Reeve VE. Estrogen receptor signaling protects against immune suppression by UV radiation exposure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2006;103:12837-12842'},{id:"B88",body:'Sexton E, Van Themsche C, Leblanc K, Parent S, Lemoine P, Asselin E. Resveratrol interferes with AKT activity and triggers apoptosis in human uterine cancer cells. Molecular Cancer. 2006;5:45'},{id:"B89",body:'Blair RM, Henley EC, Tabor A. Soy foods have low glycemic and insulin response indices in normal weight subjects. Nutrition Journal. 2006;5:35'},{id:"B90",body:'Konigheim BS, Goleniowski ME, Contigiani MS. 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Hydrogen excretion upon ingestion of dairy products in lactose-intolerant male subjects: Importance of the live flora. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2001;55:509-512'},{id:"B96",body:'Solga SF. Probiotics can treat hepatic encephalopathy. Medical Hypotheses. 2003;61:307-313'},{id:"B97",body:'Galdeano CM, Perdigón G. The probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus casei induces activation of the gut mucosal immune system through innate immunity. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 2006;13:219-226'},{id:"B98",body:'Brown AC, Valiere A. Probiotics and medical nutrition therapy. Nutrition in Clinical Care. 2004;7:56-68'},{id:"B99",body:'Sgouras D, Maragkoudakis P, Petraki K, Martinez-Gonzalez B, Eriotou E, Michopoulos S, et al. In vitro and in vivo inhibition of Helicobacter pylori by Lactobacillus casei Strain Shirota. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2004;70:518-526'},{id:"B100",body:'Azcarate-Peril MA, Bruno-Bárcena JM, Hassan HM, Klaenhammer TR. Transcriptional and functional analysis of oxalyl-coenzyme a (CoA) decarboxylase and formyl-CoA transferase genes from Lactobacillus acidophilus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2006;72:1891-1899'},{id:"B101",body:'Liong MT, Shah NP. Optimization of cholesterol removal by probiotics in the presence of prebiotics by using a response surface method. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2005;71:1745-1753'},{id:"B102",body:'Pohjavuori E, Viljanen M, Korpela R, Kuitunen M, Tiittanen M, Vaarala O, et al. Lactobacillus GG effect in increasing IFN-gamma production in infants with Cow’s milk allergy. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2004;114:131-136'},{id:"B103",body:'Sharif S, Meader N, Oddie SJ, Rojas-Reyes MX, McGuire W. Probiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020;(10): Art. No.: CD005496'},{id:"B104",body:'Chi C, Buys N, Li C, Sun J, Yin C. Effects of prebiotics on sepsis, necrotizing enterocolitis, mortality, feeding intolerance, time to full enteral feeding, length of hospital stay, and stool frequency in preterm infants: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019;73:657-670'},{id:"B105",body:'Panigrahi P, Parida S, Nanda NC, Satpathy R, Pradhan L, Chandel DS, et al. A randomized synbiotic trial to prevent sepsis among infants in rural India. Nature. 2017;548:407-411'},{id:"B106",body:'Ball G. Vitamins. Their Role in the Human Body. New York: Blackwell Publishing; 2004'},{id:"B107",body:'Prakash P, Krinsky NI, Russell RM. Retinoids, carotenoids, and human breast cancer cell cultures: A review of differential effects. Nutrition Reviews. 2000;58:170-176'},{id:"B108",body:'Rego EM, He LZ, Warrell RP Jr, Wang ZG, Pandolfi PP. Retinoic acid (RA) and As2O3 treatment in transgenic models of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) unravel the distinct nature of the leukemogenic process induced by the PML-RNAα and PLZF-RNAα oncoproteins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2000;97:10173-10178'},{id:"B109",body:'Berson EL, Rosner B, Sandberg MA, Hayes KC, Nicholson BW, Weigel-DiFranco C, et al. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Archives of Ophthalmology. 1993;111:761-772'},{id:"B110",body:'Meador K, Loring D, Nichols M, Zamrini E, Rivner M, Posas H, et al. Preliminary findings of high dose thiamine in dementia of Alzheimer\'s type. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 1993;6:222-229'},{id:"B111",body:'Mendoza CE, Rodriguez F, Rosenberg DG. Reversal of refractory congestive heart failure after thiamine supplementation: Report of a case and review of literature. 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Fifteen year mortality in coronary drug project patients: Long-term benefit with niacin. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 1986;8:1245-1255'},{id:"B117",body:'Vaxman F, Chalkiadakis G, Olender S, Maldonado H, Aprahamian M, Bruch JF, et al. Improvement in the healing of colonic anastomoses by vitamin B5 and C supplements. Experimental study in the rabbit. Annales de Chirurgie. 1990;44:512-520'},{id:"B118",body:'Naruta E, Buko V. Hypolipidemic effect of pantothenic acid derivatives in mice with hypothalamic obesity induced by aurothioglucose. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology. 2001;53:393-398'},{id:"B119",body:'Fakhrzadeh H, Ghotbi S, Pourebrahim R, Nouri M, Heshmat R, Bandarian F, et al. Total plasma homocysteine, folate, and vitamin B12 status in healthy Iranian adults: The Tehran Homocysteine Survey (2003-2004)/a cross–sectional population based study. BMC Public Health. 2006;6:29'},{id:"B120",body:'Selhub J, Bagley LC, Miller J, Rosenberg IH. B Vitamins, homocysteine, and neurocognitive function in the elderly. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;71:614S-620S'},{id:"B121",body:'Wyatt KM, Dimmock PW, Jones PW, O\'Brien PMS. Efficacy of vitamin B-6 in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: Systematic review. BMJ. 1999;318:1375-1381'},{id:"B122",body:'Jewell D, Young G. Interventions for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2003'},{id:"B123",body:'Fuhr JP, He H, Goldfarb N, Nash DB. Use of chromium picolinate and biotin in the management of Type 2 diabetes: An economic analysis. Disease Management. 2005;8:265-275'},{id:"B124",body:'Zempleni J, Mock DM. Marginal biotin deficiency is teratogenic. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2000;223:14-21'},{id:"B125",body:'Geohas J, Daly A, Juturu V, Finch M, Komorowski J. Chromium picolinate and biotin combination reduces atherogenic index of plasma in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A placebo-controlled, double-blinded, randomized clinical trial. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 2007;333:145-153'},{id:"B126",body:'Iorizzo M, Pazzaglia M, Piraccini BM, Tullo S, Tosti A. Brittle nails. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2004;3:138-144'},{id:"B127",body:'Schulpis KH, Nyalala JH, Papakonstantinou ED, Leondiadis L, Livaniou E, Ithakisios D, et al. Biotin recycling impairment in phenylketonuric children with seborrheic dermatitis. International Journal of Dermatology. 