\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6120",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Computer Interaction",title:"Human Computer Interaction",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book includes 23 chapters introducing basic research, advanced developments and applications. 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With the increasing demand for herbal medicinal products, nutraceuticals, and natural products for primary healthcare worldwide, medicinal plant extract manufacturers and essential oil producers have started using the most appropriate extraction techniques. Different methods are used to produce extracts and essential oil of defined quality with the least variations.
Herbs and medicinal plants have been used for centuries as source of a wide variety of biologically active compounds. The plant crude material or its pure compounds are extensively used to treat diverse ailments by generations of indigenous practitioners [1, 2]. They are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and biological investigations presents specific challenges that must be addressed throughout the solvent extraction [3]. Natural products provide unlimited opportunities for new drug discovery because of the unmatched availability of chemical diversity [4]. Thanks to two drugs derived from alkaloids of Madagascar’s rosy periwinkle (
Natural products are currently of considerable significance due to their unique attributes as a significant source of therapeutic phytochemicals and their efficacy, safety, and minimal side effects [2, 8]. Bioactive compounds in plants include alkaloids, terpenoids, coumarins, flavonoids, nitrogen-containing compounds, organosulfur compounds, phenolics, etc. A wide spectrum of bioactivities is exhibited by these compounds such as anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc.
Research on medicinal plants is particularly important as that on conventional drugs due to the beneficial phytochemicals from plants and the shift towards natural products in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries. Chemical structures of a few essential bioactive compounds isolated from plants are presented in Figure 1 [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Chemical structures of a few important bioactive compounds isolated from plants.
Extraction of the bioactive constituents from plants has always been challenging for researchers [15]. As the target compounds may be non-polar to polar and thermally labile, the suitability of the extraction methods must be considered. The study on medicinal plants starts with extraction procedures that play a critical role in the extraction outcomes and the consequent assays.
Hence, this chapter aims to provide an overview of the process of plant extraction, describe, and compare extraction methods based on their principle, the effect of solvent on extraction procedures, strength, limitations, and economic feasibility, with their advantages and disadvantages. This chapter shall also emphasize the common problems encountered and methods for reducing or eliminating these problems. Since millions of natural products derived from plants are known, only selected groups and compounds are presented.
The term “medicinal” as applied to a plant indicates that it contains a substance or substances which modulate beneficially the physiology of sick mammals, and man has used it for healthful purpose [16]. Medicinal plants were described by Farnsworth and Soejarto as: “all higher plants with medicinal effects that relate to health, or which are proven as drugs by Western standards, or which contain constituents that are defined as hits.” [17].
Medicinal plant (MP) refers to any plant which, in one or more of its organs, contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursors of the synthesis of valuable drugs. A whole plant or plant parts may be medicinally active [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Medicinal plants (MPs) are becoming very important due to their uses mainly as a source of therapeutic compounds that may lead to novel drugs. MPs are plants that are used for healthcare purposes in both allopathic and traditional medicine systems. MPs cover various species used including condiments, food aromatic and cosmetics [23, 24, 25, 26].
Herbs may be defined as the dried leaves of aromatic plants used to impart flavor and odor to foods with, sometimes, the addition of color. The leaves are commonly traded separately from the plant stems and leaf stalks [27].
Herbal medicine is referred to as medicinal preparations comprising active ingredients obtained from the herbal plant. The product can be made from the whole plant or any part. Preparations from by-product herbal plants such as oil, gum, and other secretions are also considered herbal medicines [18, 19, 22].
Metabolites are intermediate processes in nature and are small molecules. Primary metabolites are known vital or essential compounds and are directly involved in the average growth, development, and reproduction of plants [28]. Primary metabolites include cell constituents (e.g. carbohydrates, polysaccharides, amino acids, sugars, proteins, and lipids) and fermentation products (ethanol, acetic acid, citric acid, and lactic acid), and are mainly used during their growth and development stages [19, 22, 29, 30].
Secondary metabolites are not directly involved in those processes and usually have a function but are not that important for the organism (e.g. phenolic, steroids, lignans, etc.). They are found only in specific organisms or groups of organisms, and express of the individuality of species [19, 30, 31]. They are not necessarily produced under all conditions, and most often, the function of these compounds and their benefit to the organism is not yet known. Some are undoubtedly made for readily appreciated reasons, e.g., as toxic material providing defense against predators, as volatile attractants towards the same or other species, but it is logical to assume that all do not play some vital role for the well-being of the producer [27, 30]. Secondary metabolites are produced after the growing stage and are used to increase the ability of plants to survive and overcome their local challenges. Bioactive compounds are classified as terpenoids, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds, organosulfur compounds, and phenolic compounds [29].
Bioactive compounds are reported to possess diverse bioactivities such as antioxidant, anticancer, antimalarial, antiulcer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory activity [32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
The definition of bioactive compounds remained ambiguous and unclear for a long time. Very few references describe the term “bioactive”. It is composed of two words
A plant extract is a substance or an active substance with desirable properties removed from the tissues of a plant, frequently by treating it with a solvent, to be used for a particular purpose. The term “bioactive compounds” is generally referred to as biologically significant chemicals but not established as essential nutrients [43]. Bioactive compounds are essential (e.g., vitamins) and non-essential (e.g., polyphenols, alkaloids, etc.) compounds that occur in nature, are part of the food chain, and can affect human health [44]. They are derived from various natural sources such as plants, animals, microorganisms (e.g., fungi) and marine organisms (e.g., lichens) [2]. The amount of bioactive natural products in natural sources is always fairly low [45, 46]. Plant active compounds are usually contained inside plant matrixes. Active compounds are synthesized in small quantities and different concentrations in all plant organs or parts such as leaves, roots, barks, tubers, woods, gums or oleoresin exudations, fruits, figs, flowers, rhizomes, berries, twigs, as well as the whole plant. Further processes may be required after extraction to purify or isolate the desired compounds.
Fresh and dried samples are used and are reported in the literature in the preparation of medicinal remedies. Ideally, fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis, and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction [47]. In most reported cases, dried materials are preferred considering their long conservation time compared to fresh samples. Furthermore, fresh specimens are fragile and tend to deteriorate faster than dried ones. Phytoconstituents such as Essential Oils (EOs) are found in fewer dried samples than in fresh samples. In case of fresh plant material extraction using organic solvents such as methanol or ethanol, is required to deactivate enzymes present in the plant sample. The extractive might contain a substantial portion of water; hence it can be partitioned using specific immiscible organic solvents [3].
Drying is the most common method to preserve the plant material from enzymatic degradation, such as hydrolysis of glucoside, etc. It should be dried as quickly as possible in the open room under primitive conditions at ambient room temperature with air circulation around the plant material to avoid heat and moisture [47]. However, they placed in shallow trays with good atmospheric air-up dryness either in the sunshine or in shade depending on nature of the indicated or identified constituents. However, direct sunlight is usually avoided to reduce the possibility of chemical reactions, responsible for forming of the artifact that may result from chemical transformations after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Alternatively, plant materials should be dried under optimum temperature conditions between 40 and 50°C, or they can be dried in the oven if needed. Generally, plant material is dried at temperatures below 30°C to avoid the decomposition of thermolabile compounds [3]. Plants containing volatile or thermolabile components may be lyophilized (freeze-dried). In freeze-drying the frozen material is placed in an evacuated apparatus with a cold surface maintained at −60 to −80°C. Water vapors from the frozen material then pass rapidly to the cold surface to yield the dry material [8, 48].
