\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3010",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Virtual Reality - Human Computer Interaction",title:"Virtual Reality",subtitle:"Human Computer Interaction",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'At present, the virtual reality has impact on information organization and management and even changes design principle of information systems, which will make it adapt to application requirements. 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Y. Jiang",authors:[{id:"51655",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengyi",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Zhengyi Jiang",slug:"zhengyi-jiang"}]},{id:"19450",title:"Performance Evaluation of Single-Channel Receivers for Wireless Optical Communications by Numerical Simulations",slug:"performance-evaluation-of-single-channel-receivers-for-wireless-optical-communications-by-numerical-",signatures:"M. Castillo-Vázquez, A. Jurado-Navas, J.M. Garrido-Balsells and A. 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Hector Juarez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65861",title:"Dr.",name:"L. Hector",surname:"Juarez",slug:"l.-hector-juarez",fullName:"L. Hector Juarez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66524",title:"Low-C ESD Protection Design in CMOS Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85594",slug:"low-c-esd-protection-design-in-cmos-technology",body:'\nThe integrated circuits (ICs) operated at higher frequency are needed. For example, the transceivers operated in gigahertz (GHz) bands are the good candidate for the demand of faster data transmission [1]. CMOS technology is a promising way to implement the GHz integrated circuits with the advantages of high integration capability and low cost for mass production [2, 3]. However, the transistors in CMOS and even FinFET technologies are inherently susceptible to the electrostatic discharge (ESD) events [4, 5]. Once any transistor is damaged by ESD, it cannot be recovered, and the IC functionality will be lost. Therefore, the ESD protection design must be equipped on the chip. Nevertheless, the ESD protection devices cause the IC performance degradation. The ICs operated in GHz frequencies are very sensitive to the parasitic capacitance [6, 7]. To mitigate the performance degradation caused by ESD protection device, the low-capacitance (low-C) ESD protection designs are needed [8, 9].
\nTo adequately protect the ICs, the ESD protection circuit must shunt ESD current with limited voltage drop [10, 11, 12]. Figure 1 shows the ESD design window of an IC, which is defined by the power-supply voltage (VDD and VSS) and the breakdown voltage (VBD) of internal circuit. First, the internal circuit normally operates between VDD and VSS, and the ESD protection circuit cannot turn on in this normal circuit operation region. Second, the internal circuit causes failure beyond the positive or negative VBD, so the ESD protection circuit becomes invalid in this internal circuit failure region. Besides, it usually reserves some safety margin. Therefore, the ESD protection circuit must shunt ESD current with the voltage within ESD design window as shown in Figure 1. As ESD stresses at the I/O pad, the ESD protection circuit turns on at its trigger voltage (Vt1) and clamps to the holding voltage (Vh). The turn-on resistance (Ron) should be minimized to reduce the joule heat generated in the ESD protection circuit and enhance the current-handling ability, that is the secondary breakdown current (It2).
\nESD design window.
A typical method to enhance the current-handling ability is to widen the ESD device dimension; however, the large ESD protection device has too large parasitic capacitance to be tolerable for the high-frequency ICs. As shown in Figure 2(a), the parasitic capacitances seen at the input and output (I/O) pads cause signal loss to ground. The parasitic capacitances come from not only the ESD protection circuits but also the pads and the metal connections [13, 14]. If the parasitic capacitance increases, the signal loss dramatically increases at high frequency, as shown in Figure 2(b). To mitigate the performance degradation caused by the parasitic capacitance, the ESD protection circuit must carefully design. For example, a typical specification for the parasitic capacitance of input terminal of a gigahertz IC is 200fF [15].
\n(a) Parasitic capacitances seen at I/O pads cause signal loss to ground and (b) Simulated loss of parasitic capacitances.
