Permissible limit of heavy metal ions in water [21].
\r\n\tOver the years, the concept of maintenance became more comprehensive, reducing fault occurrence and increasing industrial system availability. Besides, reliability, safety, and criticality requirements were associated with the system or equipment under analysis. Maintenance strategies or schemes can be classified as corrective (run-to-break), preventive (time-based), and predictive (condition-based maintenance). Corrective maintenance is only performed after an occurrence of a fault. Therefore, it involves unexpected breakdowns, high costs, changes in the production chain, and it could lead to catastrophic events. Preventive maintenance and interventions occur based on a scheduled maintenance plan or the equipment's mean time between failures. Although it is more effective than corrective maintenance, unexpected failure may still occur by preventing most failures. Additionally, the process cost is still high, especially the costs associated with labor, inventory, and unnecessary replacement of equipment or components.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, predictive maintenance analyses the equipment condition so that a possible fault can still be identified at an early stage. Predictive maintenance aims to identify a machine anomaly so that it does not result in a fault. Such maintenance involves advanced monitoring, processing, and signal analysis techniques, which are generally performed non-invasively and, in many cases, in real-time. In the case of machines or processes, these techniques can be developed based on vibration, temperature, acoustic emission, or electrical current signal monitoring. It should be noted that monitoring such signals or parameters to verify the operating condition is called condition monitoring. Condition monitoring aims to observe the machine's current operational condition and predict its future condition, keeping it under a systematic analysis during its remaining life. In this sense, a fault condition can be detected and identified from systematic machine condition monitoring. A diagnosis procedure can be established, whereby properly investigating the fault symptoms and prognosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will aim to merge all these ideas in a single volume, aggregate new maintenance experiences, apply new techniques and approaches, and report field experiences to establish new maintenance processes and management paradigms.
\r\n\t
Expeditious expansion and industrial development near the rivers have led to more stress on the river, and with increased stress, the water becomes polluted, and worsening environmental health is observed [1]. The water-soil interface and the water-atmosphere interface are the medium through which the heavy metals travel [2, 3]. Both anthropogenic activities and geochemical processes are responsible for heavy metal contamination in ecosystems [4]. Elements that have high density and are less noxious are known as heavy metals. Examples of heavy metals are lead, iron, mercury, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, copper, and chromium and the actual volume of these heavy metals is more than 6 g/m3 [5]. Heavy metals have the property of environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, and these heavy metals enter the aquatic system through various routes. These heavy metals not only impair the quality of the aquatic ecosystem but also human health [6, 7]. These heavy metals can be found on the layer of earth in their regular form. These heavy metals are so dangerous that they cannot be degraded or decomposed and they have the arability to bioaccumulate [8]. These heavy metals once get into the ecosystem through the air, via drinkable water, or multiple chemicals and products that are manmade. The route of administration of these heavy metals is via inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption. These heavy metals get into the biosphere via human activities, which include industrial production, mining, agriculture, and transportation [9]. Some methods are fossil fuel burning, smelting of different, waste from the municipality, fertilizers, pesticides, and sewage these all are considered to be the primary sources of metal pollution [10, 11, 12, 13]. The toxicity of these heavy metals in the human body reduces energy levels; disrupts brain functioning; disturbs the functioning of various other organs such as the brain, lungs, liver, and kidney; and also hinders blood composition. If the contact with heavy metals continues, then it can hinder the physical, neurological, and muscular functioning. And