Proximate composition of macauba fruit. Source: Lira et al. [36].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2252",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Genetic diversity is of fundamental importance in the continuity of a species as it provides the necessary adaptation to the prevailing biotic and abiotic environmental conditions, and enables change in the genetic composition to cope with changes in the environment. Genetic Diversity in Plants presents chapters revealing the magnitude of genetic variation existing in plant populations. The increasing availability of PCR-based molecular markers allows the detailed analyses and evaluation of genetic diversity in plants and also, the detection of genes influencing economically important traits. The purpose of the book is to provide a glimpse into the dynamic process of genetic variation by presenting the thoughts of scientists who are engaged in the generation of new ideas and techniques employed for the assessment of genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers, and experts in the area of conservation biology, genetic diversity, and molecular biology.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0185-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4325-3",doi:"10.5772/2640",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",numberOfPages:512,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"f2540f35e6516d6946f6953469c61ff3",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalişkan",publishedDate:"March 14th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2252.jpg",numberOfDownloads:100537,numberOfWosCitations:275,numberOfCrossrefCitations:87,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:265,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:13,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:627,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 15th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 15th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 14th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. 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\r\n\tPolycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a major health problem with a heterogeneous hormone-imbalance disorder that occurs in reproductive-aged women worldwide, which is characterized by hyperandrogenism, ovulatory process dysfunction and polycystic ovaries. PCOS is affected by various factors and there are no unique diagnostic criteria in different regions, due to the heterogeneity of clinical manifestations and endocrine system changes of PCOS. Therefore, it is often difficult to accurately diagnose women with PCOS, as the signs and symptoms of PCOS can vary among individuals. Although PCOS is usually diagnosed during the early reproductive years, but the precise pathogenesis of PCOS remains unclear. An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that the insulin signaling pathway has an important role in the pathophysiology of PCOS, including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase B signaling, which is critically implicated in insulin resistance, androgen secretion, obesity and follicular development. PCOS manifests as defective ovarian steroid biosynthesis and hyperandrogenemia, and 50~70% of women with PCOS exhibit insulin resistance and are hyperinsulinemic, indicating that insulin resistance and hyperinsulinism may have an important role in the pathophysiology of PCOS.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in PCOS researches and to benefit the population of women with PCOS. At last, It is my hope that this book will be meaningful to the clinicians who care for women with PCOS and to the researchers who investigate the complexities of this disorder disease.
\r\n\t
The world population growth brings great challenges regarding food security and environmental sustainability [1]. In this scenario, increasing the production of vegetable oils by developing resilient and sustainable cropping systems may be a promising approach. The global production of vegetable oil is dependent on the production of tropical perennial oilseed plants, in particular the African palm (
In this context, the identification of oilseed plant species that contain oils with triacylglycerol composition similar to palm oil, high production yield, and greater resistance to adverse edaphoclimatic conditions is a challenge. Macauba [
This plant species grows preferably in tropical and subtropical regions with high rainfall and solar irradiation [11]. However, it is able to adapt well to other environments, including subtropical and semiarid conditions [9]. In Brazil, there is a large quantity of degraded land or land in process of degradation or desertification caused by human action or natural phenomena. Land degradation is the loss of productivity due to factors such as soil erosion, reduction of soil fertility, and loss of natural vegetation [12]. The fact that macauba has a great capacity to adapt to extreme edaphoclimatic conditions has led to the proposal that this plant could contribute to the recovery of degraded lands [13].
The energy capacity of macauba is due to the high productivity and quality of the pulp and kernel oils. Macauba oils have a different fatty acid profile and minority compounds. The pulp oil has a predominance of unsaturated fatty acids and bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids and tocopherols [14]. In turn, kernel oil is rich in saturated fatty acids, mainly lauric acid. These notable differences confer distinct market potential for both products [15].
In the last decade, studies on
Due to the essentially extractive nature of macauba cultivation, in many cases, good practices for harvesting and storing the raw material are not followed, and this directly impacts the quality of the fruits and oils obtained [10]. In Brazil, there are several commercial cultivation programs demonstrating that it is a viable strategy, although it is still far from competing with commodities. The processing of macauba oils begins with the process of extraction by continuous pressing to obtain the crude oil [20]. Subsequently, the oils must undergo a refining process in order to eliminate undesirable substances that compromise both the oxidative stability of these oils and their organoleptic qualities [20]. Once refined, oils can have several applications both in the food and oleochemical areas and can still undergo modifications to expand their range of applications [15]. Figure 1 outlines the complete macauba oil production chain from the palm tree to the lipid modified.
Representation of the macauba oil production chain: Palm, fruit bunches, open fruit, processing of oils, and lipids modification (photos source: S. Oleum).