At an I/O pad of IC, it may be stressed by positive or negative ESD with grounded VDD or VSS. A whole-chip ESD protection design must provide the ESD current paths of all possible combinations, including the positive I/O-to-VDD (PD), positive I/O-to-VSS (PS), negative I/O-to-VDD (ND), and negative I/O-to-VSS (NS) [16]. Since the common ESD protection devices in CMOS technologies include diode, MOSFET, and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), they are used to implement the ESD protection circuits [17]. To achieve the whole-chip ESD protection, three types of ESD protection schemes are introduced in this chapter.
\nType I ESD protection circuit uses one bidirectional ESD protection device between I/O pad and VSS and one bidirectional power-rail ESD clamp circuit between VDD and VSS, as shown in Figure 3(a). The bidirectional ESD protection device could be an NMOS or SCR device. Both PS and NS ESD currents can be discharged through the ESD protection device. Besides, PD and ND ESD currents can be discharged through the ESD protection device and the power-rail ESD clamp circuit.
\nESD protection schemes: (a) type I, (b) type II, and (c) type III.
Type II ESD protection circuit uses two unidirectional ESD protection devices from I/O pad to VDD and from VSS to I/O pad, respectively, and one bidirectional power-rail ESD clamp circuit between VDD and VSS, as shown in Figure 3(b). The unidirectional ESD protection device was a diode. Both PD and NS ESD currents can be discharged through one unidirectional ESD protection device. For the PS and ND ESD currents, they can be discharged through one ESD protection device and the power-rail ESD clamp circuit.
\nType III ESD protection circuit uses a two-branched ESD protection device and an unidirectional ESD protection device between I/O pad and VSS and one bidirectional power-rail ESD clamp circuit between VDD and VSS, as shown in Figure 3(c). The two-branched ESD protection device was usually an SCR device. The PS and PD ESD currents can be discharged through the two-branched ESD protection device, and NS and ND ESD currents can be discharged through the unidirectional ESD protection device and the power-rail ESD clamp circuit.
\nAll the ESD protection devices at I/O pad should be shrunk to lower the parasitic capacitance, while the power-rail ESD clamp circuit could be as large as possible. The large-sized power-rail ESD clamp circuit can help to reduce Ron during ESD current discharging, but it will not cause the parasitic capacitance to the I/O pad.
\nA common ESD protection circuit used in CMOS technology is the grounded-gate NMOS (GGNMOS), as shown in Figure 4(a) [18, 19]. In this ESD protection circuit, the NMOS’s gate is grounded to keep it off during normal circuit operation. The GGNMOS turns on as the positive voltage excursions above the trigger voltage (Vt1). Figure 5 shows the positive I-V curve of a GGNMOS in 0.18 μm CMOS technology, which is measured by a transmission-line-pulsing (TLP) system. The TLP system with a 10 ns rise time and a 100 ns pulse width is used to investigate the turn-on behavior and the I-V characteristics in high-current regions of the test devices [20]. The trigger voltage (Vt1), holding voltage (Vh), and secondary breakdown current (It2) of test devices in the time domain of HBM ESD event can be extracted from the TLP-measured I-V curves. This GGMOS triggers on at 5.6 V, snapbacks to 4.0 V, and discharges ESD current until 1.1A. The GGNMOS with the help of parasitic junction diode turns on as the I/O voltage excursions below the VSS voltage.
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with GGNMOS. Device cross-sectional view of (b) GGNMOS and (c) GGNMOS with additional N-well.
TLP-measured I-V curve of a GGNMOS (W = 120 μm) in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
The GGNMOS is generally drawn in the multi-finger structure with central drain to save total layout area [21]. Figure 4(b) shows the device cross-sectional view of a single-finger GGNMOS. The multi-finger structure can be realized by combining such single-finger structures with sharing drain and source regions between every two adjacent fingers. For the high-frequency applications, the parasitic capacitance of GGNMOS has to be considered. For a given drain width (
\n
All the parasitic capacitance (
Instead of GGNMOS, gate-coupled NMOS and substrate-coupled NMOS have also been used as ESD protection circuit [24]. However, the parasitic capacitance of MOS-based ESD protection device is usually too large to be tolerable for the high-frequency circuits.
