Design consideration—Civil and military aircraft [13].
\r\n\tMany tried to define it, and its definition is always related to those who are in power, that being explained by the fact that this power and the abuse of it precisely, gives the access to being corrupted and practicing the acts that fall under corruption.
\r\n\r\n\tWe can find various types of corruption such as bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Also giving or accepting bribes or inappropriate gifts, double-dealing, under-the-table transactions, manipulating elections, diverting funds, laundering money, and defrauding investors.
\r\n\tNo government is immune to corruption. According to the World Bank, “the causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies, bureaucratic traditions, political development, and social history”.
\r\n\tThis indeed has consequences for increasing inequality, impacts government expenditure and services, shadow economy, and crime.
\r\n\tThis book will be a collection of chapters on Corruption. It welcomes contributions related to the nature of corruption its types and how corruption is undertaken in a certain context and the ways to deal with corruption will be part of this book. We value including materials on Corruption in organizations and ways to solve it. The origins of corruption and the way to deal with corruption, how to provide solutions, and any new insights on corruption will be part of this book.
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The military also realized the advantages of having an offensive and defensive air power during the war and peace time. Today air power has become the essence of military supremacy of any country for maintaining country sovereignty during peace time and offensive attack capability to win war by destroying enemy vital installations, deterring troop transfer and military supplies.
\nThe aircraft can be broadly categorized as lighter-than-air aircraft (balloons and airships) which generate lift due the buoyancy forces and heavier-than-air aircraft (aircraft, helicopters and UAV).
\nAn aircraft is a complex machine using the application of multidisciplinary engineering sciences. The major engineering groups can be indicated as follows:
Aerodynamics and flight mechanics determining aircraft shape, configuration and control law
Airframe structure (fuselage, wings, vertical and horizontal tail planes and control surfaces)
Mechanical system (hydraulics, pneumatics, landing gear, fuel and flight control systems)
Engine/power plant system
Electrical system (power generations, distribution and emergency power)
Avionic (communication, navigation, weapon aiming, displays and warnings and utility management system) and instrument system
Environmental systems (air-conditioning, life support system and cabin pressurization systems)
Armament system (for military aircraft)
Air egress (ejection) system
Software (embedded as well as operational software)
For the aerodynamic study, air is considered an ideal gas which follows gas laws. Therefore, the variation of air properties with respect to altitude is important. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is used for comparison of performances of aircraft designed by different countries. The ISA is defined as:
Altitude (H):sea level (0 m)
Temperature (T):288.15°K
Pressure (P): 1.01325 MPa (14.7 psi)
Density (ρ):1.225 kg/m3
The atmosphere is divided in two layers. The lower layer is called ‘troposphere’ where temperature decreases linearly with altitude (6.5°C/km altitude rise, known as lapse rate). Air pressure decreases with altitude as shown in Figure 1. Air density can be estimated from gas equation (ρ = P/RT, where R is universal gas constant). Figure 1 also shows the different types of clouds in the atmosphere [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
\nVariation of pressure of atmospheric pressure with altitude.
The upper layer of the atmosphere is called ‘stratosphere’ where T remains constant at −56°C (ISA condition). In troposphere, with increase in altitude, both pressure and temperature decrease reducing the density, thus lowering engine mass flow reducing thrust, lift and drag. These values optimize at 10–12 km which is known as cruise altitude for jet aircraft. Due to decrease in mass flow, jet engines cannot operate at very high altitude.
\nMovement of air over an aircraft generates aerodynamic forces and moments. Due to change in the air properties, the aerodynamic forces and moments also vary with altitude. Flight dynamics looks at these aerodynamic forces and includes thrust and gravity forces to study aircraft motion. Further the aerodynamic forces generated due to deflections of control surfaces are added as applied control forces to study the dynamics of the flight path including stability and controllability of the aircraft [1, 5].
\nAirflow over a body obeys three basic aerodynamic equations: these are conservation of mass, conservation of momentum and conservation of energy. Solving these equations, we obtain velocity distribution over the aircraft surfaces from which forces and moments can be estimated.
\nAirflow over an airfoil (cross section of wing) is shown in Figure 2. Due to the airfoil camber, air particles traveling over the upper surface have to cover longer distance than the air flowing on the lower surface. In order to comply with the law of conservation of mass, air particle on the upper surface speeds up to cover longer distance (due to camber) than the airflow over the lower surface. According to the law of conservation of momentum, the increase in speed is compensated by the decrease in pressure. This creates differences in pressures with lower surface air pressure being more than that of the upper surface. This differential pressure gives rise to upward force. The vertical component of this upward force is the wing lift, and axial component is the drag. Further the resultant of the air pressure of the upper surface and lower surface does not pass through the same point, which creates a turning moment known as pitching moment. An airfoil of unit thickness will produce lift, drag and pitching moment coefficients. These are dimensionless quantities and are represented by\n
Subsonic flow over [
Aerodynamics of supersonic flow is, however, different. A supersonic flow over an airfoil at angle of attack (AOA) is shown in Figure 3. On the upper surface, flow expands having higher flow area, and flow on the lower surface gets compressed due to lower area of flow. Expansion of flow is associated with increase in Mach number and decrease in static pressure. It may be appreciated that at zero AOA, there will be no difference in upper and lower surface flow. As the supersonic airfoil generates lifts only due to AOA, supersonic airfoils are symmetrical airfoils.