Lowering particle sizes increase surface contact between samples and extraction solvents and therefore, increase the yield rate and yield. Grinding resulted in coarse smaller samples, meanwhile, powdered samples gave a more homogenized and smaller particle, leading to better surface contact with solvents used for extraction. Before the extraction, pretreatments such as drying and grinding of plant materials are usually conducted to increase the extraction efficiency [48]. It is essential that the particles are of as uniform size as possible because larger particles take a longer time to complete the extraction process [49]. Usually, solvent molecules most contact the larger analytes, and particle size smaller than 05 mm is ideal for efficient extraction [8]. Conventional methods are usually used to reduce the particle size of dried plant samples viz. mortar and pestle or electric blenders and mills, etc.
Extraction is separating the medicinally active mixture of many naturally active compounds usually contained inside plant materials (tissues) using selective solvents through the standard procedure [50]. It can also be defined as the treatment of the plant material with solvent, whereby the medicinally active constituents are dissolved and most of the inert matter remains undissolved. Thus, the purpose of all extraction is to separate the soluble plant metabolites, leaving behind the insoluble cellular marc known as residue [8]. The obtained product is a relatively complex mixture of metabolites, in liquid or semisolid state or (after removing water) in dried powder form, and are intended for oral and/or external uses. Extraction is based on the difference in solubility between the solute, other compounds in the matrix, and the solvent used to stabilize [29].
In general, there are three common type of extractions: liquid/solid, liquid/liquid and acid/base [51]. The extraction of these active compounds needs appropriate extraction methods that consider the plant parts used as starting material, the solvent used, extraction time, particle size and the stirring during extraction [52, 53]. Extraction methods include solvent extraction, distillation method, pressing, and sublimation according to the extraction principle. Solvent extraction is the most widely used method [47].
The solvent used, the plant part used as starting material and the extraction procedure are three basic parameters reported that influence the quality of an extract [15]. Proper extraction procure is the first step towards isolating and identifying the specific compounds in crude herbal material. It plays a significant and crucial role in the outcome. Successful extraction begins with careful selection and preparation of plant sample and thorough review of the appropriate literature for indications of which protocols are suitable for a particular class of compounds or plant species [3]. For instance, if the components are volatile or prone to degradation, they can first be frozen and homogenized with liquid nitrogen [29]. The extraction, in most cases, involves soaking the plant material in solvent for some specific time. Reported properties on an excellent extraction solvent include low toxicity, preservative action, ease of evaporation at low heat, promotion of rapid physiologic absorption of the extract, and inability to cause the extract to be complex or dissociate.
The principle of solid–liquid extraction is that when a solid material comes in contact with the solvent, the soluble components in the solid material are dissolved in, and move to the solvent. In solvent extraction, the mass transfer of soluble ingredients to the solvent takes place in a concentration gradient. The mass transfer rate depends on the concentration of ingredients, until equilibrium is reached. After that, there will no longer be a mass transfer from plant material to the solvent. In addition, heating the solvent can also enhance the mass transfer because of better solubility.
Moreover, the concentration gradient changes if fresh solvent replace the solvent equilibrium with the plant material [50]. Properties required for an excellent extracting solvent (or a mixture of solvents) include removal, inert, non-toxic, free from plasticizers, not easily inflammable, and no or less chemical interaction [53]. The selection of solvent is therefore crucial for solvent extraction. Solubility, selectivity, cost, and safety should be taken into account in selecting solvent [47]. The factors affecting the choice of solvent are quality of phytochemicals to be extracted, rate of extraction, diversity of metabolites extracted, the toxicity of the solvent in the bioassay process, and the potential health hazard of the extractants and ease of subsequent handling of the extract. Obtaining maximum yield and the highest quality of the targeted compounds is the central goal of the extraction process [29]. Extraction methods are usually chosen per the properties of targeted active compounds, the water content of the plant material, and the objectives of extraction. Initially, natural bioactive compounds are extracted using various extraction techniques, and their bioactivities are identified using
Various conventional (classical) and non-conventional (innovative) methods can extract plant materials. Variation in extraction procedures usually depends on key factors as extraction time, the temperature used, the particle size of tissues, the solvent-to-sample ratio, the pH of the solvent.
The commonly employed extraction methods (long been used) are primarily based on liquid–solid extraction. They are ordinarily easy to operate and are based on heat and/or solvents with different polarities.
This process is conducted by soaking the plant materials (coarse or powered) in a closed stoppered container in a solvent allowed to stand at room temperature for 2–3 days with frequent stirring to obtain plant extracts. A sealed extractor is used to avoid solvent evaporation at atmospheric pressure. The process is intended to soften and break the plant’s cell walls to release the soluble phytoconstituents. The mixture is then pressed or strained by filtration or decantation after a specific time [8, 54]. Maceration is the simplest and still widely used procedure. The extraction procedure in this stationary process works on principle of molecular diffusion, which is a time-consuming process. Maceration ensures dispersal of the concentrated solution accumulation around the particles’ surface and brings fresh solvent to the surface of particles for further extraction [46].
This is a kind of maceration in which gentle heat is applied during the maceration extraction process. The temperature does not alter the active ingredients of plant material, so there is greater efficiency in the use of menstruum (solvent or mixture of solvent used for extraction). It is used when the moderately elevated temperature is not objectionable and the solvent efficiency of the menstruum is increased thereby [15]. The most used temperatures are between 35 and 40°C, although it can rise to no higher than 50°C. The plant part to be extracted is placed in a container with the pre-heated liquid to the indicated temperatures, is maintained for a period that may vary between half an hour to 24 hours, shaking the container regularly. This process is used for the herbal material or plant parts that contain poorly soluble substances or polyphenolic compounds [49].
Infusion is a simple chemical process used to extract plant material that is volatile and dissolves readily or release its active ingredients easily in organic solvents [49]. Infusion and decoction use the same principle as maceration; both involve soaking the plant material in boiled or cold water which is then allowed to steep in the liquid. The maceration time for infusion is, however shorter. The liquid may then be separated and concentrated under a vacuum using a rotary evaporator.
Infusion finds its application in tea preparation and consumption prescribed in psychophysical asthenia, diarrhea, bronchitis, asthma, etc. In Tropical Africa, the infusion of the bark of
The word “lixiviation” (comes from the Latin lixivium, “lessive”.) The extraction is carried out with cold or boiled, fresh and new solvent, always. Extraction of components is done using water as solvent.