1998;37:918-921'},{id:"B128",body:'Scholl TO, Johnson WG. Folic acid: Influence on the outcome of pregnancy. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;71:1295S-1303S'},{id:"B129",body:'Oakley GP. Global prevention of all folic acid-preventable spina bifida and anencephaly by 2010. Community Genetics. 2002;5:70-77'},{id:"B130",body:'Rao KA, Pillai JR. Recurrent pregnancy loss. Journal of the Indian Medical Association. 2006;104:458-461'},{id:"B131",body:'van den Donk M, van Engeland M, Pellis L, Witteman BJ, Kok FJ, Keijer J, et al. Dietary folate intake in combination with MTHFR C677T genotype and promoter methylation of tumor suppressor and DNA repair genes in sporadic colorectal adenomas. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2007;16:327-333'},{id:"B132",body:'Shirodaria C, Antoniades C, Lee J, Jackson CE, Robson MD, Francis JM, et al. Global improvement of vascular function and redox state with low-dose folic acid. Implications for folate therapy in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2007;115:2262-2270'},{id:"B133",body:'Tettamanti M, Garri MT, Nobili A, Riva E, Lucca U. Low folate and the risk of cognitive and functional deficits in the very old: The Monzino 80-plus study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2006;25:502-508'},{id:"B134",body:'Donaldson MS. Nutrition and cancer: A review of the evidence for an anti-cancer diet. Nutrition Journal. 2004;3:19'},{id:"B135",body:'Quinlivan EP, McPartlin J, McNulty H, Ward M, Strain JJ, Weir DG, et al. Importance of both folic acid and vitamin B12 in reduction of risk of vascular disease. Lancet. 2002;359:227-228'},{id:"B136",body:'Clarke R, Smith AD, Jobst KA, Refsum H, Sutton L, Ueland PM. Folate, vitamin B12, and serum total homocysteine levels in confirmed Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology. 1998;55:1449-1455'},{id:"B137",body:'Huang J, Agus DB, Winfree CJ, Kiss S, Mack WJ, McTaggart RA, et al. Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood–brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2001;98:11720-11724'},{id:"B138",body:'Michels KB, Holmberg L, Bergkvist L, Ljung H, Bruce A, Wolk A. Dietary antioxidant vitamins, retinol, and breast cancer incidence in a cohort of Swedish women. International Journal of Cancer. 2001;91:563-567'},{id:"B139",body:'Zhang Y, Ni J, Messing EM, Chang E, Yang CR, Yeh S. Vitamin E succinate inhibits the function of androgen receptor and the expression of prostate-specific antigen in prostate cancer cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2002;99:7408-7413'},{id:"B140",body:'Wang XL, Rainwater DL, Mahaney MC, Stocker R. Supplementation with vitamin E and coenzyme Q10 reduces circulating markers of inflammation in baboons. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;80:649-655'},{id:"B141",body:'Khanna S, Roy S, Slivka A, Craft TK, Chaki S, Rink C, et al. Neuroprotective properties of the natural vitamin E α-Tocotrienol. Stroke. 2005;36:2258-2264'},{id:"B142",body:'Vermeer C, Knapen MH, Schurgers LJ. Vitamin K and metabolic bone disease. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 1998;51:424-426'},{id:"B143",body:'Schurgers LJ, Dissel PE, Spronk HM, Soute BA, Dhore CR, Cleutjens JP, et al. Role of vitamin K and vitamin K dependent proteins in vascular calcification. Zeitschrift für Kardiologie. 2001;90:57-63'},{id:"B144",body:'Lieberman S, Brunning N. Real Vitamin and Mineral Book. New York: Penguin Books; 2003'},{id:"B145",body:'Peters U, Chatterjee N, McGlynn KA, Schoen RE, Church TR, Bresalier RS, et al. Calcium intake and colorectal adenoma in a US colorectal cancer early detection program. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;80:1358-1365'},{id:"B146",body:'Kulier R, de Onis M, Gulmezoglu AM, Villar J. Nutritional interventions for the prevention of maternal morbidity. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 1998;63:231-246'},{id:"B147",body:'Mauskop A, Altura BM. Role of magnesium in the pathogenesis and treatment of migraines. Clinical Neuroscience. 1998;5:24-27'},{id:"B148",body:'Barri YM, Wingo CS. The effects of potassium depletion and supplementation on blood pressure: A clinical review. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 1997;314:37-40'},{id:"B149",body:'Bazzano LA, He J, Ogden LG, Loria C, Vupputuri S, Myers L, et al. Dietary potassium intake and risk of stroke in US men and women. Stroke. 2001;32:1473-1480'},{id:"B150",body:'Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ. Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1997;126:497-504'},{id:"B151",body:'Eaton-Evans J, Mellwrath EM, Jackson WE, McCartney H, Strain JJ. Copper supplementation and the maintenance of bone mineral density in middle-aged women. Journal of Trace Elements in Experimental Medicine. 1996;9:87-94'},{id:"B152",body:'Grantham-Mcgregor S, Ani C. A review of studies on the effect of iron deficiency on cognitive development in children. The Journal of Nutrition. 2001;131:649S-666S'},{id:"B153",body:'Reid ME, Duffield-Lillico AJ, Garland L, Turnbull BW, Clark LC, Marshall JR. selenium supplementation and lung cancer incidence: An update of the nutritional prevention of cancer trial. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2002;11:1285-1291'},{id:"B154",body:'Brooks JD, Metter EJ, Chan DW, Sokoll LJ, Landis P, Nelson WG, et al. Plasma selenium level before diagnosis and the risk of prostate cancer development. The Journal of Urology. 2001;166:2034-2038'},{id:"B155",body:'Ghadirian P, Maisonneuve P, Perret C, Kennedy G, Boyle P, Krewski D, et al. A case-control study of toenail selenium and cancer of the breast, colon, and prostate. Cancer Detection and Prevention. 2000;24:305-313'},{id:"B156",body:'Mark SD, Qiao YL, Dawsey SM, Wu YP, Katki H, Gunter EW, et al. Prospective study of serum selenium levels and incident esophageal and gastric cancers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92:1753-1763'},{id:"B157",body:'Clemons TE, Kurinij N, Sperduto RD. AREDS research group. Associations of mortality with ocular disorders and an intervention of high-dose antioxidants and zinc in the age-related eye disease study: AREDS report No.13. Archives of Ophthalmology. 2004;122:716-726'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Saijuddin Shaikh",address:"saiju60@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"11363",type:"book",title:"Functional Food",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Functional Food",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi and Ph.D. Anna Savitskaya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11363.