\nSupersonic flow [
The lift produced increases with increase in AOA as shown in Figure 4. However, beyond certain AOA, flow separates from the airfoil, lift suddenly drops, and drag rises due to increase of wake area. This is known as ‘stall’. With further increase of AOA, the wake region will increase and thus aggravate the situation. This being a flight safety hazard, airworthiness regulations require stall warning system and protection from stall recovery procedure to be incorporated. Subsonic aircraft stalls around 14–18° of AOA, while supersonic aircraft stalls around 24–28° AOA. In supersonic flow, lift curve slope is very flat, and realization of stall is rather difficult. In view of this in supersonic aircraft, in addition to an AOA indicator, audio warning with stick shaker is installed.
\nStall phenomenon [
An aircraft in flight has six degrees of freedom (DOF); these are three translations (motion in forward, lateral and vertical directions) and three angular motions, viz. roll (rotation about longitudinal axis), pitch (rotation around lateral axis) and yaw (rotation about vertical axis). An aircraft is steered to the desired direction by operating the respective control surface. This is shown in Figure 5.
\n6 DOF of air vehicle [
The lift, drag and pitching moment produced by the wings can be written as \n
The force and moment system working on an aircraft in flight [
The ease with which an aircraft can be operated is judged by the handling qualities (HQ) of an aircraft. The HQ is directly related to the aircraft stability and controllability. An aircraft is said to be statically stable if an aircraft while flying in a steady path, if unintentionally disturbed by some external forces like gust or any other reason, the aerodynamic forces and moments so created due to the disturbances bring the aircraft back to its original stable condition. This property of the aircraft is termed as stability. However, higher the stability, higher will be the demand for control power to steer the aircraft and lower will be the controllability of the aircraft. Thus, a compromise is made, and the stability requirements are specified in design regulations formulated by the airworthiness authorities. The advantages of lower stability have brought the concept of ‘relaxed static stability’ or ‘statically unstable’ aircraft. The high-performance military fighters like F-16, F-17 and F-18 are statically unstable in order to obtain dramatic increase in manoeuverability. The vehicle is kept under control by
At low flight speeds, compressibility of air may be neglected (ρ assumed constant), but as the flight speed increases, air gets compressed, and change in ρ cannot be neglected. Above M > 0.3 (M = Mach number; defined as the ratio of aircraft speed and speed of sound, named after Austrian Physicist Ernst Mach), compressibility effect cannot be neglected. The solution of a three-dimensional flow with air viscosity terms included at higher speed thus becomes complex.
\nDepending on the flow M, the aerodynamic studies are classified as:
Any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed force may be called military aircraft. Military uses aircraft for both combat and noncombat applications.
\nCombat aircraft are designed and developed for use by military to destroy enemy assets using on-board armaments/stores. Military aircraft and their applications include the following [1, 3, 5].
\nFighters are meant to engage in air-to-air combat with enemy aircraft and outclass them. They are therefore light and have high speeds and manoeuverability. Fighters are used for both offensive and defensive roles. Interceptor is intended to be light and agile and has high acceleration and rate of climb to intercept an enemy aircraft spotted by the ground surveillance radar and engage in dogfight. The main weapons these aircraft carry are air-to-air combat missile and air gun. Many fighters have a secondary role of ground attack capabilities where it carries bombs and air-to-surface missiles (ASM). This is how the concept of multirole combat aircraft (MRCA) has evolved.
\nA fighter’s main purpose is to establish and maintain ‘air superiority’ which means it denies the air power of opposing air forces for effective interference. Since the early days of aerial combat, armed forces have constantly invested to develop technologically superior fighters and attain air supremacy over the adversaries. Substantial proportion of the defence budgets of modern armed forces is spent for these purposes. Some of the modern fighters include General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, Dassault Rafale, Dassault Mirage 2000, Russian Su-30MKI, Mikoyan MiG-29, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, etc.
\nA bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and naval targets by dropping air-to-ground weapons like bombs (dumb and smart bombs); firing ASM, torpedoes and bullets; or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. Heavy bombers (known as strategic bombers) armed with powerful conventional or nuclear weapons are used for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, shipyards and cities and thus cripple the enemy infrastructure and capability to continue war or stage new attacks. B-2 Spirit, B-52, Tupolev TU-95, etc. are some of the present days’ strategic bombers.