due to these diseases like multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and muscular dystrophy, and Alzheimer’s disease. Chronic exposure to some of the heavy metals and their compounds may even cause cancer [14]. Pollution of these heavy metals into the river may cause distressing effects on the ecological balance of the aquatic environment, and with the extent of contamination, the diversity of aquatic organisms becomes limited [15]. The fish in the aquatic ecosystem can be used for examining the well-being of biota. Due to pollutants in the food chain of organisms, harmful effects can be seen and the aquaculture can become dead [16]. These heavy metals are neurotoxins for the fish living in the aquatic environment. When these heavy metals enter the fish body, they interact with them to generate biochemical reaction inside the fish, which makes it difficult for fish to communicate with their surroundings [17]. The presence of these heavy metals leads to diseases like Minamata, which is organic mercury poisoning. When these heavy metals get bioaccumulated, they become a threat to both the human population and animals who uses that water [18]. Modeling of risk assessment is divided into four stages, i.e., exposure assessment, toxicity (dose-response) assessment, hazard identification, and risk characterization. There are three pathways through which humans get exposed to traced metals, which include directly ingesting, inhaling through the mouth or nose, and via skin absorption when it gets exposed. From the water, the heavy metals usually enter through ingestion and dermal absorption. To assess exposure, the average daily dose is measured for pollutants through different identified paths. In a dose-response assessment for no carcinogens, reference doses (RfD) are calculated, and for carcinogens, slope factors (SF) are obtained by the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database. With the help of the facts which are discussed above, there was a study done with an aim to evaluate the water quality of the Subarnarekha River relating to metals, their temporal classification, source of identification, and assessment of human health risk when that water was ingested or the contaminate when absorbed through the skin. Through this, it is possible to know the contamination level and accordingly, the strategies were planned (Table 1) [19, 20].
Heavy metal ions | WHO’s permissible limit (mg L−1) |
---|---|
Se | 0.02 |
Hg | 0.001 |
Mn | 0.02 |
Ag | 0.1 |
Cd | 0.05 |
Cr | 0.003 |
Pb | 0.01 |
Zn | 3.00 |
Fe | 0.30 |
Cu | 0.02 |
As | 0.01 |
Permissible limit of heavy metal ions in water [21].
The presence of these heavy metals on the surface of the water can be due to natural or anthropogenic activities. In natural activities, weathering of rocks that contain metals, an eruption from volcanos, fires in the forest, and naturally occurring processes of weathering can be included. From these activities, metal enters the different sections of the environment. Heavy metals can be found in the forms of sulfates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and silicates [12, 22]. A huge amount of accumulation of heavy metals into the water is mainly due to anthropogenic and natural activities. Some more examples of natural source through which heavy metals contaminates water are, wet and dry deposition of atmospheric salts, water-rock interaction, or water interaction with the soil. While the sudden increase in urbanization and industrialization are an example of anthropogenic sources through which water get contaminated (Table 2; Figure 1) [23].
Heavy metal ion | Common sources |
---|---|
Copper (Cu) | Fertilizers, tanning, and photovoltaic cells |
Zinc (Zn) | Soldering, cosmetics, and pigments |
Silver (Ag) | Refining of copper, gold, nickel, zinc, jewelry, and electroplating industries |
Chromium (Cr) | Leather industry, tanning, and chrome plating industries |
Arsenic (As) | Wooden electricity poles that are treated with arsenic-based preservatives, pesticides, fertilizers, the release of untreated effluents, oxidation of pyrite (FeS) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS) |
Mercury (Hg) | Combustion of coal, municipal solid waste incineration, and volcanic emissions |
Cadmium (Cd) | Paints, pigments, electroplated parts, batteries, plastics, synthetic rubber, photographic and engraving process, photoconductors, and photovoltaic cells |
Lead (Pb) | PVC pipes in sanitation, agriculture, recycled PVC lead paints, jewelry, lead batteries, lunch boxes, etc. |
Major sources of some heavy metal ions in water [24].
Contamination of water through different sources.