Excellent studies on the biology of macauba have been reported, including the factors that influence productivity, domestication processes, and genetic improvement, aiming for the development of commercial crops, and genetic variability, among others. Recently, Vargas-Carpinteiro et al. have published an exhaustive review on
Macauba is a palm species that belongs to the Arecaceae family, which includes approximately 189 genera and about 3000 species, which are classified into five subfamilies, as follows: Calamoideae, Nypoideae, Coryphoideae, Ceroxyloideae, and Arecoideae [21]. The latter is the most representative family since it contains species of great economic interest such as
Currently, nine species are included within the genus
Macauba is a perennial, halophytic, tree-like palm species with a solitary, aerial, cylindrical, and spindle-shaped stem that can reach 10–15 m in height and 20–30 cm in diameter. The stipe is often covered by the bases of the petioles, which remain attached for many years. The node region is covered with dark and sharp spines and is approximately 10 cm long [31].
The
Macauba flowering is seasonal and annual. In Brazil, it blooms from September to February, with peak flowering in November and December [33]. However, fruiting occurs throughout the year and the fruits mature approximately 1 year after fertilization [33]. Macauba generates inflorescences with bulky clusters that contain 300–600 drupaceous fruits, weighing about 66 g/each, resulting in a highly productive plant [13].
The fruits can be 3.0–5.0 cm in diameter, are edible, spherical, and do not ferment immediately after ripening [5]. The fruit contains approximately 20% epicarp (peel), 40% mesocarp (pulp), 33% endocarp, and 7% kernel [34]. The epicarp ruptures easily when ripe. The mesocarp is fibrous, mucilaginous, sweet-tasting, edible, and rich in glycerides, yellow or whitish in color. The endocarp is strongly adhered to the pulp, with a black bony wall, and an edible oily kernel covered by a thin layer of the tegument. Each fruit usually contains a seed surrounded by a hard, dark endocarp approximately 3-mm thick [30, 35]. Macauba has two economically important kinds of oil, stored in the fruit pulp and its kernel. The pulp contains up to 75% of the total lipids, while the kernel may contain up to 65%, both on a dry basis [34]. Table 1 shows the proximate composition of
Kernel % | Pulp % | |
---|---|---|
Dry matter | 83.11 | 42.65 |
Ash | 1.29 | 2.03 |
Crude protein | 5.66 | 1.15 |
Lipids | 47.76 | 32.05 |
Crude fiber | 62.79 | 51.70 |
Mineral matter | 0.39 | 0.66 |
Carbohydrates | 33.40 | 18.10 |
Moisture | 3.18 | 45.42 |
Proximate composition of macauba fruit. Source: Lira et al. [36].
Macauba, like most palm species, has an essentially extractive cultivation system, leading to habitat fragmentation, increasing inbreeding, and decreasing genetic diversity [37]. Both the domestication process and the development of breeding programs for
There is great morphometric and genetic variability among macauba plants native to the Brazilian Cerrado and Pantanal regions of Brazil and Costa Rica, characterized by fruit biometry and oil yield [34, 40, 41]. However, these factors are not correlated [40]. Biometric studies of Costa Rican varieties have suggested a possible environmental effect on oil composition and yield [41]. Dos Santos et al. [42] studied the accumulation of metabolites in fruits coming from three Brazilian regions (Southeast, Northeast, and Midwest) characterized by having different lipid contents. The authors concluded that, despite the anatomical differences between mesocarp and endocarp, in both tissues, a similar trend of metabolite accumulation was observed toward ripening. In the mesocarp, total soluble proteins, free amino acids, sucrose, starch, and total lipids accumulate toward maturity, with a decrease in glucose and fructose contents. The endosperm differed from the mesocarp only for the amino acid contents, which decreased in mature fruits. The results pointed out that fruits from the Southeast region (Minas Gerais) may be of interest for breeding studies due to their higher lipid contents [42].
Genomics-based strategies allow access to the genetic potential of natural populations, germplasm characterization, phylogenetic analysis, etc. [38]. The availability of public databases (www.ncbi.nhi.gov) of genomic sequences of
The embryo culture of
In this context, the development of genetic improvement programs for macauba to allow systematic cultivation and commercialization on a large scale in the near future is required. Initiatives to cultivate macauba in Brazil for commercial purposes have been undertaken, including the programs Entaban Brazil, Solea, and Inocas, with production destined for national consumption [5].
The harvest and storage stages of fruits are determinants of the quality of agricultural products. Both the harvest method and the development stage of macauba fruit at the time of harvest directly impact the quality of the oil [16]. The storage time of the fruits before the oil extraction also has a great impact on the product quality, which is determinant in humid tropical countries [37]. In the extractive cultivation system of macauba, the fruits are collected directly from the soil, after the natural fall at the end of the fruiting period, and stored with no controlled humidity and temperature conditions, resulting in low-quality oils and yield [16].