\nTactical bombers are smaller bombers with shorter range and weapon capability and used for battlefield tactical operations like countering enemy military activity and military troop transport/supplies and supporting offensive operations.
\nAn interdictor is an attack aircraft designed to interrupt enemy supply operation by aerial bombing. A deep penetration aircraft is a version of interdictor having longer range and capabilities. The main purpose of these aircraft is to prevent or cause delays to enemy forces and supplies reaching the battlefront. Russian MiG-23BN/MiG-27, Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000D and Panavia Tornado are some of the present-day bombers.
\nThe MRCA roles may include air-to-air combat, bombing operation, aerial photo reconnaissance, etc. The main motivation for developing multirole aircraft is cost reduction in using a common airframe. Multirole means an aircraft with major roles, a primary air-to-air combat role and a secondary role like air-to-surface attack. It may be appreciated that an aircraft optimized for a particular role may not fulfil some other role efficiently; however, they may be gainfully used for secondary roles. For example, air superiority fighters designed for higher manoeuverability over the contemporary aircraft are also capable of ground attack. Similarly an interceptor having high rate of climb and acceleration and equipped with close combat missiles and air guns can also be used to chase enemy aircraft and neutralize them in air. Aircraft roles can be changed by changing on-board armament stores/role equipment. Some aircraft are retro modified for additional role. The F-14 was envisioned originally for air superiority and fleet interception defence with some variants later receiving secondary ground attack capability.
\nThe Euro fighter Typhoon and Dassault Rafal are classified as multirole fighters. Euro fighter Typhoon was however, originally designed as an air superiority fighter.
\nAn EW aircraft is a military aircraft equipped with EW system meant to degrade the effectiveness of enemy radar and radio systems by using radar jamming deception methods. EW is a technology to detect, identify the frequency spectrum and locate the source of electromagnetic energy and use of self-protective jammer to deny the opponent access to the EM spectrum. EW can be deployed from land, sea or air. Various types of self-protective jammers like noise/frequency jamming and counter-measure dispensing systems (CMDS) are used. This gives the aircraft stealth capability to deceive the enemy radars. F-35 has very advanced EW capability which enables it to reach well-defended targets and suppress enemy radars that threaten the F-35.
\nA maritime patrol aircraft is designed to operate for long duration over coastline/water territory in order to detect, identify enemy ships and submarines and destroy them using air-to-surface weapon, torpedoes and underwater mines. These aircraft are equipped with various sensors including sonar and radars and are also used in maritime search and rescue operations. Jaguar maritime patrol aircraft is one such aircraft that is in use for a long time.
\nAircraft is designed for an economic life of 20 years from the consideration of obsolescence. However, as the cost of procurement of new aircraft is continuously rising, aircraft are operated for longer period, and midlife update is carried out to make the aircraft competitive to contemporary aircraft. This has brought a concept of fighter generation categories created to identify major technology leaps in the historical development of jet fighters. Though there is no sound technological basis, this is more of a creation of aerospace webs and magazines. A general grouping is done based on the operational capabilities, handling qualities and pilot work load as well as the year of design. The aircraft generation is discussed below [6, 7]:
First-generation fighters (1945–1955)—the first-generation fighters were those built in the beginning of the jet age (World War II). These were fitted with jet but otherwise similar to earlier piston engine aircraft. They were subsonic, did not have radar and had conventional weapons like gun, dumb bombs and rockets.
Second-generation fighters (1955–1960)—the second-generation fighters were a class superior to the first-generation fighters as regards their speed of operation and combat effectiveness. These were fitted with radar and equipped with guided air to air missiles. This generation also took advantage of the new development of electronics in the aircraft systems.
Third-generation fighters (1960—1970)—the third-generation fighters were designed specifically as multipurpose fighters capable of performing both air defence and ground attack missions. McDonnell Douglas F4H Phantom, British Aerospace Harrier and MiG-23 belong to this class.
Fourth-generation fighters (1970–1990)—the fourth-generation (4G) fighters are high-manoeuverability multirole fighters with sophisticated avionics and weapon systems and long-range AAM. During this generation, FBW and relaxed static stability FCS concept were introduced. The advance of microcomputers in the 1980s and 1990s permitted rapid upgrades to the avionics over the lifetimes of these fighters, incorporating system upgrades such as AESA, digital avionics busses and infra-red search and track (IRST). 4+ generation fighters (1990–2000) are also sometimes used to indicate more advanced features that might be seen in fifth-generation fighters. F-16, Mirage 2000 and MiG-29 are 4G fighters, while F/A-18 Hornet, Eurofighter Typhoon and Dassault Rafale can be designated as 4+ generation fighters.