Trace metals are found in excess levels in the environment, they are formed by geographical processes such as volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, and leaching into rivers, lakes, and oceans due to the action of water [25]. The presence of heavy metals in water depends on the local geology, hydrogeology, and geochemical characteristics of the aquifer [26]. One of the main sources of pollution is weathering. The weathering of the sedimentary rocks such as limestone or dolomite or shale makes the water contaminated or polluted. When there is an interaction of water with rock element, it also leads addition of these elements into the water; thus, contamination occurs. Examples of such elements are granite, syenite, basalt, gabbro, nepheline, and andesite. Due to the particular ore or the minerals, the element level increases. Elements examples are magnetite, hematite, goethite, siderite, calcite, cuprite, malachite, azurite, chromite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, arsenic trioxide, orpiment, arsenopyrite, calamine, smithsonite, pyrolusite, and rhodochrosite [27, 28, 29, 30]. The sulfide deposition also increases as it is associated with the mineralization of the gold and hydrous iron oxide ores [31].
Anthropogenic events, in which human settlement replaced the natural forest and agricultural activities have increased the environmental impacts. Such activities have contaminated the aquatic ecosystems, which include spring waters from the river like the Amala and Nyangores, tributaries of Mara River, Indonesia in Mau Complex. The maximum of forest land is converted into human settlement and agriculture. People who live near the Mara River Basin use that spring water for the purpose of animal and agricultural purposes [21]. The water carrying capacity has decreased with the rapid increase in industrialization and urbanization. Hg concentration in water has increased with agriculture activities and human activities. Activities like domestic sewage into the water, solid waste burning, coal and oil combustions, and pyrometallurgical processes and mining are the main reason for this. Water, by either snow or rain, brings the contaminated soil with Hg into the adjacent water areas [32, 33]. The source of Ni is the corroded metal pipes and containers [34]. The major source of lead in water majorly comes from additives of paints and petrol and aerosol precipitation, which is formed due to the high temperature used in industrial processes for the purpose of coal combustion, smelting, and cement production [35], and chloralkali, batteries, fluorescent lamps, thermometers, and electronic switches production. Chemical industries are some industrial activities through which Hg pollutes the water system and these activities are the largest contributor to Hg contamination in the environment [36].
Huge amount of untreated sewage from domestic is thrown into the river. This untreated waste from domestic has the presence of toxins. These toxins are due to the presence of solid waste or from the litter of plastic, or the contamination of bacteria due to the presence of these the water can get polluted. Domestic untreated water is thrown directly into the water resource and this majorly causes pollution inside the water and harms the ecosystem [37]. These pollutants majorly depend upon what kind of industry has thrown those pollutants. When these toxic metals get inside the water, they decrease the quality of the water [38]. Around 25% of pollution inside the water is caused only by these industries [39]. When the water gets contaminated, the water gets enriched by the nitrogen and phosphorous elements. With the presence of these nutrients, the growth rate of algae gets multiplied, and then it competed with the surrounding aquatic biota for the dissolved oxygen in water [40]. The presence of nitrite and nitrate anions leads to a major threat to the exposed organisms; examples of such threats are methemoglobinemia. It is more common in small children, and the symptoms caused by this are cyanotic color in the skin due to blood alterations [41]. Water sources that get deposited by this sewage also become anions rich, due to the presence of chlorine in urine, and NaCl is used in the human diet. On the side of the sea, there is the presence of chloride in high concentrations due to the leakage of salt into the sewerage system. It also may be increased by industrial processes [42].
Contamination of heavy metals in the aquatic environment is very harmful since these elements cannot be degraded and they get accumulated inside the living organisms [43]. Residue from the industry is the major source through which these heavy metals get into the aquatic ecosystems, and their accumulation in water varies with the type of wastewater treatment used [44]. Effects known as deleterious can be observed when the metal particles are introduced into the water system [45, 46]. Different metals from the Amazon River (Brazil) and the Yukon River (Alaska) were analyzed in the solid-state only. Plants have the presence of these metals in water. In tissue, the concentration of several metals is slow, and their concentration should be kept in less range only as more concentration can be harmful to the biological development of the pant [47]. Through the food chain, fish contaminants can reach man [48]. Effluent from industries, water tank leakages, dumping beside marines, and due to radioactive waste and atmospheric deposition, are some sources of water contamination. Disposed of heavy metals and waste from industries they get accumulated in rivers and lakes thus causing harmful impacts on animals and humans. For suppression of the immune, reproductive failure and acute poisoning toxins are responsible [49]. Then there is direct damage to plant or animal nutrition at that time human health is affected. The pollutants that are polluting the water are killing marine organisms such as mollusks, marine birds, fishes, and other organisms that live in the sea [50].