The current process involves boiling the plant material in water to obtain plant extracts. Heat is transferred through convection and conduction, and the choice of solvents will determine the type of compound extracted from the plant material [8]. The sample is boiled in a specified volume of water for a defined time (15 to 60 minutes.) It is then cooled, strained, filtered, and added enough water through the drug to obtain the desired volume. This method is suitable for extracting thermostable (that does not modify with temperature) and water soluble compounds, hard plant materials and commonly resulted in more oil-soluble compounds than maceration.
It is the extraction of plant material in alcohol. Usually, the plant material (fresh) and ethyl alcohol are taken at the ratio of 1:5. Because of the alcohol content, the tinctures can be stored at room temperatures without decomposing [55].
It is conducted by passing the boiled solvent through the plant material at a controlled and moderate rate (e.g. 5–7 drops per min) until the extraction is complete before evaporation. The concentrated plant extracts are commonly collected at the bottom of the vessel. To obtain a significant amount of extract, successive percolations can be performed by refilling the percolator with fresh solvent and pooling all extracts together. This procedure is mostly used to extract active compounds in the preparation of tinctures and fluid extracts. Its major disadvantage is that large volumes of solvents are required, and the procedure can be time-consuming and may require skilled persons [49].
Steam and hydrodistillation methods are usually used to extract volatile compounds, including essential oil, insoluble in water, from various aromatic and medicinal plants. This is conducted by boiling the plant materials in water to obtain EOs after vapor condensation. Steam distillation occurs at a temperature lower than the boiling point of the ingredients. The method is useful for thermos-sensitive bioactive compounds e.g., natural aromatic compounds. The heat leads to breakage in the sample’s pores and then enables the release of the target compound from a matrix. As Raoult’s law states that while mixing two immiscible liquids, the boiling point will be reduced. Therefore, in the mixture of volatile compounds having a boiling point between 150 and 300°C and water having a boiling point at about 100°C (at atmospheric pressure), the mixture evaporation will be getting closer to that of the water [29, 56].
There are similarities between the hydrodistillation and the steam distillation principles. In brief, plant material is immersed in water or a proper solvent followed by heating to boiling under atmospheric pressure in the alembic. In a condenser, EOs vapors and water undergo a liquefaction process, and EOS are then separates from water/solvent after collection of the condensate in the decanter. The principle of extraction is based on isotropic distillation. Hydrodistillation with water immersion, direct vapor injection, and water immersion and vapor injection are the three main types of hydrodistillation. The distillation time depends on the plant material being processed [56].
In this method, finely ground sample is placed in a porous bag or “thimble” made from a strong filter paper or cellulose, set in the thimble chamber of the Soxhlet apparatus. The first Soxhlet apparatus was developed in 1879 by Franz von Soxhlet (Figure 2) [58]. Extraction solvents are heated in a round bottom flask, vaporized into the sample thimble, condensed in the condenser, and dripped back. When the liquid content reaches the siphon arm, the liquid content is emptied into the bottom flask again, and the process is continued [8]. The disadvantages include no possibility of stirring, and a large amount of solvent is required. This method is unsuitable for thermolabile compounds as prolonged exposure (long extraction time) to heat may lead to their degradation. It constitutes an official classical method used to determine different foods’ fat content [15, 29, 57].
Experimental Soxhlet extraction apparatus [
Exposure to hazardous and flammable liquid organic solvents are the most noticed disadvantages in this method, and the high purity of extraction solvents needed may add to the cost. Also, shaking or stirring cannot be provided in the Soxhlet device to accelerate the process [57].
However, it requires a smaller quantity of solvent as compared to maceration. Besides, instead of many portions of warm solvent passing through the sample, just one batch of solvent is recycled. Other advantages of this technique include its simple operational mode, its applicability to a higher temperature that increases the kinetics process, its low capital cost, the absence of filtration, and the continuous contact of the solvent and the sample. It maintains a relatively high extraction temperature with heat from the distillation flask [29, 57, 59].
It is a standard extraction procedure that involves successive extraction with various solvents of increasing polarity from non-polar to polar ones. The aim is to ensure that a broad polarity range of compounds could be extracted [15].
Some medicinal preparations adopt the technique of fermentation for extracting the active principles. The extraction procedure involves soaking the crude drug, either a powder or a decoction, for a specified period. Alcohol is generating
Hydrodistillation and steam distillation, hydrolytic maceration followed by distillation, expression and effleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed for aromatic plants. Some of the latest extraction methods for aromatic plants include headspace trapping, solid phase micro extraction, protoplast extraction, micro distillation [15].
These techniques are the easiest and simplest methods. Despite the establishment of advanced extraction methods, the potential of conventional solid–liquid extractions is still being used to obtain active compounds from plants. These methods are criticized due to large solvent consumption and long extraction times that can destroy some metabolites. Solvents used in these techniques for soaking play a critical role. Many other advanced extraction methods that incorporate various technologies have been developed [8, 48].
There is steady progress in the development of extraction technology in recent years. They are also known as advanced techniques with the most recently developed.
Microwaves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum of light with a range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz, and wavelengths of these waves range from 1 cm−1 to 1 m−1 [60]. These waves are made up of two perpendicular oscillating fields which are used as energy and information carriers.
In this extraction process, the use of microwave energy results in faster heating. Due to the exposure of each molecule to the microwave field, its direct effects include, thermal gradients reduction, volume generation due to heat, equipment size reduction, because of the higher process rates, and thus increase in productivity, through better usage of the same equipment process volume [61]. MAE is a feasible green solvent extraction procedure as it uses water or alcohol at elevated temperature and controlled pressure conditions (Figure 3).
Schematic representation of microwave-assisted extraction equipment [
This procedure has demonstrated various benefits like ease to handle and understand steadiness. Many studies reported that MAE has higher yields and is significantly faster than conventional methods for extracting active substances from plant materials [48, 54, 62]. MAE can be presented as a potential alternative to the traditional soli-liquid extraction techniques. A few of the potential advantages are as follow:
a lesser amount of solvent is required (few milliliters of solvent can be used);
shorter extraction time, from few seconds to few minutes (15–20 min);
improved extraction yield;
favorable for thermolabile constituents;
heavy metals and pesticides residue which is present in the trace can be extracted from a few milligrams of plant sample;
during extraction, it provides a stirring, by which the mass transfer phenomenon is improved [54, 60, 62, 63].
MAE intensification needs special equipment to be functional, and electricity produces waves, leading to higher investments and higher operating costs than conventional methods [64]. Banar and collaborators extracted the bioactive compounds from
This extraction method involves using ultrasound with frequencies ranging from 20 to 2000 KHz; this increases the permeability of cell walls and produce cavitation. Although the process is helpful in some cases, its large-scale application is limited due to its high cost. The most noticeable disadvantage of the procedure is the occasional but known deleterious effect of ultrasound energy on the active components of the medicinal plants through the formation of free radicals and consequently undesirable changes on the drug molecules [50]. The schematic representation of the equipment is given below (Figure 4).
Schematic representation of an ultrasound-assisted extraction equipment.
Factors that affect the efficiency of UAE are extraction time, power, solvent, Liquid/Solid (L/S) ratio, plant material, frequency, amplitude, and intensity. UAE more advantageous than other advanced extraction methods and provided the best mass and heat transfer efficiency, lowest energy consumption and carbon emission. It was reported to yield high total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, or specific active compounds [62, 66].
Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) also known as pressurized fluid extraction (PFE), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), and pressurized solvent extraction (PSE), or as enhanced solvent extraction system (ESE) [67].
Dionex Corporation introduced PLE in 1995 as an alternative to maceration, percolation, sonication, Soxhlet extraction, etc. It is an automated technique for extracting solid samples with liquid solvents (either aqueous or organic, single or mixtures) above their boiling point, combine high pressures (4–12 MPa) and moderate to high temperatures (50–300°C) [68]. When water is the extraction solvent, different terms are used to define the method, that includes hot water extraction (HWE), subcritical water extraction (SWE), high-temperature water extraction (HTWE), hot water extract pressurized (PHWE), liquid water extraction or superheated water extraction [67]. Sample size, solvent, pressure, temperature, pH, flow rate, extraction time are the standard parameters influencing the PLE process, with temperature and solvent type being the most significant ones [69, 70, 71].
In this process, for a short period of time (5–10 min), a cartridge in which the ample has been placed is filled with an extracting solvent and used to statically extract the sample under elevated temperature and pressure. To purge the sample extract from the extraction cell into a collector flask pressurized gas is used (Figure 5) [68].
Scheme of pressurized liquid extraction equipment [
To increase the efficiency of this extraction process, environmentally friendly liquid solvents are used at moderate to elevated temperature and pressure [72]. The increased temperature causes dramatic changes in the physical–chemical properties of water, enhances the analytes’ solubility, breaks matrix-analyte interactions achieving a higher diffusion rate, and accelerates the extraction process by increasing the diffusivity of the solvent. The increased pressure in contrast, keeps the solvent in a liquid state without boiling and forces the solvent to penetrate the matrix pores [55, 73, 74, 75].
The main advantages of this technique are: (i) faster extraction from 15 to 50 min, (ii) low quantity of solvents (15–40 mL), and no filtration is required. However, costly equipment and the need for a throughout optimization of variables to avoid a matrix-dependent efficiency are the main demerits [72, 73, 74].
SFE is used for separating components from the matrix with the application of supercritical fluids as the extracting solvent (Figure 6) [30].
Schematic diagram of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) set-up [
Using CO2 as the extracting fluid has many advantages. Besides, its lower boiling point (31°C) and its critical pressure (74 bar). Moreover, carbon dioxide is abundant in nature, safe and inexpensive. But while carbon dioxide is the preferred fluid for SFE, it possesses several polarity limitations. When extracting polar solutes and when strong analyte-matrix interactions are present solvent polarity is crucial. Carbon dioxide fluid is usually mixed with organic solvents to alleviate the polarity limitations (Figure 7) [2].
Schematic representation of a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) system [
The SFE extraction procedure possesses distinct advantages:
the extraction of constituents is carried out at a low temperature, strictly avoiding damage from heat and some organic solvents. SFE offers gentle treatment for heat-sensitive material;
fragrances and aroma remain unchanged;
CO2 is an inexpensive solvent;
No solvent residues are left behind;
possibility of direct coupling with analytical chromatographic techniques such as gas chromatography (GC) or supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC);
environmentally friendly extraction procedure. CO2 as the solvent does not cause environmental problems and is physiologically harmless, germicidal, and non-flammable.
Some specific disadvantages of this method are:
high investment cost;
the use of high pressures leads to capital costs for the plant, and operating costs may also be high, so the number of commercial processes utilizing supercritical fluid extraction is relatively small, due mainly to the existence of more economical methods;
high polar substances (sugars, amino acids, inorganic salts, proteins, etc.) are soluble;
phase equilibrium of the solvent/solute system is complex and making design of extraction conditions is difficult.
SFE finds extensive application in extracting pesticides, environmental samples, foods and fragrances, essential oils, polymers, and natural products [50, 77]. Conde-Hernández and collaborators extracted the essential oil of rosemary (
Pulsed electric field extraction is a technique based on the exposure of vegetable matrix to an electrical potential. A transformer generates an electric pulse, increasing voltages from 140 or 220 V to 1000 V, or even greater than that (25000 V). A capacitor transforms this high voltage in a closed chamber with metallic electrodes. The general scheme of PEF equipment is presented in Figure 8 [80].
General scheme of a PEF equipment process.
This “cold” extraction assisted by PEF prevent the degradation of the cell and the extraction of components from the intracellular vacuoles [81]. It considerably increases the yield and decreases the time because it can increase mass transfer by destroying membrane structures during the extraction process.
Specific energy input, treatment temperature and field strength are considered among parameters that can influence the treatment efficacy of the PEF extraction. It is known as a non-thermal method which reduces the decomposition of the thermolabile components [47].
The EAE is an enzymatic pre-treatment that is carried out by the addition of specific hydrolyzing enzymes during the extraction step. In the cell membrane and cell wall structure, micelles are formed by macromolecules such as polysaccharides and protein. The coagulation and denaturation of proteins at high temperatures during extraction are the main barriers to extracting natural products. EAE enhance the extraction efficiency due to the hydrolytic action of the enzymes on the components of the cell wall and membrane and the macromolecules inside the cell, which facilitate the release of the natural products. Cellulose, α-amylase, and pectinase are hydrolyzing enzymes usually employed in EAE [47, 82]. This procedure is suitable for extracting various bioactive substances from plant matrices, but after filtration the obtained fraction is rich in small water-soluble molecules that include polyphenols and flavonoids [82].
Turbo-distillation was patented in 1983 by Martel, and has been used in several companies as an industrial purpose for extracting EOs from hard matrixes (such as wood, bark, and seeds) [83]. The extraction process is similar to hydrodistillation with slight modifications [84]. The turbo-extraction or turbolysis is based on extraction with stirring and simultaneous reduction of particle size. Due to of high shearing force, cells disruption leads to rapid dissolution of the active constituents. It results in an extraction time of the order of minutes and the plant content is almost completely depleted [85]. Compare to hydrodistillation, turbo-distillation minimize extraction time and energy consumption and prevents the degradation of volatile constituents (Figure 9) [84].
Laboratory turbo-Clevenger: (a) schematic, (b) bench apparatus. The vessel (1); the rotor (2); the turbo shredder (3); the thermometer (4); the distillation column (5); the condenser (6); the receiver-cum separator (7) [
In 2017, Martins and collaborators studied the turbo-extraction of stevioside and rebaudosideo A from
In this procedure, the wet raw material is pulverized to produce a fine slurry. The target material is moved in one direction (usually as a fine slurry) within a cylindrical extractor where it comes in contact with extracting solvent. Further, the starting material moves making more concentrated extract. Thus, complete extraction is possible when the amounts of material and the flow rate of solvent are optimized the complete extraction is possible. The process is extremely efficient, takes little time and poses no danger when high temperature is applied. Lastly, the extracts come out sufficiently concentrated at one end of the extractor, while the residue falls on the other end [50]. This extraction procedure has great advantages:
compared to other methods such as maceration, decoction, percolation a unit amount of the plant material cab be extracted with a much smaller volume of solvent;
CCE is usually performed at room temperature, which avoids the thermolabile constituents from being exposed to heat which is used in most other techniques;
Since the drug is pulverized under wet conditions, the heat generated during comminution is neutralized by water. This once more avoids the thermal degradation of components from heat exposure;
Compare to continuous hot extraction, CCE is rated to be more efficient and effective.
Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is a sample preparation technology using chromatographic packing material, solid particle, commonly found in a cartridge-type device, to chemically separate the different components. Samples are almost constantly in the liquid state (although special applications can be run with some samples in the gas phase). In this method, the dissolved or suspended compounds in a liquid mixture are separated from other compounds depending on their physical and chemical properties. The technically correct name for this technology is “Liquid–Solid Phase Extraction”, since the chromatographic particles are solid and the sample is in the liquid state [87].
SPE has many benefits, but four significant benefits deserve special attention:
simplification of complex sample matrix along with compound purification;
reduce ion suppression or enhancement in MS applications;
capability to fractionate sample matrix to analyze compounds by class;
trace concentration (enrichment) of very low-level compounds.
This rapid, economical and sensitive technique uses different types of cartridges and disks, with various sorbents, where the solute molecules are preferentially attached over the stationary phase.
The principle of this equipment is similar to PEF, with the difference that electrical discharge is made through a small point. For this, a needle electrode is used from which the release is made in a plate ground electrode.
These methods are known as greener methods, are often better than conventional ones in terms of high yields, high selectivity, lower solvent consumption and shorter extraction time. They are also found to be environmentally ecofriendly since energy, and organic solvent consumption are reduced. The combination of extraction methods to obtain high purity extracts or high overall yields are described in the literature [40, 88, 89, 90]. Its main advantage is the operability in continuous mode, which is very important from an industrial and economic point of view [80].
A new solvent-based on hydrofluorocarbon-134a and a new technology to optimize its remarkable properties in the extraction of plant material offer significant environmental advantages and health and safety benefits over traditional processes to produce advanced quality natural fragrant oil, flavors and biological extracts.
The technology known as “phytonics process” was developed and patented by Advanced Phytonics Limited (Manchester, UK). Fragrant components of EOs and biological or phytopharmacological extracts that can be used straightly without additional chemical or physical treatment are the products frequently extracted by this process. The properties of the new generation of fluorocarbon solvents have been applied to the extraction of plant material. The core of the solvent is 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane, better known as hydrofluorocarbon-134a (HFC-134a) with a boiling point of – 25°C; a vapor pressure of 5.6 bar at ambient temperature. It is flammable and non-toxic. This product was developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons and more importantly, it does not deplete the ozone layer. By most standards this is a poor solvent that is unable to break up (dissolve) plant waste.
The process is advantageous because the solvents can be customized: by using modified solvents with HFC-134a, the process can be made highly selective in extracting a specific class of phytoconstituents. Likewise, to withdraw a broader spectrum of constituents other modified solvents can be employed. The biological products obtained by this process contain extremely low residual solvent. Residuals are constantly below the levels of detection and are fewer than 20 parts per billion. Therefore, selected solvents have minimal potential reaction effects on the botanical material, and are neither acidic nor alkaline. At the end of each production cycle, the processing plant is sealed so that solvents are constantly recycled and totally recovered. Electricity is the unique utility required to perform these systems and, even then, they consume little energy. There is no scope for the escape of the solvents, and even if some solvents come to escape, they pose no threat to the ozone layer because they do not contain chlorine. The waste product (biomass) from these plants is dry and “ecofriendly” to handle.
As the benefits of this procedure, we have the following:
the phytonic process is soft and its products are never damaged by exposure to temperatures over ambient because relatively low temperatures are employed;
vacuum stripping is necessary which, in other processes, leads to the loss of precious volatiles;
the process is performed completely at neutral pH, and in without oxygen, the products never suffer acid hydrolysis damage or oxidation;
the procedure is extremely selective, and offer a choice of operating conditions end products;
it requires a minimum amount of electrical energy;
it is less threatening to the environment;
no harmful emission in the atmosphere and the subsequent waste products (spent biomass) are inoffensive and pose no effluent disposal problems;
the solvents employed are neither toxic, nor flammable, or ozone-depleting;
the solvents are entirely recycled within the system.
In biotechnology, the utilization of the phytonics process is frequently employed to extract (e.g., for the production of antibiotics), herbal drug, food, EOs and flavor industries, and pharmacologically active products. It is particularly used to produce top-quality pharmaceutical-grade extracts, pharmacologically active intermediates, antibiotic extracts, and phytopharmaceuticals. However, the fact that it is used in all these areas prevents its use in other areas. The technique is being used to extract high-quality essential oils, oleoresins, natural food colors, flavors and aromatic oils from all types of plant material. The technique is also used in refining crude products obtained from other extraction processes. It provides extraction without wax or other contaminants. It helps in the removal of many biocides from contaminated biomass [50].
Upon extraction of the solids and release of desired organics into the extraction solvent, the most common next step is a liquid–liquid extraction, taking advantage of mixing two (or sometimes three or even more that can establish two phases) non miscible solvents, for example, water and ether. The standard rule of thumb is that polar compounds go into polar solvents (e.g., amino acids, sugars, and proteins remain in water). To the contrary, the nonpolar components usually remain in the organic phase (e.g., steroids, terpenoids, waxes, and carotenoids are typically extracted into a solvent such as ethyl acetate).
It is important to minimize interference from compounds that may coextract with the target compounds during the extraction of plant material by conventional or by advanced methods. It is also needed to avoid contamination of the extract and to prevent decomposition of important metabolites or artifact formation as a result of extraction conditions or solvent impurities [3]. Regardless of the extracting procedure employed, the resulting solution should be filtered to withdraw whatever particulate matter. Due to the accompanying increased risk of formation of artifact and decomposition or isomerization of extract components plant extract should not be stored in the solvent for a long time at room temperature or in sunlight because [3].
The chemical investigation profile of a plant extract, fractionation of a crude extract is suitable to isolate the major classes of compounds from each other before further chromatographic analysis. One procedure based on varying polarity that might be used on an alkaloids-containing plant is indicated in Figure 10. The type and quantity of components to be separate into different fractions will, vary from plant to plant. Such procedure can be modified when labile substances are investigated [47].
A general procedure for extracting fresh plant tissues and fractionating into different classes according to polarity.
Essential oils (EOs) are concentrated aromatic hydrophobic oily volatile liquids characterized by a strong odor and produced by all plant organs [91]. They are obtained from raw material by several extraction techniques such as water or steam distillation, hydrodiffusion, solvent extraction, Soxhlet extraction, expression under pressure or cold pressing method, also known as scarification method, microwave-assisted extraction, microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity, supercritical fluid or subcritical water extractions. The best extraction method to use depends on the ease of evaporating (volatility) and the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity (polarity) of the desired components [92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. However, the three most commonly applied techniques to extract EOs are Soxhlet, hydrodistillation, and SFE [97]. The extraction method chosen significantly affects the chemical composition of EOs [91]. Benmoussa and collaborators have recently found that the microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) appeared like a rapid process, a green technology, and a desirable alternative protocol to enhance both the quality and the quantity of the EOs extracted from medicinal and aromatic plants [92].