Fifth-generation fighters (2000 onwards)—the fifth-generation (5G) designation is used that encompasses the fighter technologies developed during the first part of the twenty-first century. The 5G jet fighters are expected to have ‘pilot associates’: integrated avionics and computer system capable of networking with other elements that provide the pilot with complete picture of the battlespace and situational awareness. The other features include the use of low-observable ‘stealth’ and high-performance airframes. Some of 5G fighters are the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor with USAF (2005) and the Lockheed Martin F-35 (USAF 2015) and the Chengdu J-20 with the People’s Liberation Army Airforce (2017). Sukhoi SU-57 being developed for the Russian Air Force and Indian AMCA is in early stages of development.
Combat radius or radius of action (ROA) of military aircraft refers to the maximum distance the aircraft can travel from the operating base with operational load, complete operational mission and return without refueling, allowing for reserve fuel and all other safety requirements. The thumb rule is that ROA is one third the distance an aircraft can fly on full load and total fuel. Operational mission planning is done for offensive roles to maximize the ROA without taking undue risk of enemy detection and attack. Some considerations are [1, 5]:
Low-level flight missions will have smaller ROA due to higher drag and fuel consumption; however, it will have low radar detection probability.
Aircraft with higher ordnance (weapon payload) will have low ROA.
A high-level mission will have higher radius of action.
Drop tank (D/T) increases ROA due to extra fuel, and D/T once empty can be dropped and permit aircraft to run away from the area of action.
Many offensive attack missions are normally planned a mix of hi-lo-hi mission. A typical profile is shown in Figure 7. The F-16 Fighting Falcon has the combat radius of 550 km (340 mi) on a hi-lo-hi mission with six 450 kg (1000 lbs) bombs.
\nMilitary aircraft combat mission profiles (hi-lo-hi) [
The NCA are not designed for combat as their primary function but may carry weapons for self-defence. NCA mainly operate in support roles and may be developed by either military forces or civilian derivative aircraft (CDA). NCA military applications include many different types as discussed below [1, 5]:
A RWA (also known as helicopter) does not have wings, but its rotor blades perform an identical role of the wings of an aeroplane. When rotor blades spin, flow of air takes place over the wings or rotor blades—hence the name rotary-wing aircraft. The magnitude of the lift can be changed by altering the angle of attack (AOA) of air over the rotor blades. The AOA is changed by mechanically increasing or decreasing the rotor blade pitch angle. For this, the pilot uses a control called ‘collective’ which is on his left side in the cockpit. The pilot can change the altitude of flying as well as hover the helicopter at a place by operating the collective.
\nAnother control known as ‘cyclic’ is used to move the helicopter in different directions. The cyclic is operated by the pilot using his right hand. When cyclic is operated, the pitch angle of the rotor blades is changed, but it alters each blade individually by a different amount. When cyclic is operated, the total vertical force produced by rotor blades is inclined, the vertical component keeps the helicopter afloat and horizontal component moves the helicopter in the desired direction. The helicopter cyclic control system is designed in such a way that when the cyclic is moved forward, the helicopter moves forwards, when it is moved sideways the helicopter moves sideways and when cyclic is moved aft the helicopter moves backwards (which a fixed wing aircraft cannot do). The third helicopter control is the yaw pedals. These alter the pitch angle of the tail rotor—the small rotor at the end of the helicopter. Doing this enables the pilot to turn the helicopter either left or right (yaw) [8].
\nThe helicopter is a very useful machine for military applications. Due to its design features, helicopters can hover at a point, fly at very low altitude and above all take off from the land at any place it desires. Military helicopters are also installed with protective armor/windshield against bullets. Some of the typical applications are:
An airborne vehicle capable of being flown without a pilot on board is termed as pilotless or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). UAVs are broadly in two types, namely, remotely piloted vehicle (RPV) and autonomous and preprogramed air vehicle [9, 10].
\nUAV has the potential to serve varieties of application both in civil and military uses. These include border and port security, homeland surveillance, scientific data collection, cross-country transport and telecommunication services. Many non-aviation business applications include:
Aerial photography, film, video, still, etc.
Agriculture crop monitoring and spraying
Conservation, pollution and land monitoring
Electricity companies for their power line inspection.
UAVs used for armed forces, police, border security and coast guard are considered owned by the state commonly known as military UAV. These UAVs are under direct control of the government of the state, and the state is directly responsible for safety of operation and third-party damage in the event of UAV failure. This direct control of operations is a significant advantage of operation in segregated space at the same time accepting a safety of operation by imposing operational restriction to compensate for uncertainties over airworthiness.
\nUAV in military is used as a force multiplier for carrying out very dull, dirty missions that are long and considered very hazardous and risky for manned flight. Some of these tasks are round-the-clock reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition (RSTA); nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) war; and combat search and rescue (CSAR) operation. In offensive role UAV can be employed for arm dropping as well as suppression of enemy air defence (SEAD).
\nUnmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) is used for offensive war application. These are designed to possess:
High accuracy and probability to ‘strike the target capability’
All weather operation
High speed and manoeuverability for war zone penetration
Autonomous programme with rerouting facility
UAVs are aircraft within the meaning of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Convention, 1944 (§8 of Chicago Convention). As per §3 of Chicago Convention, the ICAO rules do not apply to state (military) aircraft. The airworthiness and safety associated with flying UAV in segregated area (military airspace) are therefore state responsibility. However, special political agreement will be required if the military UAVs fly over the territory of another state (§8 of the ICAO). Further, §20 of the ICAO requires each UAV to bear registration and nationality mark, and §8 requires special authorization of state (military) for UAV to fly over its area. And above all article, §33 requires UAVs to have current certificate of airworthiness.
\nThough UAVs are employed in segregated areas at present, there is a consensus view within the aerospace industry that the time is ripe when both manned and unmanned aerial vehicles will share the common airspace. Thus, the process of integrating the manned aircraft and UAV in the national airspace has to be accepted and regulated. This needs to regulate the operation of UAV on the one hand, and at the same time, the UAVs themselves have to be certified to be airworthy by regulatory organizations. Further, regulatory activities of air traffic management for integrating UAV in non-segregated airspace operations have to be considered:
Emergency recovery capability
Communication link and link loss criticality
Level of autonomy
Human-machine interface (UAV pilot is deprived of the physical senses and feeling of flying as in manned aircraft pilots)
Ground control system and launch and recovery system should be subjected to functional hazard analysis and accordingly certified.
UAV operation has a great risk of collateral damage in the event of UAV failure. The regulatory principles thus aim to take all precautions to reduce the risk of collateral damage. The considerations are:
Design for low collateral damage—by designing with high precession and accuracy in striking the target using high-accuracy sensor and doing proper mission planning to hit the target and not the structure/people around (third party).
Approach for damage prevention—the damage is proportional to the kinetic energy (KE) during the impact. The KE depends on the mass and velocity at the time of impact. The Vimpact will be based on the cause of the failure, namely, engine or control failure. The general rule is to assume Vimpact = 1.3 times the Vstall for the case of unpremeditated descent or engine failure and Vimpact = 1.4 Vstall in the event of loss of control.
Design safety consideration—the basic safety criterion should be that catastrophic failure conditions must be extremely improbable and, for all other failure conditions, the probability of occurrence of the event should be inversely proportional to the damage potential of the failure. From airworthiness point of view, the risk to third parties on the ground would become the most severe risk to be minimized. Depending on the ‘hit’ probability on the ground (a function of population density and UAV lethal area), some operational limitation with regard to ‘overflown zone’ may be imposed.
Flight termination systems (FTS) should be installed as a means of recovering UAVs from system failures. FTS can be an automatic flight guidance system which navigates the aircraft to a suitable location and completes a normal landing or devices which bring the aircraft down immediately, e.g. by deployment of a parachute, e.g. JAR 1309 (ballistic recovery system (BRS)). It is noteworthy that BRS has been fitted for some time to certain manned civil aircraft, notably microlights. The current CAA policy on such systems is that they may be installed on a ‘no hazard, no benefit’ basis only. A parachute may be fitted if desired, but it is not to be relied upon to prevent an accident. Applicants for the approval of aircraft embodying FTS have to show that the system is protected from inadvertent operation or that the consequences of inadvertent operation are acceptable.
\nAirworthiness in a simple term can be defined as ‘fit to fly’; however, in an actual sense, it is defined as ‘demonstrated capability of an airborne store to perform satisfactorily and fulfil the mission requirements, throughout the specified life in the prevailing environments with acceptable level of safety and reliability’. The ‘Federal Aviation Administration’ (FAA) declares an aircraft is airworthy if it conforms to its type design and if it is in a condition for safe flight. The first part of the FAA definition describes the airworthiness requirement for ‘certification’, and the second part of the definition refers to the ‘continued airworthiness’ which regulates the repair, maintenance and operation throughout the life span of the aircraft [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\nThe phrase ‘acceptable level of safety’ in the definition of airworthiness is a complex consideration as absolute safety is hypothetical and can be achieved only at infinite cost. Therefore, the airworthiness standards have to balance between safety concerns on the one hand and the cost and practicability from design and manufacture point of view on the other.
\nIn aviation, safety may be defined as freedom from death, injury or damage to people on board and loss property and life on ground (accident). Safety of any flying effort or machine would depend primarily upon, whether we are operating below or above a particular level known as ‘risk threshold’. The risk threshold is the level of risk beyond which accidents are inevitable. It also must be appreciated that this ‘risk threshold’ is not a stationary one and it keeps varying based on the role, function and a host of other associated factors. It needs therefore to be reassessed under each changing scenario. Airworthiness control is to minimize the risk and maximize the effectiveness. All the airworthiness standards, military or civil, whether that of the USA, Europe or Russia, have a common point of reference which is that an inverse relation should exist between probability of occurrence of an event and the degree of hazard inherent in its effect.