With an increase in the population has created many issues and one of the issues is the pollution of water [38]. An increase in the population leads automatically leads to more generations of solid waste [51]. Both solid waste and liquid waste are deposited into the water without any treatment. Human excreta also contaminate the water. Thus, contaminated water leads to a generation of a large number of bacteria, which is a threat to human well-being [39]. Government is unable to supply vital requirements to the People because of the increase in the number of people. Facility for sanitization is more in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Plastic bag and waste are a major contribution to pollution. People throw the waste in plastic bags into water sources [24]. From the research, it was found that around three crore people of the population defecate in the open, while 77% population use flush and around 8% use the pit latrines. Urbanization can cause many infectious diseases. Overpopulation, unhealthy conditions, and dangerous drinkable water are these major health problems in urban areas. One-third of urban people are vulnerable to disease [37].
The population in rural areas is less but the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and eroded soil contaminates the water. When it rains the water from the surface runoff and that rainwater enters the nearby water resource and thus pollutes the existing water [52]. Agricultural runoff cases freshwater bodies’ eutrophication. Half of the lakes in the US are eutrophic. Phosphate has one of the major contributions to eutrophication. And the high concentration of phosphates promotes cyanobacteria and algae growth, which leads to the excessive use of the biologically dissolved oxygen inside the water [53]. Fertilizers that are too enriched with nitrogen decrease the dissolved oxygen in rivers and coastal zones thus bringing hazardous effects to the biota. Since 2006, the nitrogen in fertilizers is being controlled in America and Northwest Europe [54]. Like pesticides, which are used as pest control, these pesticides leach into groundwater, thus polluting groundwater. The pesticides that are water-soluble leach more and the sandy soil favors the process of leaching [55].
Small pollutants particles which are present in the air, get into the water stream through the rain, when it rains these particles come down and then with the flow of water enters into the sea, thus polluting the water there. These pollutants that are present in the air usually get from the burning of fossil fuels e.g. is CO2, which combines with water and produces sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide, which is formed via volcanic eruption and from industries, also gets attached to a water molecule to form the sulfuric acid. When coal is combusted then also sulfuric dioxide is produced and it is also produced from petroleum products. Just like this nitrogen dioxide also combines with the water and forms the nitric acid. And with the help of rainwater, they enter the water resources (Figure 2) [52, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Circulation of contaminants between environmental sources under the effect of atmospheric sources.
Heavy metals are present on the earth and thus they can enter the water system through various pathways and one of them is through mining sources. When it rains or through flowing water, it leaches heavy metals out from their geological formation. These processes get disturbed when manmade economic activities such as mining are done. Through these processes, the area that is already mined out gets exposed to water and air and this leads to the acid mine drainage (AMD). The low pH conditions associated with AMD mobilize heavy metals, including radionuclides where these are present [60].