\nAn alternative ESD protection device used in Type I ESD protection circuit is a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) [25]. The SCR device has been reported to be useful for ESD protection in high-frequency circuits due to its higher ESD robustness within a smaller layout area and lower parasitic capacitance [22]. Besides, the SCR device can be safely used without latchup danger in advanced CMOS technologies with low supply voltage [26]. The equivalent circuit of the SCR consists of a PNP BJT and an NPN BJT, as shown in Figure 6(a). As ESD zapping from I/O to VSS, the positive-feedback regenerative mechanism of PNP and NPN results in the SCR device highly conductive to make SCR very robust against ESD stresses. The device structure of the SCR device is illustrated in Figure 6(b). The I/O pad is connected to the first P+ and the pickup N+, which is formed in the N-well. The VSS pad is connected to the second N+ and the pickup P+, which are formed in the nearby P-well. The SCR path between I/O and VSS consists of P+, N-well, P-well, and N+. Besides, the parasitic diode path from VSS to I/O consists of P-well and N-well. The SCR with the help of P-well/N-well junction diode turns on as the I/O voltage excursions below the VSS voltage.
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with SCR. Device cross-sectional view of (b) STI-bounded SCR and (c) gate-bounded SCR.
Figure 7 shows the TLP-measured positive I-V curve of an SCR in 0.18 μm CMOS technology. This SCR triggers on at 16.7 V, snapbacks to 2.1 V, and discharges ESD current until 9.5A. The main drawback of SCR device is the higher trigger voltage and thus the slower turn-on speed. Research works have demonstrated that separation of the N-well and P-well junction can play an important role. The typical SCR device uses the shallow trench isolation (STI) to separate the N-well and P-well. To reduce the trigger voltage of an SCR device, a gate-bounded SCR has been reported, as shown in Figure 6(c) [27].
\nTLP-measured I-V curve of an SCR (W = 120 μm) in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
Another alternative method to reduce the trigger voltage of an SCR device uses the substrate-triggered technique. The trigger signal can be sent into the base terminal of PNP or NPN to enhance the turn-on speed. Some circuit design techniques are reported to enhance the turn-on efficiency of SCR devices, such as the gate-coupled, substrate-triggered, diode-triggered, and gate-grounded-NMOS-triggered (GGNMOS-triggered) techniques [28, 29, 30]. Figure 8(a) shows the schematic of a GGNMOS-triggered SCR device, and Figure 8(b) shows its device cross-sectional view. The GGNMOS is connected between the second N+ in the N-well and VSS. The trigger current is drawn from the N-well (base of PNP) to VSS through the GGNMOS. Similarly, the trigger device can be connected between I/O pad and the base and NPN, but the trigger device will also add the parasitic capacitance to I/O. A diode string could also be used as the trigger device, and its parasitic capacitance is lower than the GGNMOS.
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with GGNMOS-triggered SCR and (b) device cross-sectional view of GGNMOS-triggered SCR.
Recently, an inductor-assisted diode-triggered SCR (LASCR) has been presented to further reduce the parasitic capacitance [31]. As shown in Figure 9, the LASCR consists of an SCR, an inductor, and a diode string. The ESD current path from I/O to VSS consists of P+/N-well/P-well/N+ SCR. The diode string drawn the trigger current from the N-well (base of PNP) to VSS is used to enhance the turn-on efficiency of SCR. As the I/O voltage excursions below the VSS voltage, the ESD current path consists of P-well/N-well diode and inductor.
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with LASCR and (b) device cross-sectional view of LASCR.
