\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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By implementing scaling and rotations on each screen, we control the correlation trajectory and generate long-range curved plasmonic modes. 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Among these compounds, to which we are daily exposed, many can impact human and non-human organisms, thus the need for sustainable development is increasingly essential. In this aspect, toxicology has the role of identifying risks and hazards in order to ensure the health of all living beings. In this context, the understanding of the toxic mechanism of action of different xenobiotics and their mixtures in organisms, as well as the development of new techniques that follow the precept of the 3Rs, are relevant points for the area. In this aspect, this book aims to bring together works that are at the forefront of science and that drive us towards a more sustainable future. We welcome articles reporting on any aspect of chemical-induced toxicity, as well as mechanisms of protection. The development of new methods or protocols to evaluate environmental toxicity utilizing all types of model systems, and especially using alternative methods and protocols are also welcome.
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Y. Jiang",authors:[{id:"51655",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengyi",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Zhengyi Jiang",slug:"zhengyi-jiang"}]},{id:"19450",title:"Performance Evaluation of Single-Channel Receivers for Wireless Optical Communications by Numerical Simulations",slug:"performance-evaluation-of-single-channel-receivers-for-wireless-optical-communications-by-numerical-",signatures:"M. Castillo-Vázquez, A. Jurado-Navas, J.M. Garrido-Balsells and A. 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Roth, D. Chamoret, J. Badin, JR. Imbert and S. Gomes",authors:[{id:"53859",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastien",middleName:null,surname:"Roth",fullName:"Sebastien Roth",slug:"sebastien-roth"},{id:"60592",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Chamoret",fullName:"Dominique Chamoret",slug:"dominique-chamoret"},{id:"60593",title:"Mr",name:"Julien",middleName:null,surname:"Badin",fullName:"Julien Badin",slug:"julien-badin"},{id:"60594",title:"Prof.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",fullName:"Samuel Gomes",slug:"samuel-gomes"}]},{id:"19454",title:"Translational and Rotational Motion Control Considering Width for Autonomous Mobile Robots Using Fuzzy Inference",slug:"translational-and-rotational-motion-control-considering-width-for-autonomous-mobile-robots-using-fuz",signatures:"Takafumi Suzuki and Masaki Takahashi",authors:[{id:"6184",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",fullName:"Masaki Takahashi",slug:"masaki-takahashi"},{id:"57754",title:"Dr.",name:"Takafumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Takafumi Suzuki",slug:"takafumi-suzuki"}]},{id:"19455",title:"Obstacle Avoidance for Autonomous Mobile Robots Based on Position Prediction Using Fuzzy Inference",slug:"obstacle-avoidance-for-autonomous-mobile-robots-based-on-position-prediction-using-fuzzy-inference",signatures:"Takafumi Suzuki and Masaki Takahashi",authors:[{id:"6184",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",fullName:"Masaki Takahashi",slug:"masaki-takahashi"},{id:"57754",title:"Dr.",name:"Takafumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Takafumi Suzuki",slug:"takafumi-suzuki"}]},{id:"19456",title:"Numerical Simulation Research and Use of The Steel Sheet Pile Supporting Structure in Vertical Excavation",slug:"numerical-simulation-research-and-use-of-the-steel-sheet-pile-supporting-structure-in-vertical-excav",signatures:"Qingzhi Yan and Xiangzhen Yan",authors:[{id:"59869",title:"Dr.",name:"Qingzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"Qingzhi Yan",slug:"qingzhi-yan"},{id:"59939",title:"MSc.",name:"Yanhua",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Yanhua Wang",slug:"yanhua-wang"}]},{id:"19457",title:"Collision Avoidance Law Using Information Amount",slug:"collision-avoidance-law-using-information-amount",signatures:"Seiya Ueno and Takehiro Higuchi",authors:[{id:"58800",title:"Prof.",name:"Seiya",middleName:null,surname:"Ueno",fullName:"Seiya Ueno",slug:"seiya-ueno"},{id:"62105",title:"Prof.",name:"Takehiro",middleName:null,surname:"Higuchi",fullName:"Takehiro Higuchi",slug:"takehiro-higuchi"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1989",title:"Fluid Dynamics, Computational Modeling and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7f43d55285a6a3447c62c066f072e8b",slug:"fluid-dynamics-computational-modeling-and-applications",bookSignature:"L. 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Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2274.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3194",title:"Computational Fluid Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"240e32819f5a408715331a202e7971b4",slug:"computational-fluid-dynamics",bookSignature:"Hyoung Woo Oh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3194.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63199",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyoung Woo",surname:"Oh",slug:"hyoung-woo-oh",fullName:"Hyoung Woo Oh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1989",title:"Fluid Dynamics, Computational Modeling and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7f43d55285a6a3447c62c066f072e8b",slug:"fluid-dynamics-computational-modeling-and-applications",bookSignature:"L. Hector Juarez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65861",title:"Dr.",name:"L. Hector",surname:"Juarez",slug:"l.-hector-juarez",fullName:"L. Hector Juarez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80264",title:"Fluoride and Other Trace Elements in Dental Hard Tissue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102043",slug:"fluoride-and-other-trace-elements-in-dental-hard-tissue",body:'Carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen elements make up about 96 percent of all living things. In the living system, nearly half of all recognized elements are present in detectable concentrations. The physiological activities of 23 elements are identified in humans and other mammals, 11 of which are categorized as trace elements (TEs) [1]. Vanadium, chromium, manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt, copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and molybdenum are transition elements, while selenium (Se), fluorine, and iodine are non-metal elements [1, 2]. TEs, unlike sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and chlorine, which are macronutrients that must be consumed in large quantities, are micronutrients that must be consumed in small amounts. (usually lower than 100 mg/day). Major and Minor TEs are both essential for human health. Due to natural or man-made causes, a lack or excess of these elements may have serious clinical implications [2].