Soil gets polluted with the presence of heavy metal on surface and underground water and the pollution rises when mined ores are discarded on the ground surface for manual dressing [61]. Due to the dumping over the surface, the metals get exposed to air and rain thereby generating huge AMD. If soil is polluted at that time, it gets into the plant tissue and gets accumulated there. And when those plants are grazed by animals and water is used for the drink from polluted waters, through there these heavy metals enter the body. Also, marine lives, which reproduce in contaminated water, also have the presence of heavy metals inside their body tissues, if they are lactating then inside their milk. As an overview, all organisms within a given ecosystem are contaminated via these pollutants through their food chains [62]. When nutrition from these contaminated vegetables is taken, the presence of heavy metals in those vegetables can lead to different chronic diseases. Toxic effects due to these heavy metals usually depend on the amount of concentration and the oxidative state of the particular heavy metals [63]. Heavy metals have a very dangerous impact as they are non-biodegradable in nature, have long biological half-lives, and have the potential to accumulate inside the body. Also, there are some heavy metals that are extremely toxic only because of their solubility. Fewer concentrations of heavy metals inside the food chain also show severe effects as there is no particular procedure through which these heavy metals pollutants can be extracted from the body of an organism. Nowadays presence of these toxic heavy metals is everywhere because of their extreme use in industries. In case of the wastewater, it contains a huge concentration of heavy metals, which create various health-related problems [64, 65].
Water from estuaries and freshwater is not polluted till now to some extent, but that water is also at threat of being polluted in the long term due to metal deposition because of human past activities [66]. The water in the river and lakes can be highly polluted depending on the volume of flow and proximity to the point sources. Due to the human civilization, the element content in water is raised. Such elements are cadmium, lead, mercury, zinc, and chromium. Unlike organic chemicals, there are some metals that cannot be converted into compounds with lesser toxicity, and one of its characteristics is the loss of biodegradability. Once the heavy metals enter the water system it gets redistributed throughout the column and gets accumulated in the sediments [67]. The sediments constitute a partial contribution to polluting the natural phenomena due to their activity and metal remobilization processes. Metal residues that are present in the contaminated surroundings have the flexibility to get bioaccumulated into the aquatic environment [68]. Growth in fish larvae and juveniles is rapid. But when these heavy metals enter they might inhibit the growth rate. The fish grows in length and bulk when given the right conditions, such as a specific temperature and an acceptable amount of food. Fish growth, on the other hand, may be impeded in water contaminated with toxicants, such as heavy metals. One of the most noticeable signs of metal toxicity in fish larvae is growth inhibition. As a result, the length and bulk of fish are indications of environmental conditions [69]. Heavy metals are introduced in liquid form and surface water constituents (carbonate, sulfate, organic substances humic, fulvic, and amino acids) cause the formation of non-soluble salts or complexes. Aquatic species are not expected to be harmed by these salts and compounds. Some of them sink and collect in the sediments at the bottom. A decrease in pH of water either due to acid rain or any other acidic incidents, due to the heavy metal’s deposition into the water column, causes aquatic biota to become poisonous. Low levels of heavy metals can also make chronic stress, through fish might not get dead but can cause them to lose weight and become smaller, reducing their capacity to compete for food and habitat [70]. Pollution poses a hazard to both freshwater and marine habitats. Heavy metal poisoning of water is a significant environmental hazard that has detrimental consequences for organisms who are exposed to it be that plant-animal or humans. Fish from freshwater are majorly exposed to various heavy metals, which are added into the water bodies through the different-different sources. Contamination of these heavy metals into aquaculture has intensified global issues because it shows a risk to fish and has harmful impacts on fish buyers [71]. There are three different modes through which heavy metals enter the fish. These methods are either through the gills of fish, by the body of the fish, or by the digestive tract of the fish. Heavy metals immediately enter the fish body through the gills, while the body surface takes time for uptaking of these heavy metals through this mode [72]. Mostly the metals get accumulated in the liver, kidney, and gills. In fishes, the muscles have most of the metals present there as compared to the other body parts of the fish. Too much accumulation of these heavy metals inside the fish organ can cause lesions and operative disturbances [73]. These heavy metals also interfered with the embryo’s shape and the metabolic processes of the fishes. Structural and functional defects throughout the development of the embryo resulted in fewer larvae hatching. Several freshly born larvae die shortly after hatching owing to lead and copper absorption [74, 75]. Heavy metals get into the fish through three routes: the first is via the fish gills, the second is through the digestive tract of the fish and the last one is through the body of the fish. The gills of fish are the area that is known for the primary metal intake from the contaminated water. On the fish gills, zinc accumulates. It suggests a depressing influence on tissue respiration, which leads to hypoxia and mortality. Zinc pollution also causes alterations in the structure of the lungs and heart [76]. Humans and fish are both affected by mercury. Brain damage, with postnatal and fetal problems, leads to abortions, congenital deformity, and development differences in young fry due to Monomethyl. Minamata illness and Hg poisoning (via methyl Hg) both showed considerable neurotoxicity [77]. Nickel is necessary for tiny amounts for the formation of RBC, but when its concentration gets increased, at that time, it becomes harmful or poisonous. Cd has been linked to an increase in blood pressure and cardiac illness in fish. Blood vessels damage, hemorrhages, and depletion of blood cell count of a fish are induced by Hg, from previous research. Anemia, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, bronchial, and renal injuries can affect chromium levels in the blood [18]. Malformations in fish are caused by cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, lead, and arsenic. The accumulation of these heavy metals in excessive amounts causes a variety of physiological effects. Fin loss, gill underdevelopment, liver dysfunction, and fin function in fingerlings were all prevalent findings in the studies [78]. The harmful effects of heavy metals have the greatest impact on the death rate, reproduction, individual development rates, and physiological capacity of fish. There have been effects on physical functioning and chemical parameters in the tissues and blood of fish living in water that is polluted via metals. It has been reported that fish exposed to metals developed immune system defects, making them more susceptible to infectious infections and increasing their chances of dying (Figure 3) [79].
Harmful effects on the aquatic environment.
For the growth of plants, few HMs like As, Cd, Hg, Pb, and Se are not important as they do not perform any known physiological function in them. Others, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn, are key elements that are required for regular plant development and metabolism, but their amounts can quickly exceed the appropriate levels, resulting in poisoning [80, 81]. Heavy metal concentrations in plants vary by plant species, and the efficiency with which various plants absorb metals is measured by plant absorption or metal transfer factors from soil to plant. An increased amount of Pb in agricultural soil decreases the productivity rate of the soil, and a less lead amount may hinder some important processes of plant, dark green leaves, withering of older leaves, stunted foliage, and brown short roots are poisonous indicators of photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption [82]. Heavy metals are poisonous and phytotoxic to plants, resulting in diseases such as chlorosis, poor plant development, and yield depression, as well as decreased nutrient absorption, plant metabolic problems, and a reduced capacity to fix molecular nitrogen in leguminous plants. Seed germination was gradually reduced in the presence of increasing levels of lead, it may be due to exposure to lead for a longer duration, some methods, such as leaching, chelation, metal binding, or microbe accumulation, have resulted in the neutralization of lead’s harmful effects [83]. Heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, and Ni even their small concentration in plants can be hazardous to them. Poisoning due to this heavy metal will result in the complex interplay between the primary unpleasant ions and additional necessary or non-essential ions. Metals affect the activity of enzymes by swapping metal ions from metal enzymes, as well as preventing plant growth [84]. Some exceptional metals are vital for plants, as they reveal their roles in the catabolism of plants and biosynthesis, together as cofactors for enzymes and as metabolic yields. For example, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Co are the important nutrients but when their amounts are increased, they become toxic. Comparatively, Pb and Cd have no effect, which is favorable to the plant and is solely lethal [85]. The most abundant hazardous elements in the soil are lead. Pb poisoning in the soil is caused by municipal sewage sludge discharge, mining and smelting operations, Pb-containing paints, paper and pulp, gasoline, and explosives. They do not have any role in the shape of the plant or their growth and photosynthetic process of the plant. Pb poisoning also inhibits enzyme action, creates an imbalance of the water, alters membrane permeability, and disrupts mineral feeding [86].