Data have shown an increase in oil content at the end of the maturation period of macauba fruits, thus harvesting bunches at the end of this phase is recommended. However, the proportions of fatty acids and triacylglycerols of both pulp and kernel oils do not vary [48]. A very important peculiarity of the macauba fruit is the additional oil synthesis after abscission, which differentiates it from other palm species, including
The acidity index is a measure of the free fatty acids content in the oil. Oils with acidity levels >5% expressed as free fatty acids compromise the later stages of processing and commercialization [49]. The increase in free fatty acids in the oil from the mesocarp is due to the action of lipases (E.C. 3.1.1.3; glycerol ester hydrolases) that hydrolyze triacylglycerols in the presence of water. These enzymes are produced by plants, animals, and microorganisms [50], and the latter are recognized as potential producers of extracellular lipases [51]. Cavalcanti-Oliveira et al. analyzed the origin of lipases involved in the hydrolysis of macauba pulp oil [52]. The results suggested that the oil from the mesocarp is hydrolyzed by lipases produced by microorganisms that contaminate the fruit when in contact with soil, rather than the action of endogenous lipases. Some authors have reported that macauba fruits harvested directly from the bunch or naturally fallen fruits with no contact with the soil can be stored under ambient conditions for up to 20 days, without exceeding 5% acidity [16, 18, 53]. However, a varied microbiota can be found in the epicarp and mesocarp of macauba fruits without contact with the soil [16].
Thus, efficient harvesting methods and rapid fruit processing are required to slow pulp decomposition and oil acidification [54]. Fresh macauba fruit has high-quality mesocarp oil, even when it is dried immediately after harvest, provided that good harvesting and processing practices are applied [55]. Drying the fruit after harvest decreases the moisture content and reduces the hydrolysis efficiency of lipases in addition to facilitating pulping with simultaneous separation of the peel [56]. The combination of drying and autoclaving processes of macauba fruits allowed the storage of crude oil for 180 days, preserving the original acidity and the triacylglycerol profile [52]. It is worth noting that under good harvesting and storage practices, the acidification process of macauba pulp oil is slower than palm oil [55]. Other methods of treating the fruit immediately after harvest have been used to extend the shelf life of the fruit and the oil quality, including the use of ozone gas, irradiation, and different drying methods [53, 57, 58].
Evaristo et al. [16] reported a significant increase in the oil content of the mesocarp after the fruits were detached from the bunch, suggesting that macauba has climacteric behavior. The authors showed that harvesting macauba fruit directly from the bunch and the immediate storage under controlled humidity and temperature conditions, as well as the treatment with fungicides, resulted in higher fruit quality and therefore longer postharvest shelf life [16].
Improvements in fruit processing steps that positively impact the quantity and quality of the extracted oil can increase productivity and make the macauba more commercially competitive [56].
Three important steps should be considered for obtaining the crude oil, which directly affects the oil quality and product yield, including the storage of the raw material, preparation, and extraction of the crude oil. The variation in moisture content and temperature during fruit storage can trigger enzymatic and oxidation reactions, leading to a reduction in the quality of the oil extracted due to the increase in free fatty acids and other degradation compounds, known as peroxides [20].
The proximate composition of the macauba fruit consists of 47.76% and 32.05% lipids in the kernel and pulp, respectively; thus, continuous pressing is the most suitable method for oil extraction due to the high lipid contents [36, 59].
The screw-type press, also known as screw expeller, is a continuous press in which the fruit pulp or kernel is fed into a thick-walled cylinder containing a rotating, polished screw with gradually decreasing size. The oil from the plant cell is in the form of globules covered by a cell membrane. A typical characteristic of plant cells is the presence of thick cell walls; thus, the cell wall should be broken down to get the oil globules out. For that, the pulp or kernel cluster is fed continuously into the press and compressed at high pressure (4–35 MPa). In turn, while the oil is extracted, the compressed fruit cake is discarded at the end of the stretch. The high-energy consumption generated during shearing can considerably increase the temperature of both the oil and cake [20].
Chemically, oils and fats are mixtures composed mainly of triacylglycerols formed from a glycerol molecule esterified with three fatty acids. The crude oil usually contains monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, free fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, terpenes, sterols, tocopherols, and carotenoids as minority compounds [20]. The unsaponifiable matter consists of solubilized minority compounds in oils and fats that are extractable with organic solvents after saponification [60]. Nunes (2013) found 0.76% unsaponifiable matter in crude macauba pulp oil, while Breves (2018) found 2% unsaponifiable matter in crude macauba kernel oil [61, 62].