A tooth’s structure includes hard tissue (enamel, dentine, and cement) as well as soft tissue (pulp and periodontal ligaments). A tooth has a multicellular structure that can collaborate with the maxillofacial region functionally [2, 3].
Trace elements (TEs) are essential for human health. Toxic effects are caused by a lack of or an overabundance of TEs. TEs have a huge impact on both human and dental health. It is involved in the functions of essential biological polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, and RNA. In the tooth structure, TEs are found in various concentrations. Teeth are affected by changes in the density of certain TEs. Caries susceptibility is increased when the density of certain TEs is altered. Others function as a barrier to the development of caries. Zinc (Zn), phosphorus (P), and magnesium (Mg) are common TEs that have a significant impact on dental health. The use of tissue samplings such as blood, semen, teeth, nails, and hair to measure TE values in order to define and correct these effects has a significant impact. Teeth are widely regarded as a reliable indicator of TEs. As a result, TEs have a big impact on the development of healthy teeth [4].
The hard tissue that protects the tooth’s surface is known as enamel. This layer’s job is to protect the dentine-pulp complex. Enamel is the body’s toughest and most resistant tissue. It’s made up of 95–97% inorganic material (calcium hydroxyapatite crystals) and 1–2% organic material (proteins like amylogenic, enameline, ameloblastin, and tuftelin, to name a few), and 2–4% water [5]. TEs make up a small percentage of the 97 percent inorganic content and consists of Phosphorus (P-17%), calcium (Ca-36.5%), fluoride (F-0.016%), 3.0% carbon dioxide, 0.2% Na, 0.3% potassium (K), 0.016% Fluoride, 0.1% sulfur (S), 0.01% copper (Cu), 0.016% Zn, 0.003% silicon (Si); and low amounts of silver (Ag), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), Vanadium (V). TE is deposited in human tooth enamel by the environment before and after the tooth’s mineralization and maturation [6].
After Enamel, the next layer to the tooth is Dentin consists of an inorganic matrix 70% in weight (40–45% in volume) Organic matrix 20% by weight (30% in volume), and water 10% by weight (20–25% in volume). The organic portion consists of proteins like osteonectin, osteopontin, osteoclastin-like dentin Gla protein, dentin phosphorene, dentin matrix protein, and dentin sialoprotein and type I collagen fiber [6, 7]. The inorganic material consists of hydroxyapatite crystals and TEs (40 in number) which include Zn, Sr., Fe, Al, B, Ba, Pb having up to 1000 ppm concentration and Ni, Li, Ag, As, Se, Nb, Hg having 100 ppb concentration. An analysis of the relation with age of 10 trace elements in dentine found that boron (B), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), rubidium (Rb), strontium (Sr), molybdenum (Mo), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) and suggested that human dentine is an appropriate substance for relating sex and age [8].
Cementum is a type of connective tissue that connects the periodontal ligament to the root surface and covers the root surface’s outermost layer of calcite matrix [9]. Cement is a vascularized, mineralized tissue and has higher regeneration potential. It connects the dentin to the periodontal ligament and aids in the repair and regeneration of periodontal tissue after injury [10]. Cement’s inorganic portion is identical to that of bone, dentin, and enamel.
The essential mineral part of cementum consists of calcium hydroxyapatite with amorphous calcium phosphate (Ca10 (PO4) 6 (OH) 2) and has a lower crystallinity than other calcifying tissues [11]. This lower crystallinity causes the cementum, to be easily decalcified and increases the tendency to absorb nearby ions like fluoride. That’s why a higher concentration of fluoride is found in cementum ad compared to other parts of the tooth. In comparison to other calcifying tissues, the cement of adult mature teeth has higher fluoride content. The amount of magnesium in the cement is about half that of the dentin. In the deep layers of the cement, Mg levels gradually rise [9, 10].
Dental pulp consists of Odontoblastfibroblast (collagen and elastic fibers forming cells), blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that make up the tooth pulp that develops from the dental papilla [11]. The cells which are responsible for the formation of pre-dentin, dentin, and reparative dentin are Odontoblast [11]. When the pulp’s health is threatened the pulp cells especially fibroblasts produce inflammatory mediators such as IL-8, IL-6, and vascular endothelial growth factors that are responsible for producing symptoms of pulp infection. The tooth pulp is responsible for a variety of biological functions, including nutrition, sensitivity, building, and defense. The health of the pulp is largely influenced by changes in blood pressure and arterial flow in the apical area. When tooth pulp is affected by stimulus or irritants like mechanical, chemical, thermal, or microbial agents causing vascular inflammatory responses like local tissue reactions and lymphatasis(affecting lymphatic drainage of pulp area) [12, 13, 14].