Under normal circuit operating condition, the inductor can resonate with the parasitic capacitance, and hence the signal loss can be compensated. Once the dimension of SCR has been chosen, the inductance (
\n
where
Figure 10(a) shows the TLP-measured I-V curves of LASCR with 3 and 5 diodes in diode string (LASCR_3D and LASCR_5D) in a 0.18 μm CMOS process. The LASCR_3D triggers on at 5.2 V, snapbacks to 2.9 V, and discharges ESD current until 2.4A, while LASCR_5D triggers on at 7.6 V, snapbacks to 2.9 V, and discharges ESD current until 2.1A. The trigger voltage can be adjusted by adding or reducing the diode numbers. The holding voltage of both LASCR devices exceed VDD (1.8 V in the given CMOS process), which is safe from latchup event.
\n(a) TLP-measured I-V curves and (b) loss of LASCR (W = 30 μm) with 3 and 5 trigger diodes in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
The signal losses of both LASCR devices are measured through the on-wafer two-port measurement. The measured loss versus frequencies of both LASCR devices is shown in Figure 10(b). The LASCR devices exhibit sufficiently low loss even if the frequency is up to 30GHz. Therefore, LASCR can be a good solution for ESD protection of high-speed applications.
\nDiode is a typical ESD protection device with unidirectional discharging path [32, 33]. A dual-diode ESD protection circuit for high-frequency applications is shown in Figure 11(a), where two ESD diodes at I/O pad are cooperated with the turn-on efficient power-rail ESD clamp circuit to discharge ESD current in the forward-biased condition [13, 34].
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with diodes. Device cross-sectional view of (b) STI-bounded P+/N-well diode, (c) STI-bounded N+/P-well diode, (d) gate-bounded P+/N-well diode, and (e) gate-bounded N+/P-well diode.
In the CMOS process, the choice for ESD protection diodes includes P+/N-well, N+/P-well, and N-well/P-well diodes. The P+/N-well diode, as shown in Figure 11(b), is used between I/O pad and VDD. For the N-well/P-well diode, it may occupy larger layout area than the N+/P-well diode. Thus, the N+/P-well diode, as shown in Figure 11(c), is used between VSS and I/O pad.
\nThe typical diodes use the STI to separate the PN junctions. Besides the STI-bounded diodes, the gate-bounded diodes have been reported, as shown in Figure 11(d) and (e). The gate-bounded diodes were introduced by Voldman in order to improve the ESD robustness of STI bounded diodes [35].
\nIn order to reduce the parasitic capacitance or provide the large signal-swing tolerance, the ESD protection diodes in stacked configuration have been presented [36, 37], as shown in Figure 12(a). The device cross-sectional views of the conventional stacked diodes are shown in Figure 12(b) and (c). Two P+/N-well diodes (stacked P diodes) can apply to I/O-to-VDD, and two N+/P-well diodes (stacked N diodes) can apply to VSS-to-I/O, as shown in Figure 12(b) and (c), respectively. With the stacked diodes, the junction capacitances are connected in series, and the overall parasitic capacitance becomes smaller. However, the stacked configuration is adverse to ESD protection because the overall turn-on resistance and the clamping voltage of the stacked diodes during ESD stresses are increased as well.
\nESD protection circuit with stacked diodes. (a) ESD protection circuit with stacked diodes. Device cross-sectional view of (b) stacked P+/N-well diode and (c) stacked N+/P-well diode.