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-793-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-792-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-794-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",email:"tajana@chem.pmf.hr",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",abstract:null,signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen",email:"Johannes.luetzenkirchen@kit.edu"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre",email:"gregory-lefevre@chimie-paristech.fr"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin",email:"tajana@chem.pmf.hr"}],book:{id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"49766",title:"Charging Behavior of Clays and Clay Minerals in Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions — Experimental Methods for Measuring the Charge and Interpreting the Results",slug:"charging-behavior-of-clays-and-clay-minerals-in-aqueous-electrolyte-solutions-experimental-methods-f",abstract:"We discuss the charging behavior of clays and clay minerals in aqueous electrolyte solutions. Clay platelets exhibit different charging mechanisms on the various surfaces they expose to the solution. Thus, the basal planes have a permanent charge that is typically considered to be independent of pH, whereas the edge surfaces exhibit the amphoteric behavior and pH-dependent charge that is typical of oxide minerals. Background electrolyte concentration and composition may affect these two different mechanisms of charging in different ways. To guide and to make use of these unique properties in technical application, it is necessary to understand the effects of the various master variables (i.e. pH and background salt composition and concentration). However, how to disentangle the various contributions to the charge that is macroscopically measurable via conventional approaches (i.e. electrokinetics, potentiometric titrations, etc.) remains a challenge. The problem is depicted by discussing in detail the literature data on kaolinite obtained with crystal face specificity. Some results from similar experiments on related substrates are also discussed. As an illustration of the complexity, we have carried out extensive potentiometric mass and electrolyte titrations on artificial clay samples (Na-, Ca-, and Mg-montmorillonite). A wide variety of salts was used, and it was found that the different electrolytes had different effects on the end point of mass titrations. In the case of a purified sample (i.e. no acid-base impurities), the end point of a mass titration (the plateau of pH achieved for the highest concentrations of solid), in principle, corresponds to the point of zero net proton and hydroxide consumption, at which in ideal systems, such as oxide minerals, the net proton surface charge density is zero. To such concentrated (dense) suspensions of clay particles, aliquots of salts can be added and the resulting pH indicates the specificity of a given salt for a given clay particle system. In the experimental data, some ambiguity remains, which calls for further detailed and comprehensive studies involving the application of all the available techniques to one system. Although, right now, the overall picture appears to be clear from a generic point of view (i.e. concerning the trends), clearly, in a quantitative sense, huge differences occur for nominally identical systems and only such a comprehensive study will allow to proof the current phenomenological picture and allow the next step to be taken to understand the fine details of the complex clay-electrolyte solution interfaces.",signatures:"Tajana Preocanin, Ahmed Abdelmonem, Gilles Montavon and\nJohannes Luetzenkirchen",authors:[{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin",email:"tajana@chem.pmf.hr"},{id:"176270",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",surname:"Luetzenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Luetzenkirchen",slug:"johannes-luetzenkirchen",email:"johannes@ine.fzk.de"},{id:"180461",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdelmonem",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelmonem",slug:"ahmed-abdelmonem",email:"ahmed.abdelmonem@kit.edu"},{id:"180462",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilles",surname:"Montavon",fullName:"Gilles Montavon",slug:"gilles-montavon",email:"Gilles.Montavon@subatech.in2p3.fr"}],book:{id:"5073",title:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals",slug:"clays-clay-minerals-and-ceramic-materials-based-on-clay-minerals",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"25116",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",surname:"Kosec",slug:"marija-kosec",fullName:"Marija Kosec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jožef Stefan Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"104808",title:"Prof.",name:"Suedina Maria",surname:"Silva",slug:"suedina-maria-silva",fullName:"Suedina Maria Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"105876",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadej",surname:"Rojac",slug:"tadej-rojac",fullName:"Tadej Rojac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jožef Stefan Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"111754",title:"Prof.",name:"Primoz",surname:"Segedin",slug:"primoz-segedin",fullName:"Primoz Segedin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"111910",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",surname:"R. C. Braga",slug:"carla-r.-c.-braga",fullName:"Carla R. C. 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Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4637",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6aff74df1ea32df7f1e20e29c8363ff5",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4637.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. 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Leaching is the vertical downward displacement of pesticides through the soil profile and the unsaturated zone, and finally to groundwater, which is vulnerable to pollution. Pesticides are frequently leached through the soil by the effect of rain or irrigation water. Pesticide leaching is highest for weakly sorbing and/or persistent compounds, climates with high precipitation and low temperatures, and soils with low organic matter and sandy texture. On the contrary, for pesticides with a low persistence that disappear quickly, the risk of groundwater pollution considerably decreases. Different and varied factors such as physical-chemical properties of the pesticide, a permeability of the soil, texture and organic matter content of the soil, volatilization, crop-root uptake, and method and dose of pesticide application are responsible for the leaching rate of the pesticides. Soils that are high in clays and organic matter will slow the movement of water, attach easily to many pesticides, and generally have a higher diversity and population of soil organisms that can metabolize the pesticides.