Dental caries is a microbiological infectious disease that causes the degradation of calcified tissues and the destruction of the organic part of the tooth leads to cavitation. The bacteria (from mutans Streptococci and Lactobacillus species), a susceptible tooth surface (host), and a nutrient (diet) to provide bacterial growth are all needed for the formation of dental caries. From enamel, caries progress to dentin and causes inflammation of the pulp [15, 16].
In a systematic review analysis of various studies assessing the role of trace elements in oral health, it was found that there are some trace elements that cause dental caries progression whereas certain trace elements may decrease the risk of developing dental caries [4].
The effects of fluoride and various trace elements on dental hard tissues are as follows:
Of the existing anticaries agents, fluoride is the most powerful and well-tested. Understanding the mechanism of fluoride’s action in the prevention of dental caries is critical for developing the best fluoride delivery systems for optimal caries reduction. Although the exact and full mechanism of action of fluoride cannot be determined at this time, there is enough evidence to suggest that fluoride has a number of subtle effects on the calcium-phosphate system as well as the dental plaque metabolism. Fluorides can affect calcium-phosphate interactions in tooth enamel during the mineralization stage (before the tooth emerges) and, also, post eruptively by surface interactions with enamel, as well as during a carious attack [17, 18].
Ca2+, PO43-, OH-, and carbonate are the key chemical components of tooth enamel (CO32−). These components are found in the form of microcrystals in enamel and dentin, and their spatial structure resembles that of the pure ternary mineral hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Carbonate is a component of enamel’s relatively large apatite crystals. Furthermore, teeth’s mineral phase contains a variety of trace elements, the most significant of which is fluoride. Some of the elements are adsorbed on the surface of hydroxyapatite crystals, while others with the right size and charge will fill voids or replace calcium or phosphate in the crystal interior. As a result, it’s obvious that enamel bioapatite is not pure apatite, but rather includes CO32-, Na+, Mg2+, F-, Sr2+, CI-, and other ions. Enamel apatite deviates from the stoichiometry of pure apatite in terms of Ca/P ratios due to a large number of substitutions in the crystal lattice. Enamel crystals also have a lot of flaws and are low in calcium and hydroxyl ions. The solubility of enamel tends to increase as voids and deviations from stoichiometry increase [19].
Fluoride incorporation within the apatite lattice has significant consequences. The formation of fluorapatite is caused by the replacement of hydroxyl groups by smaller fluoride ions, which causes a decrease in the dimension of the unit cell and has many effects on the physical and chemical properties of the crystals. Surface enamel (first 10 um) obtained from people living in fluoridated areas may contain 3000–4000 ppm of fluoride, whereas pure fluorapatite has a fluoride concentration of 38,000 ppm. It is clear that drinking fluoridated water causes just a small amount of fluoride ions to be substituted for hydroxyl ions, around 10%. Even this minor substitution appears to play a role in the strong cariostatic impact. The acquisition of fluoride by enamel is considered before exploring the mechanisms of fluoride action [19, 20, 21, 22].
Fluoride enters dental enamel by two mechanisms: (1) systemically, through absorption of fluorides in water, drinks, foods, or fluoride supplements, and (2) topically, through oral fluids such as saliva, urine, plaque fluid, and topical fluoride solutions bathing enamel. Topical fluoride acquisition is limited to the enamel surface, mostly the first 10- to 30-pm layer, and is often limited to etched surfaces and incipient lesions.
During the mineralization process, fluorides are introduced pre-eruptively into enamel from tissue fluid. The fluoride level acquired is determined by the fluoride concentration in the plasma, which is a feature of the fluoride consumed in water, food, or supplements. The fluoride concentration is relatively high during the early stages of enamel development, but it gradually decreases as the tooth matures and acquires more minerals [23].
During the pre-eruptively maturation period, when enamel undergoes rapid and more full mineralization, the majority of fluoride is incorporated into the sound surface of the enamel.
Since primary teeth have a shorter time of enamel maturation than permanent teeth, they absorb less fluoride. The slight variations in fluoride concentration between permanent teeth can also be explained by differences in tooth maturation time. In both fluoride and non-fluoride regions, a gradient concentration occurs with a declining concentration towards the dento-enamel junction in unerupted and erupted teeth [23].
While the majority of fluoride is acquired during the pre-eruptive growth of teeth, it is important to note that a large portion of the mineral component of enamel (about 10% in bovine enamel) is acquired during post-eruptive maturation [24].