\nFor military aircraft in the US Department of Defense (DoD) document, Mil-STD-882 defines the safety requirements during design of an airborne stores. The decision matrix of system safety as per Mil-STD-882 is shown in Figure 8. The safety requirement of any failure event is based on the hazard index of the failure which is defined as the product of the probability of the failure and the damage consequent of the failure event. The damage consequences can range from ‘catastrophic’ (loss life, aircraft and property) to negligible (minor inconvenience). The frequencies of occurrences are grouped under ‘frequent’ (1 in 10 h of flight) to ‘extremely improbable’ (1 in 107 flight hours).
\nMil-STD-882: design safety decision matrix [
The operational branches of both military and civil aviation are expected to have effective ‘flight safety directorates’. The primary responsibility of the flight safety directorate is to estimate the risk threshold under all dynamic condition, take appropriate measures and ensure that operational risk does not exceed this value. The basic aim of the flight safety studies is to ensure that the chances of achieving the mission tasks be optimal, while operational risks are minimal. In military aviation, the flight safety directorate has a very complex duty to perform. On the one hand, the military training must give a high level of exposures to possible war scenario and threats, while it must ensure that the high level of risks are to be avoided in peace time within the stated training syllabi. This is because the accidents have very deleterious effects on the morale of the flier. During the war time, however, task achievement is paramount, and hence risks are to be taken even at high degrees if the operational requirements dictate. The main purposes of the flight safety studies are therefore to:
Identify and minimize those risks which may contribute accidents
Avoid very high cost of losses and damages
Identify all risk hazards real or potential at all levels and all phases of flying
Risk thresholds are dynamic, and they need to be reassessed under all conditions and make necessary readjustments
All modern military aircraft are designed to perform multiple missions. This is inherent in the design of such aircraft, for example, the A400M military transport aircraft is designated as a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities and can also be configured to perform long-range cargo and troop transport, medical evacuation, aerial refueling and electronic surveillance missions.
Objectives | \nCivil aircraft design | \nMilitary aircraft design | \n
---|---|---|
Requirement | \nIndependent market survey | \nMilitary staff requirement | \n
Certification goal | \nCivil-type certification used by airlines | \nProviding national security Issue operational clearance | \n
Accepted failure tolerance/flight | \nLevel 2: p < \n Level 3: p < \n | \nLevel 2: p < \n Level 3: p < \n | \n
Design safety | \nAs per SAE ARP 4671; permitted failure rate 1 in 109 flying hours | \nAs per Mil-STD-882; permitted failure rate 1 in 107 flying hours | \n
Avionics architecture | \nBetter FCS, navigation, reduce pilot workload, increase payload | \nHigh performance, navigation and weapon aiming, secure COM and reduction in pilot workload | \n
Use of advanced technology | \nOnly certified material/technology | \nCutting edge technology; certified/under development | \n
Stealth tech/EW protection | \nNot considered | \nMost essential consideration | \n
Design life | \nHigh economic life | \nHigh maneuverability, extreme operating envelope | \n
Design consideration—Civil and military aircraft [13].
Certification is a process of evaluation and documentation of compliance of a product to its specified requirements and declares it ‘safe to fly’. It is a third-party assurance to the user that the product has been designed, developed, evaluated and produced in such a manner that its quality, reliability and integrity meet the requirements. An aircraft can really be considered airworthy when [13]:
Its type has been designed and certified meeting design standards.
It has been manufactured by an approved organization as per type design.
It has been maintained by qualified people as per approved system and inspected in accordance with all applicable airworthiness directives.
Further, on compliance of (c), no significant defects have been found and not rectified.
There is a difference in concept of civil and military aircraft certification. While military certification has a general concern of airworthiness as well as rules for design and performance evaluations, each country has its own rule to ‘self-certify’ its state aircraft as airworthy and compliant to some specified and controlled airspace performance requirements. While certifying a military aircraft, the operational risk and operational process are defined for each type of aircraft. Even though the purpose of airworthiness control is the same, the civil and military certification differs on the fact that [13]:
Governments can ‘self-certify’ their state aircraft.
Operational risk is defined and accepted by the service.
Military certifications differ on the degree and coverage of the evidences needed. This is in general limited by contract, budget, lack of past legal liability and aircraft type and legacy.
Acceptance of specific tasks and the risk levels can vary with aircraft purpose and type.
Military certification also differs from civil procedure due to the fact that military certification looks for induction of the aircraft into service use. The certification tasks also include vehicle performance evaluation and system qualification for induction into service. The induction clearance is given through issue of ‘release to service’ document. The general certification procedure follows the following routes:
Approval builds up in a building block method.