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, Nuria Vela, Abderrazak El Aatik and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"},{id:"283154",title:"Mr.",name:"Abderrazak",middleName:null,surname:"El Aatik",slug:"abderrazak-el-aatik",fullName:"Abderrazak El Aatik"}]},{id:"48594",doi:"10.5772/60911",title:"Environmental Exposure and Health Effects Associated with Malathion Toxicity",slug:"environmental-exposure-and-health-effects-associated-with-malathion-toxicity",totalDownloads:2698,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Malathion (O,O-dimethyl-S-1,2-bis ethoxy carbonyl ethyl phosphorodithionate) is a non-systemic, wide-spectrum pesticide. It is widely used throughout the world for agricultural, residential, and public health purposes, mainly to enhance food production and to provide protection from disease vectors. Malathion preference over other organophosphate pesticides relates to its low persistence in the environment as it is highly susceptible to hydrolysis, photolysis, and biodegradation. However, numerous malathion poisoning incidents including acute and chronic cases have been reported among pesticide workers and small children through accidental exposure. Malathion toxicity is compounded by its reactive metabolites and also depends upon the product purity, route of exposure, nutritional status, and gender of exposed individuals. Its metabolic oxidation in mammals, insects, and plants leads to the formation of malaoxon which appears to be several times more acutely toxic and represents the primary cause of malathion’s toxicity. Depending on the level of exposure, several signs and symptoms of toxicity including numbness, tingling sensation, headache, dizziness, difficulty breathing, weakness, irritation of skin, exacerbation of asthma, abdominal cramps, and death have been reported. Similar to other organophosphate pesticides, malathion exerts it toxic action by binding to acetylcholinesterase enzyme and inhibiting its activity, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine in synaptic junctions, which in turn results in overstimulation of cholinergic, muscarinic, and nicotinic receptors, and subsequent induction of adverse biologic effects. This chapter provides an update and analysis of the production and use, environmental occurrence, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, and adverse human health effects associated with malathion exposure.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Paul B. Tchounwou, Anita K. Patlolla, Clement G. Yedjou and\nPamela D. Moore",authors:[{id:"113353",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Tchounwou",slug:"paul-tchounwou",fullName:"Paul Tchounwou"}]},{id:"48553",doi:"10.5772/60767",title:"Ecotoxicology of Glyphosate and Glyphosate-Based Herbicides — Toxicity to Wildlife and Humans",slug:"ecotoxicology-of-glyphosate-and-glyphosate-based-herbicides-toxicity-to-wildlife-and-humans",totalDownloads:2594,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The use of agrochemicals, especially herbicides, is necessary to control pests in order to produce adequate food for the global population (estimated at 7 billion). Glyphosate and glyphosate-based herbicides have been used extensively for this purpose but recent studies have reported these chemical substances to be found in aquatic ecosystems, wildlife and humans in various quantities. In this chapter, we reviewed the impacts of glyphosate and glyphosate-based herbicides on wildlife and humans using measured endpoint effects caused by genotoxicity, cytotoxicity and reproductive toxicity. We used findings from different current investigations to demonstrate adverse effects, or otherwise, of glyphosate exposure to wildlife and humans. Our review reveals that glyphosate and its formulations may not only be considered as having genotoxic, cytotoxic or endocrine disrupting properties but they may also be causative agents of reproduction abnormalities in both wildlife and humans. Furthermore, the extensive use of glyphosate-based herbicides in genetically modified glyphosate-resistant plants grown for food and feed should be of grave concern since they can be sources of genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity in wildlife and humans.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Paul K. Mensah, Carolyn G. Palmer and Oghenekaro N. Odume",authors:[{id:"169135",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"paul-mensah",fullName:"Paul Mensah"},{id:"173888",title:"Prof.",name:"Carolyn",middleName:null,surname:"Palmer",slug:"carolyn-palmer",fullName:"Carolyn Palmer"},{id:"175580",title:"Dr.",name:"Oghenekaro Nelson",middleName:null,surname:"Odume",slug:"oghenekaro-nelson-odume",fullName:"Oghenekaro Nelson Odume"}]},{id:"65766",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84161",title:"Pesticides, Anthropogenic Activities, and the Health of Our Environment Safety",slug:"pesticides-anthropogenic-activities-and-the-health-of-our-environment-safety",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Mankind depends on agricultural products for food consumption. Increasing population (more than 7 billion) requires significant growth in crop yield to meet essential demand. This aim was achieved through the use of pesticides to protect crops from diseases. Pesticides are toxic by design for organisms that can threaten food products. Their mode of action is by targeting systems or enzymes in the pests that may be similar to human system and therefore pose risks to human health and the environment as well. The WHO recommended classifying pesticides according to their toxicity and chemicals according to their chronic health and environmental hazards.