Furthermore, the optimum value for enamel crystallinity is reached several years after the eruption. A significant amount of fluoride is introduced into surface enamel during this process of mineral deposition. Fluoride is less likely to disperse as teeth age and become more mineralized, so deposition is more limited to the surface. This causes a more pronounced fluoride concentration gradient, with lower concentrations towards the interior of enamel, though this is later decreased by abrasion on exposed areas of the tooth. The concentration of fluoride in populations that consumed water that was optimally fluoridated (1 ppm) during the development of the dentition is higher, Fluoride concentrations in total enamel of permanent teeth range from 200 to 300 ppm, with levels as high as 3000 ppm in the first 10 micrometer. The comparable fluoride concentration in non-fluoridated areas is about 150 ppm in whole enamel and under 2000 ppm in surface enamel. In the outer few micrometers of enamel, the gradient is very steep. These levels are lower in primary teeth, with fluoridated and non-fluoridated communities having 900 and 650 ppm in surface enamel, respectively [17, 25]. Fluoride concentration is the highest in surface enamel and decreases towards the inner parts. Fluoride concentrations in enamel vary from one surface to another on the same tooth. Fluoride concentrations in newly erupted tooth surface enamel are higher near the incisal edge than near the cervical margin [26]. However, after the eruption, subsequent wear and attrition of the enamel destroy the fluoride-rich outer enamel of the incisal edge at a faster rate than it is obtained, allowing it to fall below the cervical enamel.
Topical obtainment of fluoride is often acquired post-eruptively from the oral atmosphere in the enamel surface, but the accumulation is mostly limited to the surface. Foods, water, fluoride-containing beverages, toothpastes, mouth rinses, prophylactic pastes, topical solutions, and gels are all sources of fluoride.
At pH 4.5, Ten Cate and Duijsters [27] found that 2 ppm F in a solution containing 2.2 mM Ca and P effectively prevented enamel demineralization. Proof that the slight rise of fluoride in enamel caused by drinking fluoridated water causes significant solubility differences is less conclusive.
Isaac et al. and Jenkins [28, 29] Solubility tests of intact enamel obtained from teeth of individuals living in fluoridated and non-fluoridated areas show a trend towards less solubility in the fluoridated classes. Moreno et al. [30] used apatites with well-defined levels of fluoride ranging from 0 to 3.4 percent to come to the conclusion that fluoride concentrations of 4000–8000 ppm were required to produce a significant decrease in enamel solubility. Fluoride concentrations in the molecular layers of surface enamel in fluoridated zones can be higher than those detected by the normal imprecise methods of collecting outer enamel. Explaining how a restricted substitution of fluoride ions for hydroxyl ions in enamel apatite can affect enamel solubility requires another consideration. Low levels of fluoride in the solution can react with the outer surfaces of dissolving hydroxyapatite crystals, forming a shell with fluorapatite solubility properties, according to Brown et al. [22].
The presence of small amounts of fluoride during a carious attack may therefore have a major impact on the properties of enamel crystals. This may explain why fluoride-containing products (dentifrices and mouth-rinses) are highly effective cariostatic agents when used on a regular or weekly basis for long periods of time. As previously stated, substitutions and defects cause enamel apatite to deviate from the stoichiometry of pure hydroxyapatite. Fluoride stabilizes the crystal structure of enamel, while carbonate and sodium increase its solubility and reactivity. Also, Nikiforuk et al. [31] found some evidence that the presence of fluoride during enamel production results in lower carbonate content. The dissolved enamel crystals preferentially lose carbonate during an incipient carious assault. Crystals containing less carbonate are thought to have lower reactivity and solubility, making them more resistant to caries. Fortunately, as the plaque’s pH rises, recrystallization occurs, resulting in the formation of larger, more resistant crystals. The sum of these results is that fluoride has a slight but important effect on enamel solubility, even at the relatively low concentrations found in enamel.
An important reservoir of fluoride is surface enamel from which fluoride is released during the demineralization phase of a carious attack. Fluoride ions are also released from plaque when the pH falls which may contribute to remineralization. The process of remineralization can function at the earliest stage of caries formation, i.e. when the first acid attack occurs.
As the pH starts to grow after the acid attack, fluoride in the microenvironment will trigger enamel dissolution to stop sooner. If the pH increases, fresh, bigger, less soluble crystals form, containing more fluoride, such as fluoridated hydroxyapatite, and less carbonate like fluoridated hydroxyapatite. The enamel is partially remineralized as a result of the procedure. Following exposure to fluoride, saliva, or plaque fluid, the amount of new minerals at the site may increase even more. When fluoride is applied at a later stage of caries growth, such as when a white spot is apparent, fluoride penetrates the surface layer and is absorbed preferentially by the porous sponge like the body of the lesion. This also decreases the solubility of the lesion, making it more vulnerable to acid attacks in the future. On radiographs prepared from thin parts taken through the lesion, successive fluoride exposures and caries attacks often result in a laminated appearance [38]. According to in vitro remineralization tests, the entire body of the white spot lesion does not need to be remineralized to become covered. If only the surface zone of a lesion is remineralized, the lesion can be stopped. When lesions are subjected to re-mineralizing solutions containing relatively high amounts of fluoride or calcium, this is easily accomplished [34]. As a result, the appearance of natural caries white spots in the mouth does not always imply that the region is actually under attack by caries. It may actually signify a region that has been attacked but is now partly remineralized and arrested as a result. Because of the absorption of organic stains, long-standing arrested lesions often appear as brown spots [35].