The first-level clearance includes qualification of component and equipment through lab-level test.
The second-level clearance includes demonstration of systems’ performance through aircraft on ground tests and system simulations.
Finally the aircraft-level performance is evaluated through flight test programme.
A compliance document is prepared capturing the evidences generated through analysis, lab test, aircraft inspection, system integration test and flight tests.
Finally a ‘release to service document’ is issued.
Military aviation is an important factor in security and defence preparedness of each state. All military airworthiness activities are conducted and regulated on a national basis, and in general most military authorities have not published military airworthiness design standards for an acceptable level of safety. In general for the military airplanes, the military specification and documents nominate some specified elements like:
Handling qualities
Weapons, ammunition stores and self-defence suites
Specific operations in wartime
Military role and mission and tasks
While the principle remains the same, the practices evolved in different countries over a period of time, differ from each other to a varying degree. The range of control over all the activities in design, development evaluation, and testing varies from total control to delegated system of working, with emphasis on contracts and penalties for shortfalls in performance, time and cost overruns [13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29].
\nWith effect from 1 April 2010, the Secretary of State (SofS) for Defence created the Military Aviation Authority (MAA) by charter as the single independent regulatory body for all defence aviation activities in the United Kingdom. The Director General of the MAA (DGMAA) is accountable to SofS, for:
Providing airworthiness regulatory framework
According airworthy clearance through certification
Approving aircraft inspection process for the acquisition
According airworthiness assurance of all air systems held in the inventory of defence aviation environment
Accordingly DGMAA prepares and releases regulatory publications (MRP) and has the authority to issue them on behalf of the SofS. The MAA has published the document ‘RA 1500 – Certification of UK Military Air Systems’. This document has now been superseded by RA 5800 and RA 5820 [19, 20, 21].
\nAccording to the US Air Force (USAF) Policy Directive No. AFPD 62-6 on 11 Jun 2010 issued by the Secretary of Defense, the USAF is responsible for assuring the airworthiness of all the aircraft which it operates. The directive establishes policies for formal airworthiness evaluations to ensure that AF-operated aircraft are airworthy over their entire life cycle and maintain high levels of safety. This policy is implemented through USAF Instruction AFI 62-601, dated 15 Jun 2010 and supplemented on 12 May 2011. According to this AFI, a Technical Airworthiness Authority (TAA) and an AF Airworthiness Board (AFAB) have been created in the AF Materiel Command (AFMC) to provide independence in airworthiness evaluations. AFAB is chaired by the TAA. AFAB defines the requirement for
The DB certification is carried out in stages of design evaluation, issuance of military experimental flight release and finally issuance of military-type certificates (MTC). Issuance of MTC indicates that aircraft design documentation accurately defines the configuration which meets the certification basis and the aircraft design is in compliance with requirement.
\nA Non Design Based (NDB) assessment is conducted when it is found by the TAA that a DB airworthiness certification cannot reasonably be accomplished, but there is a compelling military need to operate the air system. On successful conclusion of NDB evaluation, the TAA may issue a special flight release. The NDB special flight releases process identifies and assess the inherent risks of operating these aircraft and the services formally acknowledge these risks during their flight operations.
\nThe USAF prefers FAA-type certification for newly developed military transport and CDA for USAF operation, when it is found that the criticality of military usage is no severe than the FAA-certified flight envelope and operational environment. FAA Form 8130-2 or 8130-31 can be used for FAA-type certification. CDA require the issuance of a MTC by the TAA. For this, FAA TC is used for the basic aircraft, and a compliance analysis is carried out with the approved military certification basis for items not covered by FAA (e.g. EW suits or other military appliances). MIL-HDBK-516 is to be used to define applicable military airworthiness certification criteria. CDA used in the USAF are to be maintained as per AFI 21-107: maintaining Commercial Derivative Aircraft.
\nIn 2014, the Chief of Defence, Australian Defence Forces (ADF) and Secretary of Defence decided that the procurement and maintenance of all aviation fleet of ADF be regulated to meet the requirement of Australian Defence Safety Objectives. DoD, Australia, issued Australian Air Publication AAP 7001.048, ‘Defence Aviation Safety Program (DASP) Manual’ on 30 Jun 2014. As per the above publication, the Chief of Air Force will be the ‘Defence Aviation Authority’. He will be responsible for creating and implementing DASP. He will be supported by Deputy Chief of Air Force (DCAF) as Operational Airworthiness Regulator (OAR) and Directorate General Technical Airworthiness (DGTA).