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Mona Saud AL-Ahmadi",authors:[{id:"276726",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"AL-Ahmadi",slug:"mona-al-ahmadi",fullName:"Mona AL-Ahmadi"}]},{id:"48545",doi:"10.5772/60739",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Agrochemicals — A Critical Appraisal of Current Approaches",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-agrochemicals-a-critical-appraisal-of-current-approaches",totalDownloads:2559,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter provides insights into the difficulties and challenges of performing risk evaluations of agrochemicals. It is a critical review of the current methodologies used in ecological risk assessment of these chemicals, not their risks to humans. After an introduction to the topic, the current framework for ecological risk assessment is outlined. Two types of assessments are typically carried out depending on the purpose: i) regulatory assessments for registration of a chemical product; and ii) ecological assessments, for the protection of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, which are usually site-specific. Although the general framework is well established, the methodologies used in each of the steps of the assessment are fraught with a number of shortcomings. Notwithstanding the subjectivity implicit in the evaluation of risks, there is scepticism in scientific circles about the appropriateness of the current methodologies because, after so many years of evaluations, we are still incapable of foreseeing the negative consequences that some agrochemicals have in the environment. A critical appraisal of such methodologies is imperative if we are to improve the current assessment process and fix the problems we face today. The chapter reviews first the toxicity assessment methods, pointing to the gaps in knowledge about this essential part of the process and suggesting avenues for further improvement. Deficiencies in the current regulations regarding toxicity testing are discussed, in particular the effect of the time factor on toxicity and the issue of complex mixtures. Other matters of concern are the extrapolation of toxicity data from the individual to the population and community levels, and the sub-lethal effects. The exposure assessment methods are dealt with in a second place. These rely on modelling and actual measurements of chemical residues in the environment. Various techniques employed to determine to exposure and bioavailability of agrochemicals to the various organisms in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are reviewed. Again, the shortcomings and gaps in knowledge are addressed and suggestions for improvement are pointed out. Then, the process of putting together the information from the toxicity and exposure assessments to evaluate risks is discussed. Tiers I and II of the risk assessment are reviewed. The challenge here is to keep objectivity in the evaluations; this may require the introduction of new methods of risk assessment. Finally, the risk assessment implies establishing a management strategy that aims at reducing or minimising the impacts of agrochemicals under normal agricultural scenarios. Recommendations are often case-specific and need to be based on sound science as well as common sense principles. The chapter concludes with a summary of issues that need to be considered for improving risk assessments of agrochemicals.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo and Henk A. Tennekes",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"173845",title:"Dr.",name:"Henk",middleName:null,surname:"Tennekes",slug:"henk-tennekes",fullName:"Henk Tennekes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"78542",title:"Mitigation of Climate Change by Nitrogen Managements in Agriculture",slug:"mitigation-of-climate-change-by-nitrogen-managements-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:295,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Soil is one of the important sources of nitrous oxide (N2O), which is generally producing through soil microbial processes, such as nitrification and denitrification. Agricultural soils receive chemical and organic fertilizers to maintain or increase crop yield and soil fertility, but several factors are influencing N2O emissions, such as types and conditions of soil and fertilizer, and rate, form, and timing of application. Mitigation of N2O is a challenging topic for future earth by using inhibitors, controlled-release fertilizers, and other amendments, but the cost and side effects should be considered for feasibility.",book:{id:"10360",slug:"nitrogen-in-agriculture-physiological-agricultural-and-ecological-aspects",title:"Nitrogen in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Nitrogen in Agriculture - Physiological, Agricultural and Ecological Aspects"},signatures:"Kazuyuki Inubushi and Miwa Yashima",authors:[{id:"108366",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Inubushi",slug:"kazuyuki-inubushi",fullName:"Kazuyuki Inubushi"},{id:"429712",title:"Dr.",name:"Miwa",middleName:null,surname:"Yashima",slug:"miwa-yashima",fullName:"Miwa Yashima"}]},{id:"48594",title:"Environmental Exposure and Health Effects Associated with Malathion Toxicity",slug:"environmental-exposure-and-health-effects-associated-with-malathion-toxicity",totalDownloads:2698,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Malathion (O,O-dimethyl-S-1,2-bis ethoxy carbonyl ethyl phosphorodithionate) is a non-systemic, wide-spectrum pesticide. It is widely used throughout the world for agricultural, residential, and public health purposes, mainly to enhance food production and to provide protection from disease vectors. Malathion preference over other organophosphate pesticides relates to its low persistence in the environment as it is highly susceptible to hydrolysis, photolysis, and biodegradation. However, numerous malathion poisoning incidents including acute and chronic cases have been reported among pesticide workers and small children through accidental exposure. Malathion toxicity is compounded by its reactive metabolites and also depends upon the product purity, route of exposure, nutritional status, and gender of exposed individuals. Its metabolic oxidation in mammals, insects, and plants leads to the formation of malaoxon which appears to be several times more acutely toxic and represents the primary cause of malathion’s toxicity. Depending on the level of exposure, several signs and symptoms of toxicity including numbness, tingling sensation, headache, dizziness, difficulty breathing, weakness, irritation of skin, exacerbation of asthma, abdominal cramps, and death have been reported. Similar to other organophosphate pesticides, malathion exerts it toxic action by binding to acetylcholinesterase enzyme and inhibiting its activity, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine in synaptic junctions, which in turn results in overstimulation of cholinergic, muscarinic, and nicotinic receptors, and subsequent induction of adverse biologic effects. This chapter provides an update and analysis of the production and use, environmental occurrence, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, and adverse human health effects associated with malathion exposure.