The macauba kernel oil is characterized by the predominance of oleic acid and lauric acid, and presents a translucent aspect, while the pulp oil has an orange color and is characterized by a high concentration of oleic acid and carotenoids, which may provide high oxidative stability [63, 64]. Table 2 presents the fatty acids profile of macauba pulp and kernel oils.
Fatty acids | Pulp (%) | Kernel (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
C4:0 | Butyric | Traces | 0.91 |
C6:0 | Caproic | 0.22 | 0.27 |
C8:0 | Caprylic | 0.11 | 3.67 |
C10:0 | Capric | Traces | 2.79 |
C12:0 | Lauric | 0.39 | 32.58 |
C14:0 | Myristic | 0.38 | 9.71 |
C16:0 | Palmitic | 24.6 | 8.25 |
C16:1 | Palmitoleic | 4.27 | — |
C18:0 | Stearic | 1.08 | 2.24 |
C18:1 | Oleic | 52.57 | 36.27 |
C18:2 | Linoleic | 13.80 | 3.82 |
C18:3 | Linolenic | 2.26 | — |
C20:0 | Arachidic | Traces | — |
C22:0 | Behenic | Traces | — |
C24:0 | Lignoceric | 0.32 | — |
Ʃ saturated | — | 27.10 | 59.92 |
Ʃ unsaturated | — | 72.90 | 40.09 |
Fatty acid profile of macauba oils (pulp and kernel). Source: Coimbra and Jorge [14].
The low content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic—C18:2 and linolenic—C18:3) can also affect the oxidative stability of the pulp oil, corresponding to 15%. On the other hand, the kernel oil presents a peculiar fatty acid composition, because although it has 32.58% of lauric acid (C12:0), which is a lower level when compared to conventional lauric oils, such as coconut, palm kernel, and babassu, it has more than 35% of oleic acid, an unusual content among all vegetable oils of this class.
The macauba pulp oil presents a smaller range of carbon groups, comprising 48–54 carbon groups. Fourteen distinct triacylglycerols were identified, corresponding to 17.07% OOO, 6.36% OOL, 28.53% POO, and 10.53% PLP [65]. Lieb et al. analyzed macauba pulp oil from Costa Rica and found 20.8% OOO, 10.4% OOL, 13.0% POO, and 1.5% PLP (P: palmitic; Po: palmitoleic, S: stearic; O: oleic; L: linoleic) [48]. This divergence of values is due to the different origins of the fruits and the extraction method used to obtain the crude oil.
Natural antioxidants found in vegetable oils, such as tocopherols and tocotrienols, have four isomers, designated as alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ), depending on the number and position of methyl groups in a chromanol ring. Tocopherols are characterized by a saturated side chain, while tocotrienols present an unsaturated side chain, and they also have a vitamin E activity in humans. They are also recognized for slowing down the lipid oxidation process. The antioxidant activity of tocopherols in food increases progressively for the δ, β, γ, and α isomers. On the other hand, tocotrienols are less effective than their corresponding isomers [66].
Carotenoids constitute a diverse group of lipophilic compounds that provide yellowish to red color to oils and are also known as bioactive compounds with proven health benefits [66].
Coimbra and Jorge characterized the macauba kernel and pulp oils for the concentration of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and tocopherols, and the findings are shown in Table 3 [14].
Macauba pulp oil (mg kg −1) | Macauba kernel oil (mg kg −1) | |
---|---|---|
Phenolic compounds | 2.21 | 4.38 |
Total carotenoids | 300.1 | 1.82 |
Total tocopherol | 221.95 | 23.10 |
α-Tocopherol | 143.70 | 14.35 |
β-Tocopherol | 3.25 | 0.85 |
γ-Tocopherol | 57.83 | — |
δ-Tocopherol | 8.15 | 7.90 |
Tocopherols, carotenoids, and phenolics concentrations in macauba oils.
Source: Coimbra and Jorge [14].
Factors that affect or catalyze the lipid oxidation include the presence of unsaturated or double bonds in fatty acids, light, temperature, prooxidants and antioxidants, enzymes, and storage conditions. In addition, the oxidative stability reflects the quality of the raw material from harvest to processing, leading to undesirable flavors that reduce the quality and shelf life of oils [67].
Breves [62] studied the oxidative stability of macauba kernel and pulp oils according to ISO 6886, and reported 41.35 and 16.36 min at 110°C, respectively. It is worth noting that the stability of the pulp oil is relatively lower than that of the kernel oil, due to the higher number of unsaturated fatty acids [62].
Refining can be defined as a series of distinct steps aimed at reducing undesirable substances from crude oils that can affect the stability and sensory properties. It removes colloidal substances, phosphatides, free fatty acids, natural pigments, such as chlorophyll and carotenoids, inorganic substances, such as calcium salts, metals, and phosphates, among others, and volatile compounds, such as peroxides, hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and low-molecular weight esters, and water [20].