Lipids contain a broad category of non-polar molecules that are barely soluble or completely insoluble in water, but soluble in an organic solvent such as
Extraction process of edible oils may have negative effects on taste, stability, appearance or nutritional value, preserve tocopherols, and prevent chemical changes in the triacylglycerol. Fats and oil can be extracted from plants using conventional and advanced techniques that include hot water extraction, cold pressing, solvent extraction, high-pressure solvent extraction, microwave –assisted extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction [99]. Extraction of oil involves several mechanisms for removing a liquid from a solid such as leaching, washing, diffusion and dialysis [98]. In the case of palm oil (seeds of
The main side reactions reported during oil processing are (i)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are odorant compounds emitted from plant tissues. Plants can produce a high diversity of VOCs. They are responsible for the distinct aroma of certain dried plants, including the tea,
Hydro-distillation (HD), steam distillation (SD), simultaneous distillation solvent extraction (SDE), microwave-assisted hydro-distillation (MWHD), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), purge and trap, and solid phase microextraction (SPME), are used to extract VOCs [110].
Verde and collaborators conducted a work to optimize the MAE of the volatile oil terpenes from
The alkaloids are low molecular weight nitrogen-containing compounds found mainly in plants and a lesser extent in microorganisms and animals. They contain one or more nitrogen atoms, typically as primary, secondary, or tertiary amines, which usually confers basicity on the alkaloids. If the free electron pair on the nitrogen atom is not involve in mesomerism, the salt formation can occur mineral acids. This fundamental property of alkaloids is used in their extraction and further clan-up. According to the nature of the nitrogen-containing structure, alkaloids are classified as pyrrolidine, piperidine, quinoline, isoquinoline, indole, etc. [27].
Two methods may be used for alkaloids extraction. One is to basify the plant material using diethylamine or ammonia and extract with an organic solvent [112, 113]. Alkaloids are substances with a basic character and their solubility is a function of pH. They are soluble in low polar organic solvents in basic medium, while in acidic medium, they are soluble in water.
Alkaloids containing basic amines can be selectively extracted using a modified version of the classical “acid–base shake-out” method (Figure 11).
General procedure to obtain alkaloidal extracts from crude plant material [
As recommendations, mineral acids and strong bases should be avoided in extracting alkaloids (and plant material in general) because of the risk of artifact formation [3, 114, 115].
Caffeine is a natural product found in Coffee, cocoa beans, kola nuts, and tea leaves in a substantial amount. Its efficient extraction from Coffee relies heavily on the properties of caffeine and other components present in Coffee. One of the most popular species of the genus whose seeds contains caffeine is
Chemical structure and a few data of caffeine.
There are several ways to remove caffeine from coffee. Here are few reported procedures:
Coffee seeds are firstly grounded and refluxed in an aqueous sodium carbonate solution for about 20 minutes under constant stirring. After filtration of the resulted mixture to filtrate is allowed for cooling at room temperature. The DCM is use to perform the partition of the aqueous filtrate. The process is repeated several times to extract more caffeine. The DCM fractions are then mixed with anhydrous sodium sulfate to remove water traces, the DCM-caffeine solution is filtered through reverse-phase filter paper, which will trap any water and residual matter. The DCM solution is allowed to evaporate and the white amorphous powder of caffeine is obtained [118].
The addition of sodium carbonate converts the protonated form of caffeine, which is naturally present in coffee, to its free caffeine form. During the extraction of caffeine, tannins being soluble in water and organic solvents can interfere with extraction. A weak base such as calcium carbonate or sodium sulphate can be added to break down tannins esters bonds into glucose and calcium or sodium salts of gallic acid, both of which will not be extracted into the organic solvent.
Some benefits are reported when using this method: caffeine is easily extracted from the final product after avoiding the use of flammable and toxic solvents. In this process, caffeine diffuses into supercritical CO2 with water. Coffee beans are introduced at the top while fresh CO2 is introducing at the bottom of an extractor vessel in a continuous extraction to remove caffeine. The recovery is accomplished in a separate absorption chamber containing water. Higher temperature and pressure are mandatory to obtain great yields. A pretreatment step is needed in this process. The addition of polar cosolvents affects cosolvent solute specific chemical or physical interactions. The extraction rate is accelerated by the solvent–cosolvent interaction and makes the extraction easier. The material is humidified with ultrapure water for prewetting, this will destroy the hydrogen bonds that link the caffeine to its natural matrix. Cell membrane swelling enhances solute diffusion. Subsequently, the quality of caffeine extracted can reach a purity >94%, which is generally the standard criteria for use in the soft drink and drug companies [119].
There are some benefits to use charcoal: it is cheaper, “green,” and ease to regenerate by heat and steam. The choice of active charcoal with the appropriate number of micropores and a specific area up to 1000 m2/gram is mandatory for good absorption performance.
Cleaned green coffee beans are firstly soak in water, and the caffeine and other soluble content transferred to the aqueous phase. During the filtration through the activated charcoal, solely caffeine will continue to migrate in water. The recovered and dried coffee beans are now decaffeinated [30].
The poppy straw (
Cold water is used to treat the opium and the obtained aqueous solution concentrated until syrupy consistence. Powered sodium carbonate is added to precipitate hot and heated as long as ammonia given off; it is recommended that the solution remain alkaline to phenolphthalein and left aside four 24 hours at room temperature. After standing, the precipitate is filtered and cold water is use to wash several times until the wash-water become colorless. The precipitate is dissolved in alcohol at 85°C and the alcoholic solution is allowed for evaporation until dryness, and the residue is exhausted after neutralization with little amount of acetic acid. Decolorizing charcoal is used to treat the acidic solution and afterward precipitated with ammonia, avoiding excess is important. After filtration, the precipitate is washed and purified by crystallization in alcohol; concentration of the alcoholic mother-liquor yields a further quantity of morphine. This procedure was reported to be impossible to be consider for industrial scale because of the slight solubility of morphine is alcohol [120].
The gummy opium in divide into thin slices and treated with hot water thrice of its weight until obtain a homogeneous paste. After filtration the residue is pressed and treated again with thrice its weight in water. The resulted solutions are combined and allowed to evaporation until half their volume and poured into boiling milk of lime. One part of lime in ten parts of water should be used for four parts of opium; it is then filtered off again. The lime solutions are united and concentrated to a quantity twice the weight of the opium used. The solution is filtered, heated to boiling, and morphine is precipitated by adding ammonium chloride. The solution is filtrated after cooling at room temperature, and the precipitate is washed, then purified by solution in hydrochloric acid and crystallization of the morphine hydrochloride. It is an attractive process since there are no technical difficulties and the morphine is well separated from the secondary alkaloids. The morphine solutions are relatively clean; however, the yield might be bad. The contributory factors may be the oxidation of morphine in alkaline solution, and the fact that the lime always retains morphine [120].