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Paul B. Tchounwou, Anita K. Patlolla, Clement G. Yedjou and\nPamela D. Moore",authors:[{id:"113353",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Tchounwou",slug:"paul-tchounwou",fullName:"Paul Tchounwou"}]},{id:"64602",title:"Environmental Risk of Groundwater Pollution by Pesticide Leaching through the Soil Profile",slug:"environmental-risk-of-groundwater-pollution-by-pesticide-leaching-through-the-soil-profile",totalDownloads:3055,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:"Adsorption, degradation, and movement are the key processes conditioning the behavior and fate of pesticides in the soil. Six processes that can move pesticides are leaching, diffusion, volatilization, erosion and run-off, assimilation by microorganisms, and plant uptake. Leaching is the vertical downward displacement of pesticides through the soil profile and the unsaturated zone, and finally to groundwater, which is vulnerable to pollution. Pesticides are frequently leached through the soil by the effect of rain or irrigation water. Pesticide leaching is highest for weakly sorbing and/or persistent compounds, climates with high precipitation and low temperatures, and soils with low organic matter and sandy texture. On the contrary, for pesticides with a low persistence that disappear quickly, the risk of groundwater pollution considerably decreases. Different and varied factors such as physical-chemical properties of the pesticide, a permeability of the soil, texture and organic matter content of the soil, volatilization, crop-root uptake, and method and dose of pesticide application are responsible for the leaching rate of the pesticides. Soils that are high in clays and organic matter will slow the movement of water, attach easily to many pesticides, and generally have a higher diversity and population of soil organisms that can metabolize the pesticides.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, Nuria Vela, Abderrazak El Aatik and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"},{id:"283154",title:"Mr.",name:"Abderrazak",middleName:null,surname:"El Aatik",slug:"abderrazak-el-aatik",fullName:"Abderrazak El Aatik"}]},{id:"77770",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi and Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"mycorrhizal-fungi-and-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The 20thcentury witnessed an augmentation in agricultural production, mainly through the progress and use of pesticides, fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorus, and developments in plant breeding and genetic skills. In the naturally existing ecology, rhizospheric soils have innumerable biological living beings to favor the plant development, nutrient assimilation, stress tolerance, disease deterrence, carbon seizing and others. These organisms include mycorrhizal fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, etc. which solubilize nutrients and assist the plants in up taking by roots. Amongst them, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have key importance in natural ecosystem, but high rate of chemical fertilizer in agricultural fields is diminishing its importance. The majority of the terrestrial plants form association with Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) or Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). This symbiosis confers benefits directly to the host plant’s growth and development through the acquisition of Phosphorus (P) and other mineral nutrients from the soil by the AMF. They may also enhance the protection of plants against pathogens and increases the plant diversity. This is achieved by the growth of AMF mycelium within the host root (intra radical) and out into the soil (extra radical) beyond. Proper management of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi has the potential to improve the profitability and sustainability of agricultural systems. AM fungi are especially important for sustainable farming systems because AM fungi are efficient when nutrient availability is low and when nutrients are bound to organic matter and soil particles.",book:{id:"10360",slug:"nitrogen-in-agriculture-physiological-agricultural-and-ecological-aspects",title:"Nitrogen in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Nitrogen in Agriculture - Physiological, Agricultural and Ecological Aspects"},signatures:"Soibam Helena Devi, Ingudam Bhupenchandra, Soibam Sinyorita, S.K. Chongtham and E. Lamalakshmi Devi",authors:[{id:"301167",title:"Dr.",name:"E. Lamalakshmi",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"e.-lamalakshmi-devi",fullName:"E. Lamalakshmi Devi"},{id:"311911",title:"Dr.",name:"S.K.",middleName:null,surname:"Chongtham",slug:"s.k.-chongtham",fullName:"S.K. Chongtham"},{id:"345840",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingudam",middleName:null,surname:"Bhupenchandra",slug:"ingudam-bhupenchandra",fullName:"Ingudam Bhupenchandra"},{id:"423173",title:"Mrs.",name:"Soibam",middleName:null,surname:"Helena Devi",slug:"soibam-helena-devi",fullName:"Soibam Helena Devi"},{id:"423177",title:"Dr.",name:"Soibam",middleName:null,surname:"Sinyorita",slug:"soibam-sinyorita",fullName:"Soibam Sinyorita"}]},{id:"77147",title:"Influence of Heavy Metals on the Nitrogen Metabolism in Plants",slug:"influence-of-heavy-metals-on-the-nitrogen-metabolism-in-plants",totalDownloads:288,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"As an essential element, Nitrogen is needed in large quantities for being an important component of cellular constituents and for plant metabolism, and its deficiency is one of the most common limitations for plant development. The study of the toxic effects of metal in plants involves a complex system of reactions that can be better determined once having a large attention of the different backgrounds of occurence to determinate how to proceed. The objective of this review is to add scientific knowledge, addressing the main functionalities and characteristics of this relation heavy metals – nitrogen metabolism in plant. Increasing industrialization and urbanization had anthropogenic contribution of heavy metals in biosphere and had largest availability in ecosystems. This toxicity in plants varies with plant species, specific metal, concentration, soil composition, as many heavy metals are considered to be essential for plant growth. Were provided data and reviews regarding the effect of heavy metals on nitrogen metabolism of plants and the responses of plants and the cross-talk of heavy metals and various stressors factors. Is clear to understand the relation between metals amount and the benefit or harm caused on plants, determining then, which mechanism should be activated to protect your physiological system.",book:{id:"10360",slug:"nitrogen-in-agriculture-physiological-agricultural-and-ecological-aspects",title:"Nitrogen in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Nitrogen in Agriculture - Physiological, Agricultural and Ecological Aspects"},signatures:"Vitor Nascimento, Glauco Nogueira, Gabriel Monteiro, Waldemar Júnior, Joze Melissa Nunes de Freitas and Cândido Neto",authors:[{id:"332095",title:"Dr.",name:"Cândido",middleName:null,surname:"Neto",slug:"candido-neto",fullName:"Cândido Neto"},{id:"332157",title:"Prof.",name:"Joze",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"joze-freitas",fullName:"Joze Freitas"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"28",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81931",title:"Improving Soil Fertility with Organic Fertilizers",slug:"improving-soil-fertility-with-organic-fertilizers",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103944",abstract:"Organic fertilizers with low C:N ratios can be applied to supply both macro and micronutrients to the soil. Aside nutrient supply, they can improve soil structure, texture, water holding capacity and nutrient holding capacity. The mechanisms that may interplay to allow organic fertilizers to affect the soil and crop yields may include improved nutrient synchrony, general improvement in fertility and/or priming effects. The rate, timing and method of organic fertilizer application must be considered to reduce N and P losses during organic fertilizer application. To meet the nutrient requirement of crops, organic fertilizers must be applied in large quantities, so it is more prudent to apply locally available resources. In a case study where sole organic fertilizer, sole inorganic fertilizer and their combinations were applied under rain-fed conditions, it was observed that manure had the potential to hold nutrients longer. This is a positive finding for drought prone areas.",book:{id:"10989",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg"},signatures:"Mavis Badu Brempong and Abigail Addo-Danso"},{id:"79868",title:"The Role of Organic Fertilizers in Transition to Sustainable Agriculture in the MENA Region",slug:"the-role-of-organic-fertilizers-in-transition-to-sustainable-agriculture-in-the-mena-region",totalDownloads:133,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101411",abstract:"Organic fertilizers can serve as an element of transitions to sustainable low-input agriculture in semi-arid regions of the MENA region. They play a key role in supporting soil biota and soil fertility. Yield improvements, availability and relatively low costs make organic fertilizers an attractive alternative for farmers. In semi-arid regions, important considerations are improved soil quality, which in turn affects soil water retention, while better root development helps crops resist heat and water stress. Organic fertilizers thus support climate adaptation and regional food security. Soil quality is crucial for carbon sequestration, at the same time that increased nutrient retention reduces impacts of agricultural runoff on groundwater and water bodies. Factors that impede the generalised use of organic fertilizers include lack of expertise, subsidy structures, constraints of the wider food and agricultural systems, and difficulties in transitioning from conventional agriculture. Such obstacles are aggravated in countries affected by security issues, financial volatility or restrictions in access to market. Against the background of both general and local constraints, the chapter examines possible pathways to benefit from organic fertilizers, in particular synergies with other sustainable agricultural practices, as well as improved access to expertise.",book:{id:"10989",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg"},signatures:"Helen Avery"},{id:"79041",title:"Organic Fertilization with Residues of Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) and Inga (Inga edulis) for Improving Soil Fertility in Central Amazonia",slug:"organic-fertilization-with-residues-of-cupuassu-em-theobroma-grandiflorum-em-and-inga-em-inga-edulis",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100423",abstract:"The cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. Ex Spreng.) K. Schum.) is a native fruit tree which has, in the past years, acquired great social and economic importance for the regional farmers. The nutrient-rich and often wasted cupuassu tree fruit shell residues can contribute to the improvement of the low fertility soil of Amazonia. A trial was carried out on a small holder’s cupuassu plantation in Central Amazonia to ascertain the effect of organic fertilization on the recovery of soil fertility and plant nutrition by using material from cupuassu shell residues and Inga edulis pruning (branches and leaves). The fertilization with cupuassu rinds + Inga prunings improved soil fertility, mainly by the increase of K and Ca in the soil, but only with liming, which appears to favor the mineralization of these nutrients. At the 0–10 cm depth, the Ca level increased about 50% compared to the control and the K level increased 75% compared to the cupuassu shell treatments. The significant increase of about 30% in N absorption by trees in the plots without liming shows that the application of green manure can increase the mineralization of N in Oxisols. These results show that the organic residue sources used can result in a nutrient-bearing organic fertilizer and become a low-cost alternative for recycling cupuassu processing residues.",book:{id:"10989",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg"},signatures:"Eleano Rodrigues da Silva, Marta Iria da Costa Ayres, Acácia Lima Neves, Katell Uguen, Luiz Antonio de Oliveira and Sonia Sena Alfaia"},{id:"78833",title:"The Insects as a Workforce for Organic Fertilizers Production – Insect Frass",slug:"the-insects-as-a-workforce-for-organic-fertilizers-production-insect-frass",totalDownloads:205,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100144",abstract:"Following the evolution of composting technology, the process of digestion of a biological substrate by insects (entomocomposting) represents the last stage; however, from its initial context of producing an organic fertilizer, the role of entomocomposting has been imposing itself (due to increasing demographic pressure) mainly in the safe disposal of organic waste (in rampant growth) and in the breeding of insects for food and feed, for the sake of food security. Both these last goals converge in the first, as the safest disposal of the compost is its use as organic fertilizer; but the organic substrates are of a diversified nature, as are the species of insects which have already proved themselves in entomocomposting; hence, for each of the purposes in view, the choice is vast and, in the same way, the entomocompost composition is wide-ranging. Furthermore, various types of organic substrates, in addition to a