\nThe military aviation design and development and certification were carried out by various aviation design bureaus and manufacturing complexes. Military forces decide the operational requirements and release design specification. The aviation design bureaus and the manufacturing units carry out necessary designs to meet the requirements. The design bureaus take support from the state research institutes on aerodynamics and other aircraft systems. In fact the design bureau creates a number of alternate designs. The designs are evaluated, and the chosen design is then assigned to one or more manufacturing complexes. During D&D and manufacture of the aircraft, state standards GOST are to be used. The production and quality system ‘Oboronsertifika’ followed by the defence industries are similar to international quality standards like ISO, AS9100 [13].
\nThe Indian military airworthiness certification process has been modeled after the earlier British system. The system is based on concurrent design and clearance leading to eventual certification. This approach was adopted since the certification authority, viz. the Chief Resident Engineer (CRE), and the inspection authority Chief Resident Inspector (CRI) were co-located with defence public sector Hindustan Aeronautics Limited who is responsible for design and development (D&D). D&D milestones are agreed between the design and certification authorities, and the design is reviewed for safety and airworthiness by a team of experts. At appropriate stages, test procedures are examined and approved, and tests are carried out. The test results are reviewed for acceptance, redesign or retest. The CRE and CRI organizations have been changed to CEMILAC and DGAQA; however, the inspection and design certification procedure have practically remained the same.
\nHowever, this process conceptually differs from those followed in the United States and Europe, where both D&D and manufacture are delegated to approved design/production organization. The Defence Project Managers (PM) monitor the project progress. At mutually accepted major milestones, reviews are carried out as per the agreed documentation of the contract. The government, through the certification provision, holds the authorized personnel within the firm responsible for the airworthiness certification of the aircraft. In contrast, in India, CEMILAC and DGAQA interact with the D&D team on a day-to-day basis and carry out spot checks to identify design/production deficiencies during the D&D stage [3, 4, 13, 29].
\nMOD Document DDPMAS 2002 (Procedures for Design Development of Military Aircraft and Airborne Stores) guidelines are as follows. DDPMAS 2002 volume 2 is used as a procedure for certification of airborne software. These documents also lay down airworthiness assurance procedures during manufacture, overhaul and upgrade of military aircraft. The military airworthiness functions are shown in Figure 9, and aircraft certification procedure is shown in the block diagram in Figure 10.
\nAirworthiness functions [
Certification procedure [
In the modern warfare, air power plays a very significant role in both offensive attack role and defending the country’s land and water space. Judicious mix of various types of combat and noncombat aircraft increases the war power of both army and navy. Competition to develop more effective air weapon is thus never-ending. Huge research effort is being spent on development of sophisticated military aircraft with precision navigation, weapon aiming and targeting along with improvement of air armament lethality.
\nAviation is also associated with various safety issues. While in civil aviation, ICAO regulations take care of aviation safety issues of the member states, military aviation safety is controlled by each state according to their own military doctrine. To make military aviation safe, the authorities must exercise effective regulatory control during design and development, operation and maintenance of the military aviation assets.
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\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]},{id:"52860",doi:"10.5772/65937",title:"Cerium Oxide Nanostructures and their Applications",slug:"cerium-oxide-nanostructures-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:5365,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Due to excellent physical and chemical properties, cerium oxide (ceria, CeO2) has attracted much attention in recent years. This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Innovative developments of science and engineering have progressed very fast toward the synthesis of nanomaterials to achieve unique properties that are not the same as the properties of the bulk materials. The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2139,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:3985,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3732,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:72,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:76,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:null,scope:"\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11970,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11971,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"91",type:"subseries",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",keywords:"Sustainable, Society, Economy, Digitalization, KPIs, Decision Making, Business, Digital Footprint",scope:"\r\n\tGlobally, the ecological footprint is growing at a faster rate than GDP. This phenomenon has been studied by scientists for many years. However, clear strategies and actions are needed now more than ever. Every day, humanity, from individuals to businesses (public and private) and governments, are called to change their mindset in order to pursue a virtuous combination for sustainable development. Reasoning in a sustainable way entails, first and foremost, managing the available resources efficiently and strategically, whether they are natural, financial, human or relational. In this way, value is generated by contributing to the growth, improvement and socio-economic development of the communities and of all the players that make up its value chain. In the coming decades, we will need to be able to transition from a society in which economic well-being and health are measured by the growth of production and material consumption, to a society in which we live better while consuming less. In this context, digitization has the potential to disrupt processes, with significant implications for the environment and sustainable development. There are numerous challenges associated with sustainability and digitization, the need to consider new business models capable of extracting value, data ownership and sharing and integration, as well as collaboration across the entire supply chain of a product. In order to generate value, effectively developing a complex system based on sustainability principles is a challenge that requires a deep commitment to both technological factors, such as data and platforms, and human dimensions, such as trust and collaboration. Regular study, research and implementation must be part of the road to sustainable solutions. Consequently, this topic will analyze growth models and techniques aimed at achieving intergenerational equity in terms of economic, social and environmental well-being. It will also cover various subjects, including risk assessment in the context of sustainable economy and a just society.
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