Five to ten times its weight of cold distilled water is used to completely exhaust the opium. The resultant solution is evaporated to the consistency of a soft extract. The process is repeated with cold distilled water. This aqueous re-extraction causes impurities to precipitate, they are filtered off and the solution obtained is evaporated until its density is 10° Baumé. For each kilogram of opium, one hundred and twenty grams of calcium chloride are added to the boiling liquor, which is further diluted with an amount of cold water equal to its volume. A mixture of a precipitate of meconate and sulfate of calcium is thus formed and is filtered off. After filtration, the filtrate is once more concentrated to produce a new deposit which consist almost entirely of calcium meconate. After removal of the residue by filtration, the filtrate is left to stand for few days until it becomes a crystalline mass called “Gregory’s salt”. It is a mixture of hydrochloride and codeine hydrochloride. The crystals obtained are drained and then placed in a cloth and squeezed out in the presser. Successive crystallization is employed and each time animal charcoal is used to decolorize the solutions. To separate morphine to codeine, sufficiently pure crystals are dissolve in water and ammonia is therefore added to precipitate morphine while codeine remains in aqueous solution.
The first disadvantage of this procedure is that 20 to 25% of the morphine is left with the secondary alkaloids in the brown and viscous mother-liquids after filtration of the Gregory’s salt. The second drawback is that the hydrochloride of morphine and codeine crystallize in furry needles retains the mother-liquids in which the crystallization occurred. Several successive crystallization and subsequent recoveries are required for purification, which is a time-consuming process [120].
Later in 1957, an efficient method of extraction of morphine from poppy straw was developed by Mehltretter and Weakley. Water-saturated isobutanol containing 0.23% ammonia was used to extract morphine. Almost all the alkaloid was absorbed by passing off the raw opium through a cation exchange ions resin bed. Quantitative elution of morphine from the bed was achieved with dilute aqueous alkali. After neutralization and concentration, the crude morphine is obtained, and the eluate can be converted to hydrochloride pharmaceutical grade without difficulty. The general recovery of morphine was 90% [121].
Cooper and Nicola have reported recently a straightforward process for extraction of morphine with a good overall yield (Figures 11 and 13). Morphine and related alkaloids can be purified from opium resin and crude extracts by extraction in the following manner: first, soaking the resin with diluted sulfuric acid, which releases the alkaloids into solution. Either ammonium hydroxide or sodium carbonate then precipitates the alkaloids. The last step separates morphine from other opium alkaloids. Today, morphine is isolated from opium in relatively large quantities: over 1000 tons per year (Figure 14) [30].
Extraction of raw opium from poppy straw.
Extraction protocol of morphine from raw opium by Cooper and Nicola [
Till date, morphine is used as a powerful painkiller to alleviate severe pain by acting straightaway on the brain. It also possesses euphoric and hallucinatory effects. Morphine can also be chemically converted by an acetylation reaction using acetic anhydride and pyridine to create a much more potent form of the narcotic drug known as heroin [30].
Glycosides are relatively polar, and their polarity depends on both the number and type of sugar moieties attached to the aglycone. Cardiac glycosides have bulky steroidal aglycone, which are soluble in chloroform. However, most glycosides are extracted using polar solvents like acetone, methanol, ethanol, water or mixtures of these solvents. When extraction in done using water as solvent, enzymatic breakdown can happen. This will be avoid by using boiling water or add important proportions of alcohol or ammonium sulfate to the extract. In some cases, it may be the hydrolytic separation of the aglycone and sugar before or after extraction [122, 123].
Phenolic compounds are well-known phytochemicals found in almost all plants. They can be simple phenols, benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives, coumarins, tannins, lignins, lignans, and flavonoids [124]. Flavonoids are a group of plant constituents, the most common phenolic compound produce by plants as secondary metabolites in response to diverse biotic and abiotic factors [63, 82, 124]. They are responsible for the characteristics of flavor, color and pharmacological activities [67, 80, 125]. Because of their positive effects on human and animal health, and medical application for disease therapy and chemoprevention, interest in flavonoids increases [126, 127]. Complete extraction of phenolics is the next critical step after the sample preparation. The most common procedures of extraction of phenolics employ solvents, either organic or inorganic. Different parameters may influence the extraction yield, that includes temperature, the solvent used, time, solvent-to-sample ratio, as well as the number of repeated extractions of the plant material [124].
There is no universal extraction method and each optimized procedure is unique [82]. Due to the complex nature of the sample matrix and diverse chemical characteristics of flavonoids, it is consensual among scholars that there is no single or/and standard method to be used for every material or flavonoids to be extracted at present [67]. Maceration, water infusion, and Soxhlet extractions are generally used in research laboratories and/or in small manufacturing companies. The choice of solvent for extraction such as water, acetone, ethyl acetate, alcohols (methanol, ethanol, and propanol), and their mixtures will influence phenolics’ extraction [124, 128]. The extraction of flavonoids-containing sample material are still performed by simple direct solvent extraction. It can also be extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus, first with
Due to the multiplicity of hydroxyl functions, phenols tend to be relatively polar and dissolve in aqueous alcohols. They may also be extracted or partitioned into aqueous alkali as phenolate salts as they are weak acids. A problem encountered with phenolic compounds is that they can undergo extensive polymerization reaction by polyphenol oxidation. This reaction is responsible for developing brown coloration in damaged plant material when exposed to the air and in certain extracts. The polymerization reaction is catalyzed by acid [131].
The procedure for isolating mixtures of crude saponins (i.e., steroidal or triterpene glycosides) is shown in Figure 15. Fats are removed from the plant material by treating with
General fractionation procedure to obtain a precipitate of crude saponin from plants, adapted from the literature [
There is a clear and growing interest in the extraction procedure of natural products and their isolation, identification, and applications. Research innovation and safe extraction processes are of primary importance in modern analytical processes, which are economically viable and environmental friendly. In the process of plant extracting plant material, it is peremptory to reduce interference of components that may be co-extracted with the target compounds, and to bypass contamination of the extract, moreover to prevent degradation of necessary metabolites or the formation of artifact as a result of extraction conditions or solvent impurities. Regardless of the extraction procedure, the resulting solution should be filtered to remove any particulate matter. Plant extracts should be stored for short time at room temperature or in sunlight to avoid increasing risks associated with the production of artifact making and additionally degradation or isomerization of extract components. The most suitable extraction procedure depends on the matrix of the plants and the type of compost, and should follow clear selection criteria.
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript or in the decision to publish the results.