One of the main sources of contamination of the water is heavy metals, as it overwhelms the important species indirectly through biological chains or directly via chemical modifications in water. Three potential ways are there, through which heavy metals get into the fish body: though fish gills, through the body of the fish, and through the fish digestive tract. Gills are responsible for the immediate absorption of metals from the water, whereas the body surface is thought to have a smaller role in the intake of these elements in fish [87]. By altering the normal activities of numerous enzymes and metabolites, the accumulation of these heavy metals in the tissues causes significant biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in fish and other freshwater fauna. Fish are one of the most widely dispersed creatures in the aquatic ecosystem, and their susceptibility to metal poisoning may indicate the extent of metal pollution’s biological impact [88]. Heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Zn, and tin (Sn), are major contaminants that cause serious toxicity in fish. Due to the heavy metals, the physiological and biochemical functions both in tissues and in blood Carpi can be altered. The compounds of As and inorganic As, Cd, Ni, silica in its crystal form, beryllium, and its compounds are considered to be chemical carcinogens, which results in the development of cancer inside the fishes. The drop in hematological parameters indicated that the exposed fishes had become anemic as a result of Cr exposure. This dangerous heavy metal was released into the aquatic ecosystem via trash, causing severe anemia and changes in hematological parameters in the
Water pollution is a global problem, and the world’s population is suffering the consequences of tainted water. Living organisms are also affected by the polluted water very much and it is very harmful to the environment. Acute and choric illnesses are caused by heavy metal concentrations in drinking water that exceed the permissible limits set by several national and international organizations. These can range from nonfatal, such as muscle and physical weakness, to fatal, such as brain, nervous system, and even cancer. Water quality testing is necessary for the protection of human health and the environment.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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It describe the bioactive compounds derived from natural resources, its phytochemical analysis, characterization and pharmacological investigation. It focuses on the success of these resources in the process of finding and discovering new and effective drug compounds that can be useful for human resources. From many years, natural products have been acting as a source of therapeutic agents and have shown beneficial uses. Only natural product drug discovery plays an important role to develop the scientific evidence of these natural resources. Research in drug discovery needs to develop robust and viable lead molecules, which step forward from a screening hit to a drug candidate through structural elucidation and structure identification through GC–MS, NMR, IR, HPLC, and HPTLC. The development of new technologies has revolutionized the screening of natural products in discovering new drugs. Utilizing these technologies gives us an opportunity to perform research in screening new molecules using a software and database to establish natural products as a major source for drug discovery. It finally leads to lead structure discovery. Powerful new technologies are revolutionizing natural herbal drug discovery.",book:{id:"8290",slug:"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants",title:"Pharmacognosy",fullTitle:"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Akshada Amit Koparde, Rajendra Chandrashekar Doijad and Chandrakant Shripal Magdum",authors:[{id:"268668",title:"Dr.",name:"Akshada",middleName:"Amit",surname:"Koparde",slug:"akshada-koparde",fullName:"Akshada Koparde"}]},{id:"64420",title:"Medicinal Plants for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases",slug:"medicinal-plants-for-treatment-of-prevalent-diseases",totalDownloads:4777,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"This chapter focuses on reviewing publications on medicinal plants used in the treatment of common diseases such as malaria, cholera, pneumonia, tuberculosis and asthma. Traditional medicine is still recognized as the preferred primary health care system in many rural communities, due to a number of reasons including affordability and effectiveness. The review concentrated on current literature on medicinal plants, highlighting on information about ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology. The search for publications on medicinal plants with scientifically proven efficacy was carried out using electronic databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar, SciFinder and PubMed. In all, about 46 species of different families with potent biological and pharmacological activities were reviewed. All the plants reviewed exhibited potent activity confirming their various traditional uses and their ability to treat prevalent diseases.",book:{id:"8290",slug:"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants",title:"Pharmacognosy",fullTitle:"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Susana Oteng Mintah, Tonny Asafo-Agyei, Mary-Ann Archer, Peter Atta-Adjei Junior, Daniel Boamah, Doris Kumadoh, Alfred Appiah, Augustine Ocloo, Yaw Duah Boakye and Christian Agyare",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"186987",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaw Duah",middleName:null,surname:"Boakye",slug:"yaw-duah-boakye",fullName:"Yaw Duah Boakye"},{id:"268666",title:"Ms.