For effective ESD protection, the stacked diodes with embedded SCR (SDSCR) have been presented [38, 39]. The SCR device has been reported to be useful for ESD protection with low turn-on resistance, low parasitic effects, and high ESD robustness. The stacked diodes with embedded SCR are illustrated in Figure 13. In this design, a P+/N-well diode and an N+/P-well diode are stacked, and a P+/N-well/P-well/N+ SCR is embedded to form the ESD current path. A deep N-well structure is used to isolate the P-well region from the common P-substrate, so the SDSCR can apply to I/O-to-VDD or VSS-to-I/O. In the beginning of ESD stress, the initial current will be discharged through the stacked diodes, and then the primary current will be discharged through the embedded SCR. The stacked diodes also play the role of trigger circuit of SCR, because the current drawn from N-well and injected into P-well can also trigger the PNP and the NPN of SCR. Figure 14 shows the TLP-measured I-V curves of P+/N-well diode (DP), stacked P+/N-well diodes (SDP), and stacked diodes with embedded SCR (SDSCR) in a 0.18 μm CMOS process. We can find that turn-on resistance or the clamping voltage of single diode is much lower than that of the stacked diodes. The embedded SCR can help to slightly reduce the turn-on resistance and the clamping voltage of the stacked diodes. In fact, some layout skills can be used to further improve the turn-on efficient of the stacked diodes with embedded SCR [40].
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with SDSCR and (b) device cross-sectional view of SDSCR.
TLP-measured I-V curves of DP, SDP, and SDSCR (W = 20 μm) in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
Recently, a similar structure of the stacked diodes with embedded SCR, where a resistor uses to separate two diodes, has been reported [41]. The resistor acts as the trigger element of SCR, so the device is named resistor-triggered SCR (RTSCR). Figure 15(a) and (b) shows the schematic and the device cross-sectional view of RTSCR. The resistor can also reduce the parasitic capacitance of the ESD protection circuit. Considering the simplified SCR model by using junction capacitances, as shown in Figure 15(c), the equivalent capacitance seen at anode or cathode of RTSCR can be calculated by the following equation:
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with RTSCR. (b) device cross-sectional view and (c) simplified model of RTSCR.
where
It can be noted that the parasitic capacitance of the RTSCR can be reduced by adding the resistor. Generally, the capacitance reduction of RTSCR can be up to 30%. Therefore, the ESD protection circuit with dual RTSCRs can be used for high-frequency applications.
\nFigure 16(a) shows another SCR-based ESD protection circuit [13]. The typical SCR device in CMOS process consists of P+, N-well, P-well, and N+. Instead of connecting the N-well to I/O pad, connecting the N-well to VDD avoids the parasitic capacitance or noise coupling from P-substrate or P-well to N-well and I/O [42]. As shown in Figure 16(b), the I/O pad is connected to the first P+, which is formed in the N-well. The pickup N+ in the N-well is biased to VDD. The VSS pad is connected to the second N+ and the pickup P+, which are formed in the nearby P-well. The SCR path between I/O and VSS consists of P+, N-well, P-well, and N+. Besides, the parasitic diode path from I/O to VDD consists of P+ and N-well. In this structure, the PS and the PD ESD currents can be discharged through the SCR path and its parasitic diode path. The NS and the ND ESD currents need reverse diode and power-rail ESD clamp circuit to form their discharging paths.
\n(a) ESD protection circuit with SCR and diode and (b) device cross-sectional view of SCR and diode.
The SCR device in this ESD protection circuit still has the drawbacks of higher trigger voltage and the slower turn-on speed. The circuit design techniques, including the gate-coupled, substrate-triggered, diode-triggered, and GGNMOS-triggered techniques can be used to enhance the turn-on efficiency of SCR device. Of course, the capacitive triggering device increases the total parasitic capacitance seen at the I/O pad, even if the triggering device is not directly connected to I/O. Recently, an SCR device with inductive triggering device has been presented [43]. That inductor-triggered SCR (LTSCR) is proposed for ESD protection of high-frequency applications to achieve low high-frequency performance degradation, low trigger voltage, and high ESD robustness. In this design, the inductor provides a current path to trigger the SCR device, and it can also compensate the parasitic capacitance of ESD protection devices.