The selection of the adequate refining process is directly related to the free fatty acid content (%) of the crude oil and can be done through a chemical or physical process. The chemical process is not indicated for high acidity oils since significant losses of neutral lipids may occur due to saponification or soapstock dragging. For acidic oils, physical refining is indicated and should be performed under high temperature and low pressure, volatilizing and removing free fatty acids with reduced loss of neutral lipids [68].
In addition, phospholipid contents are the second factor to be considered before selecting the refining process. Chemical refining is indicated for high phosphorus levels, while the physical refining process is more usual for oils with low phosphorus levels [60]. For macauba pulp oil, both types of refining can be used due to its non-standardization as acidic oil (Figure 2).
Schematic diagram of the typical process for obtaining refined oil from the raw material of interest.
Degumming is the first step for obtaining the refined oil, either for physical or chemical processes, in which phospholipids are converted into oil-insoluble hydratable gums that are easily separated by sedimentation, filtration, or centrifugation through the addition of water and/or acid solution. This step is important for the removal of phospholipids, which can precipitate during the storage, affecting the quality of the oil and the subsequent refining steps. Additionally, it is possible to obtain lecithin, which is a by-product of high commercial value due to its emulsifying effect [20, 60].
Neutralization is carried out during the chemical refining and consists of neutralizing and thus reducing the free fatty acids content by adding an alkaline solution. Diluted caustic soda is usually used in concentrations between 10 and 24° Bé (degrees Baumé). The concentration of caustic soda and its excess is dependent on the free fatty acids (FFA) content of the degummed oil to be neutralized, avoiding saponification of the oil [69].
The next step is known as clarification or bleaching. Its main objective is to remove pigments to obtain clear oils (an important factor for commercialization), in addition to removing other constituents, such as oxidation products, metal traces, phospholipids, and soaps, resulting from the chemical refining. According to Kaynak et al. [70], these impurities, when present in the oil, can contaminate the hydrogenation and interesterification catalysts, darken the oil, and decrease oxidative stability [20, 70].
The efficiency of the process is determined by adding clarifying clays, either natural or activated, via adsorption. Part of the pigments is adsorbed onto the clarifying clay through surface attraction forces, known as “Van de Waals forces.” Other components are chemically bound to the surface of the clarifying clays by covalent or ionic bonds. Part of the impurities present in the oil is removed by trapping their molecules in the pores of the clay. Some minor components, such as oxidation compounds and pigments, are chemically altered during clarification due to the catalytic activity of some clays [69].
Deodorization is the last step of chemical refining, with the elimination of volatile compounds such as remaining free fatty acids and peroxides that give the oil an unpleasant aroma and flavor. The deodorization is done through steam distillation, removing volatile substances through a high vacuum [69].
In physical refining, the last step consists of distillation, with oil deacidification through the removal of free fatty acids, volatiles, and oxidation products [69]. The process is carried out through the association of high temperature and low absolute pressure, favoring the acceleration of distillation and preserving the oil from atmospheric oxidation [61].
According to the CODEX Alimentarius CXS 210-199 for vegetable oils, refined oils should have a maximum acidity of 0.6 mg KOH/g oil and up to 10 mEq O2 kg−1 [71].
It is estimated that a great amount of industrialized vegetable products, corresponding to 15–20%, are not used. The volume of these residues can reach even higher levels depending on the raw material, the processing applied, equipment used, and process yield, among others. All these factors induce the generation of by-products for food, fertilization, and feed production. Researchers have attempted to use by-products from the processing of vegetable raw materials, including vegetable oils, and once besides adding value to the by-products, it reduces the disposal in nature, helps in the environmental preservation, and promotes the integral use of the vegetable sources [72].
In addition to the refined oil, the distillate is obtained during the refining process, known as vegetable oil deodorization distillate (VODD). It is a by-product of the industrial processing of vegetable oils and is considered a low-cost source rich in health-giving components, such as tocopherols and phytosterols, in addition to FFA with numerous industrial applications. The distillates from physical refining have FFA contents above 70% and lower levels of unsaponifiable materials [73].
The research team of the Laboratory of Oils and Fats of the Faculty of Food Engineering—UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil, studied the distillates from the deodorization of macauba kernel and pulp oils from physical refining. The kernel distillate presented 14.49 mg/100 g of γ-tocopherol and 0.79 mg/100 g of γ-tocotrienol. In turn, the pulp distillate presented 80.27 mg/100 g of γ tocopherol, 25.84 mg/100 g of β tocopherol, and 5.64 mg/100 g of γ tocotrienol (unpublished data).
According to Tay et al. [74], the free fatty acid content of palm oil deodorized distillate ranged from 72.7% to 92.6%. The author studied the co-product of palm oil refining and found VODD content of 86.4% [74]. These valuable components can be used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic formulations [73].