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Oteng Mintah",slug:"susana-oteng-mintah",fullName:"Susana Oteng Mintah"},{id:"282286",title:"Ms.",name:"Mary-Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Archer",slug:"mary-ann-archer",fullName:"Mary-Ann Archer"},{id:"282288",title:"Mr.",name:"Tonny",middleName:null,surname:"Asafo-Agyei",slug:"tonny-asafo-agyei",fullName:"Tonny Asafo-Agyei"},{id:"282290",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Atta-Adjei Junior",slug:"peter-atta-adjei-junior",fullName:"Peter Atta-Adjei Junior"},{id:"282291",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"daniel-boamah",fullName:"Daniel Boamah"},{id:"282293",title:"MSc.",name:"Newman",middleName:null,surname:"Osafo",slug:"newman-osafo",fullName:"Newman Osafo"},{id:"282294",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",middleName:null,surname:"Appiah",slug:"alfred-appiah",fullName:"Alfred Appiah"},{id:"282297",title:"Prof.",name:"Augustine",middleName:null,surname:"Ocloo",slug:"augustine-ocloo",fullName:"Augustine Ocloo"}]},{id:"68027",title:"Biological Importance of Essential Oils",slug:"biological-importance-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:2019,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Essential oils are the volatile compounds having the oily fragrance. Essential oils are obtained from the different plant parts, and they are extracted from the different techniques and the most preferable method of extraction is the hydrodistillation which is cheap and easy to use. Plant parts including the flowers, leaves, stem, bark and roots are used for the isolation of essential oils. Essential oils are used in almost every field of life and because of these characteristics, the market of essential oils is growing rapidly. Essential oils are used in the aromatherapy and act as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, pain relievers, anxiety, depression. In the field of cosmetics and industries, the essential oils are used rapidly and mostly used in the perfume industries which are growing increasingly. Essential oils are used in the food preservations and many food items. Essential oils are used as the folk herbal medicines and their fragrance is used for the improvement of the mood and as the depression release.",book:{id:"7855",slug:"essential-oils-oils-of-nature",title:"Essential Oils",fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Oils of Nature"},signatures:"Muhammad Irshad, Muhammad Ali Subhani, Saqib Ali and Amjad Hussain",authors:[{id:"286484",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Irshad",slug:"muhammad-irshad",fullName:"Muhammad Irshad"},{id:"304731",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Subhani",slug:"muhammad-ali-subhani",fullName:"Muhammad Ali Subhani"},{id:"316772",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"amjad-hussain",fullName:"Amjad Hussain"},{id:"316773",title:"Dr.",name:"Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"saqib-ali",fullName:"Saqib Ali"}]},{id:"65477",title:"Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Past, Present, and Future",slug:"role-of-medicinal-and-aromatic-plants-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:3164,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Before the concept of history began, humans undoubtedly acquired life benefits by discovering medicinal and aromatic plants that were food and medicine. As our early ancestors learned to recognize and consume selected plants, civilization and personal and group health could advance. Traditional medicine would become part of every civilization with medicinal and aromatic plants widely used and applied to maintain life. Undoubtedly, the variety of available plant materials would be tasted and tested to determine whether a plant was valuable as a food or medicine. Today, a variety of available herbs and spices are used and enjoyed throughout the world and continue to promote good health. As the benefits from medicinal and aromatic plants are recognized, these plants will have a special role for humans in the future.",book:{id:"8290",slug:"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants",title:"Pharmacognosy",fullTitle:"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Maiko Inoue, Shinichiro Hayashi and Lyle E. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 30th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:15,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",biography:"Naceur M’HAMDI is Associate Professor at the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage. He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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