microbial flora with symbiotic effects, may sometimes be able to transmit to the frass a harmful load of heavy metals and/or, depending on the composting insect agents, the presence of microorganisms harmful to crops and to humans and animals; in these situations, the former should be encouraged, and the latter counteracted through appropriate composting technology. Directives and legislation in this area, if properly considered, constitute a fundamental basis for ensuring the appropriate use of this particular kind of organic fertilizer. Apart from the production of insects for food and feed, where the choice of which insect is determined at the outset, the preference for the insect to be used in entomocomposting should be considered according to its proficiency in biological digestion of the organic substrates available for this purpose and the fertilizing quality of the frass produced. Although a multitude of species have been evaluated, to date, for the digestion of organic substrates, most have been used in assessing their specific potential for certain functionalities of frass related to crop nutrition and health, but there are few which, either by prolificacy, proficiency or rapidity in digesting substrates, exhibit capacity to compete in rural environment; nevertheless, new species could be evaluated in the framework of the research of competitors for entomocomposting of all or each substrate type and for each of the main anticipated objectives, meanwhile, genetic improvement to obtain new strains specialized for different organic substrates has already started to take its first steps. In addition to the binomial “insect x substrate” the composting technology constitutes the third fundamental factor for the efficiency of the process. Insects use as a composting agent has been suggested several decades ago, but it was only in the last decade that this process grown from the garden to the factory. Within rural areas, entomocomposting could play a key role within a circular economy, where recycling and reusing potentially polluting wastes safely returns to the land the enduring fertility that enables the sustained production that generated them, requiring no particularly upscale installations, equipment or technical training; it can, therefore, be adapted to any size of agricultural holding, from smallholdings to large industrial holdings, on the other hand, and in order to obtain a controlled production and high quality entomocompost, it is needed to implement industrial technologies and the composting unit can achieve a very high production per square meter, comparing with traditional composting methods. However, whether from the perspective of agriculture, livestock or forestry, the production of waste for entomocomposting always falls far short of the necessary scale, and therefore always requiring the use of biodigested organic waste from agricultural industries, provided that the necessary precautions are taken; in any case, it always constitutes added value, due to the products it generates, in addition to the inestimable value of the productive disposal of potentially polluting products. Despite all the advantages mentioned above, the controversy over the organic vs. mineral fertilizer option persists, often fuelled by myths on both sides, but the successes already achieved with insect entomocomposts, such as the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) or the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), in field trials, which are gradually adding up, anticipate an important role for insects in safeguarding global food and environmental security.",book:{id:"10989",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg"},signatures:"Regina Menino and Daniel Murta"},{id:"78744",title:"Farmer’s Perception of Associates Non-Cocoa Tree’s Leaf Litterfall Fertilizing Potential in Cocoa-Based Agroforestry System",slug:"farmer-s-perception-of-associates-non-cocoa-tree-s-leaf-litterfall-fertilizing-potential-in-cocoa-ba",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100262",abstract:"Investigations to assess farmer’s perceptions on the fertilizing potential of associated trees species in cocoa agroforest of degraded forest ecology were carried out in southern Cameroon. The perception of the farmers was based on the ability of the trees to maintain or improve soil fertility of their farms. The verification of these perceptions was done through an evaluation of litter fall biomass nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) of selected trees. The top 5 associates trees ranked by farmers was: Milicia excelsa, Ceiba pentandra, Ficus mucuso, Asltonia boonei, Terminalia superba. The chemical analysis of the leaf litter from the different tree species revealed a significant different between their chemical components. N appeared to have the highest concentrations varying from 2.82 to 5.57% with a mean value of 4.25 ± 1.065%, P had the lowest concentrations typically around 0.001%. The top 5 tree species based on the chemical analysis ranking were: C. pentandra, M. excelsa, Eribroma oblungum, Alstonia boonei, Zanthoxylum heitzi. Farmer’s perceptions thou holistic, are not completely different from scientific finding. Therefore, they should be taken in consideration in management plans for cocoa- based systems in order to enhance their ecological and economic performance.",book:{id:"10989",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg"},signatures:"Milie Lionelle Tsouga Manga, René Menoh A Ngon, Etienne Akoutou Mvondo, Eunice Ndo, Bidzanga Nomo and Zachée Ambang"},{id:"78714",title:"Biosynthesis of Zinc Nanocomplex Employing for Plant Growth Promotion and Bio-Control of Pythium ultimum",slug:"biosynthesis-of-zinc-nanocomplex-employing-for-plant-growth-promotion-and-bio-control-of-em-pythium-",totalDownloads:115,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100185",abstract:"Green Biosynthesis method was used for the preparation of Zn(II) nano complex from the reaction of the schiff base ligand 2,2′-((1E,1′E)-(1,2-phenylenebis (azanylylidene)) bis(methanylylidene))bis(4-bromophenol) and Zn(II)sulphate. The nano complex was characterized by different physicochemical methods. Zinc nanoparticles (ZnNP-T) will be studied as an antifungal agent. In this study, we will investigate the ability of the myogenic Zinc nanoparticles for plant Growth Promotion and Bio-control of Pythium ultimum.",book:{id:"10989",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg"},signatures:"Shaima M.N. Moustafa and Rania H. Taha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/30203",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"30203"},fullPath:"/chapters/30203",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()