Because of the buffering effect of saliva and plaque, as well as the high concentrations of calcium and phosphate present, the caries process is complex, with periods of demineralization when plaque pH are minimal, alternating with periods of remineralization as pH rises. If the process is to be pushed in the direction of remineralization, the presence of trace amounts of fluorides released from enamel or normally present in plaque fluid is important [39]. This is a key mechanism by which fluoride decreases the incidence of caries.
As per the various literature, it has been found that various trace elements have different roles in causing and preventing dental caries like Selenium, Cadmium, Magnesium, Platinum, Lead and Silicon are caries promoting elements whereas other than Fluoride, Phosphorus, Molybdenum Vanadium, Strontium and Lithium are cariostatic elements.
The effects of trace elements on oral dental tissues are as follows-.
The vanadium is found with industrial resources such as oil refineries and power plants. The majority of food compounds contain lesser concentrations whereas Seafood has a higher concentration of Vanadium and daily uptake from all source’s ranges from 0.01–0.02 mg [41].
Various studies have been done to assess the role of Vanadium in the development of prevention of dental caries. It’s found to be caries protective in animal studies and studies on rats but on the contrary studies on monkeys when they drank water with Vanadium content tend to have more carious lesions in their mouth. So exact role in the prevention and development of caries is still not clear [4].
Strontium is universally present in the environment. Though it is non-essential but still present in all living beings. This element bears a resemblance to Calcium as it has a tendency to be taken by bones and skeleton. Depending upon the amount received, it can have beneficial and harmful effects on humans [42].
Strontium is considered to be caries protective as per the literature. The strontium makes the enamel more stable and stronger as compared to pure calcium content. It also found that remineralized process in enamel with strontium in solution easier and faster as compared to without strontium solution and because of this the tooth enamel stable and more resistant to caries and acid attack [43].
The epidemiological studies suggest that high strontium content is associated with decreased carious lesions or good enamel. The strontium content decrease with age and is found to be more young as compared to older people.
Lithium has an inverse relation with the development of dental caries. Various studies reported with reduced incidence of caries in presence of lithium in humans [4]. Mostly the lithium exposure occurs with drinking water and if in excess can have an effect on different tissues or organs in animals like affects the thyroid function and also causes histopathological changes in salivary glands [44]. It has medicinal use in various psychiatric disorders like bipolar disorders [45].
Copper is a component of a variety of metalloenzymes that act as oxidases to reduce molecular oxygen. Adult men and women should consume 900 g of fiber per day. Copper intake from food is approximately 1.0 to 1.6 mg/day for adult men and women in the United States. Adults have a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 10,000 g/day (10 mg/day), a value based on protection from liver damage as the critical adverse effect. Greater amounts of copper are found in seafood, green leafy vegetables, animal products, pulses, and grains [46].
Oral Health and Diseases: What Role Does It Play- Hypochromic anemia, neutropenia, hypopigmentation of hair and skin, irregular bone structure with skeletal fragility and osteoporosis, joint pain, reduced immunity, vascular aberrations, and kinky hair are all signs of copper deficiency [47].
If a person has copper deficiency for a long-time during stages of active growth it can cause anemia and abnormal keratinization of oral soft tissues. Reduced iron oxidation and decreased ferroxidase activity of ceruloplasmin are responsible for the anemic impact [48].
Infections: Due to the accompanied neutropenia, lowered immunity can result in a variety of oral infections [49]. Granulocyte maturation disorder has been observed in the bone marrow, as well as vacuolation in neutrophils.
Bone defects and pain due to abnormal functioning of ascorbate and lysyl oxidase leads to osteoporosis like changes in the body i.e. lack of trabecular pattern and cortex thinning.
Oral lesions: according to several reports, the average serum copper levels were present in the Sera from patients with oral potentially malignant conditions like oral leukoplakia and oral submucous fibrosis, as well as malignant tumors like squamous cell carcinoma, and was substantially higher.
The average copper intake in India is 2.1–3.9 mg/day, but it is more than 5 mg/day due to areca nut chewing. Copper released from areca nuts during chewing is thought to come into direct contact with the oral epithelium and be dissolved in saliva. Copper is said to be found in saliva for up to 30 minutes. The longer copper is present in saliva, the more likely it is to be absorbed by the oral epithelium [48]. Copper occurs in the blood after 15 minutes of ingestion of areca nut and its ingredients, according to some [50]. Cu serum levels steadily rise in patients with oral submucous fibrosis as the condition progresses clinically. However, the local impact of increased salivary copper levels may be more significant than the increased serum levels. Other schools of thought attributed a decrease in copper serum concentrations to copper’s role in upregulating lysyl oxidase, which resulted in excessive collagen cross-linking [51].
Cu is also thought to have a caries-promoting effect [52].