The great potential of macauba has led to the development of several processing technologies for kernel and pulp oils. Favaro et al. studied the aqueous extraction of oil from fresh macauba pulp using the commercial enzyme Cellic® CTec3 and reported that the aqueous extraction was effective for obtaining high-quality oil [75]. Rosa et al. evaluated the effectiveness of ethyl acetate as a solvent in macauba kernel oil extraction by ultrasound-assisted extraction. Increasing the amount of solvent, the higher temperatures, and longer extraction times led to a higher amount of oil extracted [76]. Trentini et al. extracted macauba pulp oil by low-pressure solvent extraction and reported higher yields by using isopropanol as a solvent [77]. Prates-Valério et al. [78] studied different mechanical extraction conditions for obtaining pulp oil, aiming to produce an extremely productive raw material. The fruit pressed at 34°C resulted in higher oil quality when compared to other temperatures studied [78]. Favaro et al. evaluated the extraction efficiency and quality of pulp oil extracted using aqueous media from wet fruits and reported an acidity of 0.45% oleic acid [79]. Malaquias et al. estimated macauba yield by regression models using the variables bunch volume, length, and length/diameter ratio [80]. Colombo et al. studied the physicochemical characteristics of macauba and reported the high potential of this fruit [5].
To meet market demands and provide varied and uniform raw materials, lipid modification processes allow flexibility and contribute to reducing the gap between production site, demand, and availability. The most commonly used modification processes include hydrogenation, fractionation, and interesterification, using analytical or computational methods to ensure process efficiency [20, 69].
The fractionation process consists of a thermomechanical separation in which the lipid material is separated into two or more fractions with different physical and chemical properties, due to the difference in the melting point of triacylglycerols. A fraction called olein is obtained, composed of a greater amount of triacylglycerols with a lower melting point, which is present in liquid form, and a semisolid fraction called stearin, composed of triacylglycerols with a higher melting point [81, 82]. Magalhães et al. [83] performed the fractionation of macauba kernel oil and evaluated the olein and stearin fractions for thermal behavior and consistency. The authors concluded that fractionation allowed obtaining fractions with different degrees of oxidative stability and different physical properties for various applications [83].
The presence of double bonds interferes with the chemical and physical properties of oils and fats. The hydrogenation reaction is a physicochemical process that leads to the saturation of the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids through the addition of hydrogen atoms [20, 69].
Hydrogenation takes place in hermetic tanks, in which hydrogen gas is mixed with the raw material in the presence of a nickel catalyst, at high temperatures and high pressure. During partial hydrogenation, part of the double bonds of fatty acid is saturated, while some
Various harmful effects have been associated with the consumption of
The interesterification of liquid oils and fully hydrogenated vegetable oils has been the main alternative to produce fats with specific properties [84]. During the reaction, although the fatty acids remain unchanged, there is a redistribution of fatty acids in the triacylglycerol molecules, leading to changes in the triacylglycerol composition [88].
Two technological processes can be used for the interesterification of oils, including chemical and enzymatic interesterification. The chemical interesterification uses an alkaline catalyst, with no control over the fatty acid distribution, that is, it has a random nature. In turn, the enzymatic interesterification uses lipases with specific activities and selectivity, thus with greater control over the fatty acid distribution in triacylglycerol molecules [89]. Our research group developed interesterified fractions from macauba oil, which led to a patent application with the National Institute of Intellectual Property (INPI), registered under the number BR 102020 026665 9 [89].
The macauba potential for industrial applications is due to the high productivity and quality of pulp and kernel oils and can be grouped into four industrial segments, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and energy [15].
Both the macauba pulp and kernel are edible and have high nutritional value, allowing their insertion into the food industry [15]. The pulp can be added directly to food or as flour [92]. Other parts of the fruit can also be used. The biomass resulting from the macauba oil extraction is pressed to form cakes as an alternative for animal feed, as they do not present toxic components [93]. The pulp cake contains 9% protein, while the kernel cake has 32% [15]. Residues from the oil extraction from the macauba endocarp have been used for the production of higher quality vegetable carbon when compared to carbon from eucalyptus, with wide application in the steel industry [5, 94].
The differential composition of macauba pulp and kernel oils concerning the fatty acid profile and minor components (tocopherols, carotenoids, antioxidants, and phenolic compounds) provides a differentiated market for both products [15]. Pulp oil has a higher content of oleic and linoleic acids, with a recognized role in disease prevention and health promotion, including the role of oleic acid in the prevention of breast cancer and linoleic acid in the cognitive abilities of the elderly [95, 96]. Additionally, the macauba pulp oil has a higher content of carotenoids and tocopherols when compared to kernel oil. Traesel et al. reported no cytotoxic, genotoxic, or mutagenic effects of macauba pulp oil in rats [97].