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The expression of phenolic compounds is promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation). These compounds are formed via the shikimate pathway in higher plants and microorganisms. The enzymes responsible for the regulation of phenolic metabolism are known, and shikimic acid is a central metabolite. The shikimate pathway consists of seven reaction steps, beginning with an aldol-type condensation of phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) from the glycolytic pathway, and D-erythrose-4-phosphate, from the pentose phosphate cycle, to produce 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP). A key branch-point compound is chorismic acid, the final product of the shikimate pathway. The shikimate pathway is described in this chapter, as well as factors that induce the synthesis of phenolic compounds in plants. Some representative examples that show the effect of biotic and abiotic stress on the production of phenolic compounds in plants are discussed.",book:{id:"7688",slug:"plant-physiological-aspects-of-phenolic-compounds",title:"Plant Physiological Aspects of Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Plant Physiological Aspects of Phenolic Compounds"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Beatriz Hernández-Carlos and Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"277799",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"60884",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76719",title:"Free Radicals and the Role of Plant Phytochemicals as Antioxidants Against Oxidative Stress-Related Diseases",slug:"free-radicals-and-the-role-of-plant-phytochemicals-as-antioxidants-against-oxidative-stress-related-",totalDownloads:3031,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"Free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated from various sources in the environment as well as from cellular processes in the body are of serious health challenges. Overwhelming levels of these free radicals disrupt the antioxidant defense system in the body thereby damaging cell membranes and cellular macromolecules such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids leading to cell death or causing mutations leading to uncontrolled cell division. Once the cellular antioxidant system is disrupted and becomes deficient, oxidative stress emerges thereby promoting several diseases such as diabetes, arthrosclerosis, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, etc. Better management of oxidative stress requires antioxidants from external sources to supplement the body’s antioxidant defense system. Because of their natural origin and therapeutic benefits, plants have been considered as a major source of antioxidants. Certain non-enzymatic plant phytochemicals such as glutathione, polyphenols, bioflavonoids, carotenoids, hydroxycinnamates as well as some vitamins have shown to possess antioxidant properties in vitro and in vivo. These plant phytochemicals are now been used in the prevention and management of oxidative stress-related diseases.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"}]},{id:"62573",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79683",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7468,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"61798",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77725",title:"Essential Oils: Market and Legislation",slug:"essential-oils-market-and-legislation",totalDownloads:2842,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of the market for essential oils and describes its fundamental regulation in the European Union (EU). Both processes and trends in essential oils production, trade, and consumption are analysed. Growth of the market stems from consumer interest in ‘naturals’ associated with health. The market is also attractive to subsistence farmers of developing countries as the raw materials (plants and plant parts), for essential olis are generally obtained from small farms. In the EU, product categories operate under specific regulations to enhance product quality and to maintain market homogeneity and consumer protection. This chapter focuses on EU legislation of general interest to the essential oils industry and regulations inherent to flavourings for food, cosmetics, and additives for animal nutrition.",book:{id:"6385",slug:"potential-of-essential-oils",title:"Potential of Essential Oils",fullTitle:"Potential of Essential Oils"},signatures:"Cinzia Barbieri and Patrizia Borsotto",authors:[{id:"237549",title:"Prof.",name:"Cinzia",middleName:null,surname:"Barbieri",slug:"cinzia-barbieri",fullName:"Cinzia Barbieri"},{id:"246538",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrizia",middleName:null,surname:"Borsotto",slug:"patrizia-borsotto",fullName:"Patrizia Borsotto"}]},{id:"40314",doi:"10.5772/52607",title:"Soybean Meal and The Potential for Upgrading Its Feeding Value by Enzyme Supplementation",slug:"soybean-meal-and-the-potential-for-upgrading-its-feeding-value-by-enzyme-supplementation",totalDownloads:3600,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"3244",slug:"soybean-bio-active-compounds",title:"Soybean",fullTitle:"Soybean - Bio-Active Compounds"},signatures:"D. Pettersson and K. Pontoppidan",authors:[{id:"153418",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Katrine",middleName:null,surname:"Pontoppidan",slug:"katrine-pontoppidan",fullName:"Katrine Pontoppidan"},{id:"153419",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Pettersson",slug:"dan-pettersson",fullName:"Dan Pettersson"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7477,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5714,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]},{id:"68108",title:"Analytical Methods of Isolation and Identification",slug:"analytical-methods-of-isolation-and-identification",totalDownloads:2722,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The chemical constituents of plants are complicated, and monomeric compounds must be obtained via extraction and isolation before structure identification, bioactivity screening, and so on. In recent years, the new technologies and methods of the extraction, isolation, and structural identification have come forth, which promote the speed of extraction and analysis of phytochemicals. The chemical structures of compounds from plants must be identified or elucidated, which may provide the necessary basis for further study on the bioactivities, structure-activity relationships, metabolisms in vivo, structural modification, and synthesis of the active compounds. The amount of chemical constituents isolated from plants is often minor, so the structural studies are often difficult to carry out with classical methods. Therefore, spectral analysis is mainly used. This chapter describes the isolation and identification methods during the study of phytochemicals.",book:{id:"8077",slug:"phytochemicals-in-human-health",title:"Phytochemicals in Human Health",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals in Human Health"},signatures:"Weisheng Feng, Meng Li, Zhiyou Hao and Jingke Zhang",authors:null},{id:"65307",title:"Shikimic Acid Pathway in Biosynthesis of Phenolic Compounds",slug:"shikimic-acid-pathway-in-biosynthesis-of-phenolic-compounds",totalDownloads:4080,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:80,abstract:"Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites found most abundantly in plants. These aromatic molecules have important roles, as pigments, antioxidants, signaling agents, the structural element lignan, and as a defense mechanism. The expression of phenolic compounds is promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation). These compounds are formed via the shikimate pathway in higher plants and microorganisms. The enzymes responsible for the regulation of phenolic metabolism are known, and shikimic acid is a central metabolite. The shikimate pathway consists of seven reaction steps, beginning with an aldol-type condensation of phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) from the glycolytic pathway, and D-erythrose-4-phosphate, from the pentose phosphate cycle, to produce 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP). A key branch-point compound is chorismic acid, the final product of the shikimate pathway. The shikimate pathway is described in this chapter, as well as factors that induce the synthesis of phenolic compounds in plants. Some representative examples that show the effect of biotic and abiotic stress on the production of phenolic compounds in plants are discussed.",book:{id:"7688",slug:"plant-physiological-aspects-of-phenolic-compounds",title:"Plant Physiological Aspects of Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Plant Physiological Aspects of Phenolic Compounds"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Beatriz Hernández-Carlos and Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"277799",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"72167",title:"Terpenoids as Important Bioactive Constituents of Essential Oils",slug:"terpenoids-as-important-bioactive-constituents-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:1298,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Plant and plant-derived natural products have a long and significant history in traditional medicine all over the world. Many studies in the recent past years focused on the benefic properties of essential oils (EOs) and their major components, terpenes and terpenoids (that are mostly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes), and their biological properties. This chapter focuses on terpenoids as important bioactive constituents of EOs. It describes their uses, importance, extraction processes, and classification. The chapter provides an in-depth overview of the latest findings/research about terpenoids in EOs. It contains a well-prepared background, introduction, classification, chemical tests, bioactivities, as well as the characterization of terpenoids. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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Dr. Badria was listed among the top 2% of most-cited scientists in medical and biomolecular chemistry by Stanford University in 2019 and 2020. He has received several awards including the TWAS Prize for “Public Understanding and Popularization of Science”; WIPO Gold Medal (Best Inventor); State Outstanding Award in Medicine; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and Khawrazmi International Award, Iran.",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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