Selenium salts are essential for a variety of cellular functions in the human body, but too much of them is toxic [53]. It is present in the liver, kidneys, seafood, poultry, grains, grain oils, milk, fruits, and vegetables, and a maximum intake of 70 micrograms is recommended [54]. It is required for the formation of anti-oxidants enzymes in the body.
Selenium is a non-metallic substance that occurs naturally and is absorbed by the body through food or inhalation. Intake of selenium was linked to an increase in dental caries. It has been stated that selenium settles in the enamel’s micro-crystal structure at the start of decay, making it more susceptible to dissolution [54].
Furthermore, a reduction in selenium levels in the body has been linked to oxidative stress. According to a new study, patients who developed oral mucositis as a result of high-dose chemotherapy significantly shortened the duration and severity of the condition and also has cytoprotective impact and antiulcer activity on subsequent reinforcement [55].
The amount of manganese in food varies greatly. Peanuts and grains have the highest concentrations, while milk products, meat, poultry, fish, and sea products have the lowest. Manganese can also be present in coffee and tea, which account for 10% of daily intake. On average, an adult’s body contains 15 mg of manganese, which is often found in nucleic acid. The regular requirement is between 2 and 5 milligrams. Manganese is a component of metalloenzymes and acts as an enzyme activator. Manganese concentrations range from 0.3 to 2.9 ug manganese/g in all mammalian tissues. Tissues with a lot of mitochondria and pigments (like the retina and dark skin) have a lot of manganese concentrations in them.
Manganese is a TE that can be ingested by food, air, or water and incorporated into the enamel. Furthermore, Mn has the ability to change Ca′s position at HAP. Mn can be used in synthetic HAP without degrading the crystal area size, according to several studies [56].
Manganese concentrations are normally higher in bones, livers, pancreas, and kidneys than in other tissues. The bones are the most valuable manganese shop. Manganese is one of 49 elements found in enamel hydroxyapatite crystals, and it is normally present in very small amounts. Manganese concentrations in enamel range from 0.08 to 20 ppm, or 0.08–20 mg/kg, and in dentine from 0.6 to 1000 ppm. The concentration of Mn is higher in permanent dentition compared to primary dentition [57].
Manganese is being increasingly linked to the occurrence of tooth decay. According to one study, the incidence of dental caries in males increased in areas with higher manganese content. As a result, it is stressed that manganese promotes caries [4].
Zinc is found in the human body in amounts ranging from 2 to 4 grams. The prostate, eyeballs, brain, muscles, bones, kidney, and liver all store zinc. It is the only metal used in all enzyme groups and is the second most common transition metal in species after iron. The concentration of Zn in plasma (10%) remains constant even when intake is higher and in plasma 60% is tightly bound to albumin and the rest to transferrin (40%) [58, 59].
The RDA of Zinc is 15–20 mg. The pancreas and intestines excrete approximately 2–5 mg per day. Pregnancy, loss of liquid, oral contraceptive use, blood loss, and acute infection all having lower plasma zinc levels.
Zinc is needed for cell reproduction, differentiation, and metabolic functions. Zinc also aids normal development during pregnancy, infancy, and adolescence [60, 61]. Zinc is present primarily in animal products such as beef, milk, and fish. Phytonutrients are poor in zinc bio adjustment [58].
Oral Health and Diseases: What role does it play?
Zinc is present in the oral cavity i.e. in Enamel, Dentin, and Plaque (Naturally present). Oral health products containing zinc are used to regulate plaque, minimize odor, and delay the development of calculus. Following delivery from mouth rinses and toothpaste, zinc elevated concentrations in plaque and saliva can be retained for long periods of time. Despite the fact that low concentrations of zinc can both minimize enamel demineralization and alter remineralization, the anti-cariogenic efficacy is still debatable and contradicted by numerous studies [62].
Taste disorders: Zinc plays an important role in taste functions at different stages of organization, including taste buds, taste sense nerve transmission, and anatomical structures like the brain. Early researchers concluded that taste disruptions are caused by zinc deficiency due to some etiology, and therefore zinc depletion is still corrected for patients reporting taste imbalances [63].
A rodent study found that a zinc-deficient diet can cause parakeratosis of the normally ortho-keratinized oral mucosa. As a result, zinc deficiency can be a risk factor for periodontal and oral diseases and causes parakeratosis in soft oral mucosa like in cheeks, tongue, and food pipe [64].
Act as a cofactor for superoxide dismutase enzyme and zinc deficiency is a finding of patients with potentially premalignant lesions such as oral leukoplakia that could be due to more intake of zinc in reaction to higher copper found in arecanut and oxidants produced during tobacco usage [65, 66].
In contrast to common opinion, limited evidence indicates that zinc has a carcinogenic effect [67].
Cadmium accumulates in the liver and bones as soon as it reaches the body and is released slowly (cadmium reference). It causes a major environmental issue as a result of being received by plants and entering the food chain, or as a result of being washed from the soil and hitting the water environment. Furthermore, chelating agents accelerate the downward carriage of cadmium from the soil, which can contribute to contamination of drinking and irrigation waters as it reaches underground water bodies [68, 69].