Studies have shown that pulp oil, both in its raw and microencapsulated form, has diuretic and anti-inflammatory potential. It was also found that the microencapsulated pulp oil maintained the stability of the active ingredient and exhibited antiedematogenic activity [98]. Recent research has suggested that macauba pulp oil can be a promising high-quality raw material for the production of functional ingredients and foods with nutraceutical properties [99].
The kernel oil presents high content of saturated fatty acids (74%) with a predominance of lauric acid (44%) [99], which can be a promising approach for use in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [9]. Studies have shown the hypoglycemic effect of kernel oil in rats with type 2 diabetes when administered orally [100]. Dario et al. showed that kernel oil can be an alternative adjuvant in the development of a nanocarrier, enhancing the photoprotective activity [101]. Macauba kernel oil has also shown potential for use as a lipid ingredient in margarines and mayonnaises [102].
The macauba mesocarp oil is a promising raw material for biodiesel production due to the predominance of unsaturated fatty acids (±73%), mainly oleic acid (±52%) [14]. Biodiesel is defined as methyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or fats [103]. As reported by Coimbra and Jorge, biodiesel derived from
Xavier and Costa [15] performed a scientific and technological mapping on the characteristics and applications of macauba oil, showing the important contribution of Brazil in this area, and the participation of Brazilian universities in the valorization of native raw material. The technological segments most represented in this analysis of patents were energy, cosmetics, and agriculture [15].
Macauba is an emerging species with scientific interest concerning the distribution and genetic diversity of the species, plant development, oil production, crop management, harvest techniques and fruit treatment, extraction, processing, and modification of oils to obtain more plastic lipid bases for various applications. The high productivity of the macauba and the resilience of the crop along with the need to search for vegetable oils with potential use as alternative raw materials for biofuel production have encouraged further studies on this species. Although it is a very promising plant for the sustainable production of vegetable oil on a large scale, there are still scientific and technological challenges. The main challenges include obtaining commercial varieties, developing sustainable cultivation models, efficient fruit processing techniques, standardized refining protocols, and effective analytical techniques for oil characterization. This chapter summarizes the recent studies on
This study was supported by grants of CNPq, 310936/2021-7, and the Post-graduation Program in Food Technology—Oil and fats Laboratory—of Campinas State University, Capes Code 001.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. 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In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12377,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6879,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4493,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7983,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82385",title:"Cyclodextrins as Bricks for Tuning Polymer Properties",slug:"cyclodextrins-as-bricks-for-tuning-polymer-properties",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105688",abstract:"Cyclodextrins are natural cyclic oligosaccharides with a cone shape delimiting a hydrophobic cavity. The rims of cyclodextrins can be functionalized in order to improve their properties. Based on this, cyclodextrins can be linked to polymer chains, which further allows the tuning of the polymer properties. This review describes the methods of polymer functionalization with cyclodextrins and highlights the changes in the physicochemical properties of these materials. This chapter is focused on polymers in solution and in gel states. Cyclodextrin-based polymers are evaluated by various physicochemical methods, such as rheology, calorimetry, and spectroscopy (electron paramagnetic resonance, fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), etc.). Both natural and synthetic polymers are considered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11901",title:"Cyclodextrins - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11901.jpg"},signatures:"Ludmila Aricov, Anca Ruxandra Leontieș, Iulia Matei and Gabriela Ioniță"},{id:"82358",title:"Water Defluoridation Methods Applied in Rural Areas over the World",slug:"water-defluoridation-methods-applied-in-rural-areas-over-the-world",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105102",abstract:"Overexposure to fluoride (F) through drinking water is the most widespread water problem in the world, but it has now exacerbated due to rapid population growth rates, adverse climatic changes, and increasing levels of water scarcity. Thus, despite the large amounts of data, which has accrued on mitigation methods of high F is still the primary impediment to drinking water programs among many developing nations. The current review chapter on F mitigation techniques applied world-over is aimed at providing a succinct overview of water defluoridation techniques and strategies being used to combat the impact of human F overexposure. It represents a starting point to understand the prospects of reducing the global F impact. It is anticipated that this work will lay a strong foundation for this and also inform strategies for safeguarding public health and the environment from F pollution.",book:{id:"11209",title:"Fluoride",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11209.