\nFigure 17(a) shows the ESD protection circuit with an LTSCR and a reverse diode. This design consists of an SCR device and a reverse diode as the main ESD current path, and an inductor (Ltrig), a MOS transistor (Mtrig), and an RC-based ESD detection circuit as the trigger circuit. The initial-on PMOS transistor is selected for Mtrig to quickly pass the trigger current to SCR device [44]. The positive and negative ESD current discharging paths for the I/O pad are provided by the SCR and the reverse diode. Figure 17(b) shows the device cross-sectional view of inductor-triggered SCR. Under ESD stress conditions, the inductor and PMOS are used to provide the trigger path between the I/O pad and the base of NPN of the SCR device. When the trigger current is sent into the base of NPN of the SCR device, the SCR device can be quickly triggered on to discharge the ESD current from the I/O pad to VSS. The ESD detection circuit usually uses RC timer to distinguish the ESD-stress conditions from the normal circuit operating conditions, and the PMOS transistor is well controlled to turn on or off by the ESD detection circuit. Under normal circuit operating conditions, the inductor can compensate the parasitic capacitance of SCR and diode.
\nESD protection circuit with LTSCR and reverse diode. (a) ESD protection circuit with LTSCR and reverse diode and (b) device cross-sectional view of LTSCR and reverse diode.
In this circuit, the dimensions of the inductor (
where
where
A comprehensive review in the field of ESD protection design for high-frequency integrated circuits is presented in this chapter. Besides improving the ESD robustness, the parasitic effects from ESD protection devices must be minimized or canceled to optimize the high-frequency performance simultaneously. Furthermore, the ESD protection circuits and high-frequency circuits can be co-designed to achieve both good circuit performance and high ESD robustness. The on-chip ESD protection designs for high-frequency circuits will be continuously an important design task in CMOS technology.
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In pharmaceutical field, hydrogels based on CS are often used as drugs’ and proteins’ carrier formulations due to the inherent characteristics such as the biocompatibility, nontoxicity, hydrophilicity, etc. This chapter is an attempt for updating and joining the plenty of available information regarding the preparation, characterization, and biomedical application of hydrogels based on chitosan and chitosan derivatives. More than 260 references are provided, being the majority of them published in the last 10 years.",book:{id:"8353",slug:"hydrogels-smart-materials-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels - Smart Materials for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Kessily B. Rufato, Juliana P. Galdino, Kamila S. Ody, Antonio G.B. Pereira,\nElisangela Corradini, Alessandro F. Martins, Alexandre T. Paulino,\nAndré R. Fajardo, Fauze A. Aouada, Felipe A. La Porta, Adley F. Rubira\nand Edvani C. 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The hierarchical network formed by the polymerization of tropocollagen molecules with enhanced properties is an attractive template for generating biomaterials. The mammalian tissue source from which collagen is extracted and its consequent modification are variables that impact the physicochemical and biological properties of the collagen network. This chapter has the purpose to provide a review of the research of different strategies to modify and characterize the properties of decellularized ECM-derived hydrogels in the context of safe biomaterials with immunomodulatory properties.",book:{id:"6241",slug:"hydrogels",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels"},signatures:"Jesús A. Claudio-Rizo, Jorge Delgado, Iraís A. Quintero-Ortega, José\nL. 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Many of these hydrophilic polymers have been already approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for various applications. However, many of their potential uses required for many biomedical applications often are hindered by their low mechanical strength, antimicrobial and/or antifouling activity, biological interactions, water sorption and diffusion, porosity, electrical and/or thermal properties, among others. Thus, new advanced hydrogels have been developed as multicomponent systems in the form of composite or nanocomposite materials, which are expected to exhibit superior properties to increase the potential uses of these materials in the biomedical industry. Even though the great advances achieved so far, much research has to be conducted still in order to find new strategies to fabricate novel hydrogels able to overcome many of these problems.",book:{id:"6241",slug:"hydrogels",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels"},signatures:"Ángel Serrano-Aroca",authors:[{id:"202230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ángel",middleName:null,surname:"Serrano-Aroca",slug:"angel-serrano-aroca",fullName:"Ángel Serrano-Aroca"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"918",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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