Exposure to cadmium has been linked to a number of health problems, including kidney failure and skeletal problems, and heart diseases [70]. It can be released from dentures and materials containing metal alloys in the mouth (rigidly bound with metallothioneins) and can accumulate in teeth and other oral tissues.
Cadmium has been linked to an increase in the occurrence of tooth decay. However, it is said that cadmium settlement in teeth after growth is ineffective in preventing caries. According to some animal studies, there is a clear connection between the formation of dental caries and cadmium intake during the dental growth period [4]. The power of increased exposure to and diffusion of this toxic material on the general and oral health of vulnerable populations such as children is fetching increasingly significant [4].
Lead may be consumed by tainted food and beverages as a result of industrial activity [51]. Lead enters the food chain through vegetables grown in polluted soil, for example. Lead can be transferred from polluted soil to plants and grass, potentially resulting in toxic metal accumulation in vegetating ruminants, especially cattle. Lead accumulation causes toxic effects in animals, as well as toxic effects in people who drink toxic metal-contaminated meat and milk [71].
It is a radioactive metal that is harmful to the human body. At the HAP of teeth, lead has the potential to translocate with Ca + 2 and resulting in decreasing the size of hydroxyapatite crystals [72].
In the atmosphere or diet, lead is passed to body hard tissues such as teeth and might be having an effect on increasing dental caries. Furthermore, it has been discovered that lead promotes the development of enamel hypoplasia. As per the literature, it shows have a probable connection between increasing lead levels in saliva and the formation of dental caries in children with early tooth decay. As a result, lead is critical in the formation of new caries lesions [4, 72, 73].
Iron (Fe) is abundant in nature and a biologically important part of all living organisms, unlike other TE. Regardless of geological abundance, when oxygen comes into contact with iron, it forms hardly soluble oxides. As a result, it is poorly absorbed by species [74].
Iron is found in liver, beef, poultry products, and fish, as well as cereals, green leafy vegetables, pulses, nuts, oilseeds, and dried fruits. Iron, as an important nutrient, is primarily absorbed by green vegetables. Enamel has been found to have low iron concentrations [75]. RDA ranges from 4 to 5 gm and is essential to maintain a healthy body.
This was done as follows:
Despite the fact that different methods have been used to assess the existence of trace elements, due to their large distribution within living tissues and enzyme systems, it is a time-consuming and fruitless task. To determine the sum of trace elements, colorimetric and spectrographic methods are widely used. For solitary element analysis, spectroscopy and electrochemical methods are typically used, while for multiple-element analysis, neutron activation analysis and spectroscopic methods are typically used [76].
Iron deficiency can be easily diagnosed routinely by laboratory test like Complete blood count with having the high total iron-binding capability, a low serum iron level, and a low serum ferritin concentration. The erythrocyte zinc porphyrin assay, has recently been used in primary screening for determining iron status [77, 78].
The optimum copper-zinc plasma or serum ratio has been stated to be 0.70–1.00. As previously mentioned in the report, diagnosing zinc deficiency is a difficult task. The most popular indices for measuring zinc deficiency are plasma or serum zinc levels [79, 80].
Since tissue chromium stores do not appear to accurately represent blood chromium, serum chromium concentration is not an accurate measure of chromium status. The existence of an extreme chromium deficiency is thought to be indicated by serum chromium levels less than 0.14–0.15 ng/mL. A person’s serum chromium level may be elevated as a result of excessive chromium exposure from work or an accident.
The nutritional status of selenium has been determined using various tissues such as blood, hair, and nails. In general, if dietary selenium consumption is consistent, these tissues may provide a reliable assessment of selenium status.
It is difficult to assess the status of other trace elements in typical individuals’ tissue levels.
The location of trace elements on dental hard tissue like enamel and dentin may differ and also within the structure. The Cu, Pb, Co, Al, I, Sr., Se, Ni, and Mn more on enamel whereas Fe and F more on dentin and cementum.
Also, within the enamel, the outer surface has more Iron, Lead, and Manganese than inside layers suggesting that mostly these come from the external environment and get deposited on tooth enamel after an eruption or during calcification.
Trace elements can reach the human body through a variety of routes, including food, water, and air. Dental materials and fluids (such as saliva, dental prosthesis, and dental porcelain) are discussed below as potential sources of trace elements in tooth enamel [81].
Though trace elements are only needed in trace amounts, their optimal presence is critical for the body’s normal physiological functioning and for upholding the body’s biodynamics. Excess and deficiency both contribute to the onset, development, and promotion of different disease processes. As a result, having a thorough understanding of these trace elements is critical for disease prevention and optimum health.
Nutritional and clinical diagnosis of trace element defects is one of the most daunting activities. Deficient intake of an important trace element can cause significant biological functions within tissues to be harmed, and restoring physiological levels of that element can restore or prevent that function from being harmed. The amount of main trace metals circulating in the blood and deposited in cells is controlled and regulated by an intricate mechanism in the human body. When the body fails to function properly or there are inappropriate levels in dietary sources, excessive levels of these trace elements may develop. A diet rich in antioxidants and essential minerals is essential for a healthy mind and body, according to numerous lines of proof. In recent years, preventive medicine has gotten more coverage than anything else, as the adage goes, “prevention is better than cure.” Oral and general health are inextricably linked, and the oral cavity can effectively reflect systemic health. Oral diseases such as oral leukoplakia, oral submucous fibrosis, oral cancer, and others have been treated with a mixture of micronutrients and trace elements because their combined effect is more effective than a single application. As a result, general and oral healthcare professionals must be familiar with the clinical aspects of trace elements.