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Wamalwa Wambu, Franco Frau, Revocatus Machunda, Lilliane Pasape, Stephen S. Barasa and Giorgio Ghiglieri"},{id:"82221",title:"Solvent Catalysis in the Sensitizer-Mediator Redox Kinetics",slug:"solvent-catalysis-in-the-sensitizer-mediator-redox-kinetics",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105393",abstract:"The sensitizer-mediator redox reaction is a vital component of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The efficiency and stability of dye-sensitized solar cells are aided by the kinetics of this redox process. Several reaction parameters influence the kinetics of a reaction, and if those parameters are controlled, the rate of the process and its results can be controlled. One of the most important aspects of the sensitizer-mediator interaction is the reaction medium. Aqueous DSSCs are unquestionably a good replacement when it comes to taking a green approach to avoiding toxic, flammable, and volatile organic solvents and their mixtures, which are commonly used in DSSCs and are known to harm the environment while also reducing the lifetime and stability of the DSSCs. The catalytic role of a small volume fraction of organic solvent in the aqueous electron transfer kinetics of a few putative sensitizer-mediator reactions is discussed in this chapter. In binary solvent media including dilute tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)-water and dilute 1,4-dioxane-water, the reduction of dicyanobis(2,2′-dipyridyl)iron(III) and dicyanobis(1,10-phenanthroline)iron(III) was investigated. The reactions were carried out in a 10% TBA or dioxane to water media with a volume-volume fraction of both solvents using iodide as a reducing agent. The effect of several parameters on the rate constant was also calculated and analyzed.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"82282",title:"Pyridine Nucleus as a Directing Group for Metal-Based C–H Bond Activation",slug:"pyridine-nucleus-as-a-directing-group-for-metal-based-c-h-bond-activation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105544",abstract:"Carbon-hydrogen (C–H) bond activation involves a methodology for the construction of carbon-X (C–X) bonds where X can be carbon (C), oxygen (O), or the nitrogen (N), allowing the formation of C–C, C–O, or C–N bonds. Among them, the construction of the C–C bond within the aromatic moiety has remained a bottleneck because the abundance of C–H bonds in aromatic molecules possesses almost similar bond dissociation energies comparable to the C–C bond allowing leading to the poor reactivity and selectivity. Secondly, C–H bonds possess low polarity and thus confer them inertness. Considering this, directing group strategy came into existence, where the coordination ability of the heteroatoms such as O and N atoms within the ring was utilized for the direction of the reaction. The use of the heteroatom for the regioselective C–H bond activation is quite advantageous that could be explored immensely for their functionalization. In this chapter, we have congregated the information and put forth the evidence of C–H activation leading to the C–C bond formation in pyridine and pyridine-containing entities.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Purohit Priyank, Joshi Gaurav and Aggarwal Meenu"},{id:"82236",title:"Alternatives to Soluble Phosphorus Fertilizers in Indian Context",slug:"alternatives-to-soluble-phosphorus-fertilizers-in-indian-context",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105561",abstract:"Phosphorus is one of the primary nutrients required in crop production. Rock phosphate is the raw material required for the manufacturing of soluble phosphorus fertilizers, which is nonrenewable in nature and expected to last for 50–400 years. The restriction of resources to few geographical locations makes its supply more vulnerable. In India, 90% of the rock phosphate for fertilizer manufacturing is imported. However, the low quality of rock phosphate deposits available in India can be utilized with certain modifications in the form of addition of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, addition of gypsum, and in the form of phospho-enriched compost. Agriculture, livestock, urban and industrial waste can also prove to be a source of phosphorus through crystallization of struvite. There are encouraging results of struvite compared with soluble phosphorus fertilizers. This will reduce the import dependency in India as well as encourage the Atmanirbhar initiative in phosphorus fertilizer.",book:{id:"11906",title:"Phosphate Minerals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11906.jpg"},signatures:"Alok Singh Jayara, Rajeew Kumar, Priyanka Pandey, Manoj Kumar Bhatt, Sharad Pandey and Roshan Lal Meena"},{id:"82251",title:"Potassium Persulfate as an Eco-Friendly Oxidant for Oxidative Transformations",slug:"potassium-persulfate-as-an-eco-friendly-oxidant-for-oxidative-transformations",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104715",abstract:"The formation of carbon-carbon/carbon-heteroatom bonds by oxidative transformations is a hotly debated topic in chemistry. K2S2O8 has emerged as a cost-effective inorganic oxidant for a wide range of oxidative reactions in this setting. This book chapter covers oxidative reactions facilitated by K2S2O8 in the absence of a metal catalyst in detail. Organic chemists may find this book chapter valuable in formulating the mechanistic pathways involving the sulphate radical anion, as well as in the quick and environmentally friendly synthesis of novel chemical species.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Bilal Ahmad Mir and Suresh Rajamanickam"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:77},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. 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With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"19",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Science",keywords:"Animal Science, Animal Biology, Wildlife Species, Domesticated Animals",scope:"The Animal Science topic welcomes research on captive and wildlife species, including domesticated animals. The research resented can consist of primary studies on various animal biology fields such as genetics, nutrition, behavior, welfare, and animal production, to name a few. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/30175",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"30175"},fullPath:"/chapters/30175",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()