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Any country cannot aim to attain economic and social development goals without addressing the issue of malnutrition. Poor nutrition in the first 1000 days of a child’s life can also lead to stunted growth, which is associated with impaired cognitive ability and reduced school and work performance. Malnutrition in children occurs as a complex interplay among various factors like poverty, maternal health illiteracy, diseases like diarrhoea, home environment, dietary practices, hand washing and other hygiene practices, etc. Low birth weight, episode of diarrhoea within the last 6 months and the presence of developmental delay are often associated with malnutrition in most developing nations including India. This chapter is a small attempt to highlight the state of malnutrition in India and tries to get an insight to overcome the problem. This chapter also highlights the issues and challenges for not obtaining the desired nutritional outcomes. 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Yakovlev"},{id:"80200",title:"Lipofilling in Post-Treatment Oral Dysfunction in Head and Neck Cancer Patients",slug:"lipofilling-in-post-treatment-oral-dysfunction-in-head-and-neck-cancer-patients",totalDownloads:84,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101824",abstract:"Lipofilling is a new treatment option for head- and neck cancer patients who suffer from chronic and severe (chemo-) radiation or surgery-related swallowing problems. Lipofilling is a technique of autologous grafting in which living fat cells are transplanted from one location to another in the same patient. In the case of head and neck cancer patients, volume loss or muscle atrophy of the tongue or pharyngeal musculature caused by the treatment may result in oropharyngeal dysfunction. Firstly, intensive swallowing therapy will be given, but if that offers no further improvement and the functional problems persist, lipofilling can be considered. By transplantation of autologous adipose tissue, the functional outcomes might improve by compensating the existing tissue defects or tissue loss. Only a few studies have been published which evaluated the effectiveness of this new treatment option. The results of those studies show that the lipofilling technique seems safe and of potential value for improving swallowing function in some of the included patients with chronic and severe dysphagia after surgery and/or (chemo-) radiation therapy for head and neck cancer. The lipofilling procedure will be described in detail as well as the clinical implications.",book:{id:"11044",title:"Dysphagia - New Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11044.jpg"},signatures:"Marise Neijman, R.T. Karsten, L. van der Molen, O. Lapid and M.W.M. van den Brekel"},{id:"79823",title:"Dysphagia of Neurological Origin. 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Screening for dysphagia must be performed in all ALS patients at diagnosis and during the follow-up to approach dysphagia as soon as possible. This chapter includes the latest developments in the assessment and approach of dysphagia in ALS patients.",book:{id:"11044",title:"Dysphagia - New Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11044.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Argente-Pla, Katherine Garcia-Malpartida, Andrea Micó-García, Silvia Martín-Sanchis and Juan Francisco Merino-Torres"},{id:"79910",title:"Dysphagia in Neuroinflammatory Diseases of the Central Nervous System",slug:"dysphagia-in-neuroinflammatory-diseases-of-the-central-nervous-system",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101794",abstract:"Neuroinflammatory disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) consist of a relatively heterogeneous group of diseases that share the autoimmune activity against different parts of the system. Swallowing problems could happen in many of these cases. Its effect on the patients’ quality of life is undeniable. It could be an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Detailed medical history and physical exam are important. Several questionnaires could help monitor dysphagia. Radiographic and endoscopic evaluations may be necessary to detect overlooked swallowing problems. The main treatment appears to be treating the underlying disease, besides general supplementary options like rehabilitation and speech therapy.",book:{id:"11044",title:"Dysphagia - New Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11044.jpg"},signatures:"Fereshteh Ghadiri and Abdorreza Naser Moghadasi"},{id:"79574",title:"Acute Management in Corrosive Ingestion",slug:"acute-management-in-corrosive-ingestion",totalDownloads:162,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101475",abstract:"Corrosive ingestion is an important health problem and medical emergency worldwide. It occurs by accident or by intention. Acids cause coagulation necrosis, and alkalis cause liquefaction necrosis. In the acute period, stabilization of the patient is most important. Airway assessment and prompt management are a priority for severe cases. Caustic substance reflux into the esophagus resulting in further damage should be prevented. The initial evaluation should be performed by endoscopy and graded according to the Zargar classification. Computed tomography (CT) should be used to assess injury to the esophagus because CT is non-invasive. For Zargar 3b injuries, views from both endoscopy and CT scans should be considered. Post-corrosive esophageal stricture is a complication that responds poorly to treatment. Research and development for stricture prevention are ongoing, especially for Zargar 2b and 3a cases.",book:{id:"11044",title:"Dysphagia - New Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11044.jpg"},signatures:"Prasit Mahawongkajit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/28988",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"28988"},fullPath:"/chapters/28988",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()