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These hydrocarbons are formed by eight five-carbon isoprenoid units with conjugated double bonds, responsible of multiple geometrical isomers (cis/trans), although carotenoids are mainly found in the most stable configuration, the all-trans one [2, 3]. These double bonds act as chromophores and are responsible for light absorption in the visual range of the spectrum [4], providing yellow, orange and red coloration [5]. Among the main biological properties described for carotenoids, they stand out for their antioxidant capacity and ability to quench singlet oxygen species [6]. Carotenoids have also been described to wield anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-hyperglycemic activities, to prevent cardiovascular and/or neurodegenerative diseases and to stimulate the immune system [7, 8]. These beneficial properties made them emerge as a promising alternative to synthetic additives, which have been related with negative side-effects. Besides, these pigments improve the nutritional value of foodstuff and can be used for food coloring. These reasons have boosted carotenoids’ market size, which is expected to reach $300 billion by 2024, due to the interest shown by food, animal feeding, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic industries [9].
Found primarily in microalgae species such as
Chemical structure of α-carotene and β-carotene.
Lycopene can be found in fruits and vegetables, especially in tomatoes (Figure 2), being the carotenoid with the highest antioxidant capacity. It has been seen that this pigment is involved in modulating many anti-inflammatory processes, and some authors have linked it with the prevention of bone diseases, such as osteoporosis [15]. Furthermore, lycopene also shown anticancer effects against several tumoral and normal cell lines, particularly prostate cancer cell lines (PrEC and PC-3), in
Chemical structure of lycopene.
Xanthophylls comprise oxidized derivatives of carotenoids, being broadly available in nature. These pigments are characterized for having yellow, orange or red coloration. Some of the most common xanthophylls present in nature include lutein, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and fucoxanthin (Figure 3) [6]. These compounds are polar molecules and, unlike non-polar carotenes, they get accumulated, contributing to skin pigmentation [1]. Antioxidant, neuroprotective, antiplasmodial or anticancer are some of the biological activities that pointed xanthophylls as a promising nutraceutical. These beneficial bioactivities may have preventive effects in an extensive variety of diseases such as oral, allergic, neurologic, ophthalmologic and immune affections [6]. Moreover, beneficial properties may be transferred to food. Hence, these characteristics have prompted the incorporation of xanthophylls as natural additives to obtain products with a better appearance according to the consumers’ standards [1, 19].
Chemical structure of a) lutein, b) zeaxanthin, c) astaxanthin, d) cryptoxanthin and e) fucoxanthin.
Lutein is a dihydroxy derivative of β-carotene with hydroxyl groups at both sides of the molecule (Figure 3a), converting it in a dipolar xanthophyll. This chemical configuration confers hydrophilic characteristics and improves its capacity to scavenge free radicals [6, 20]. The most common chemical configuration of lutein is acylated with different fatty acids [1], such as lauric (C12:0) or palmitic acid (C16:0), becoming mono- and diacylated derivatives [21]. Leafy vegetables and plants, flower petals and yellow and orange fruits are the most important sources of lutein. Its extraction is mainly carried out with organic solvents from flower petals that have been previously fermented and/or dried [1].
Zeaxanthin (Figure 3b) is a structural isomer of lutein with a darker yellow tone, closer to orange [20]. It is naturally found in leaves of green vegetables, flower petals, in some yellow and orange fruits, corn and even in microbial
Astaxanthin (Figure 3c) is a lipophilic carotenoid with a reddish-orange color [23]. This pigment is found in high concentrations in microalgae like
β-cryptoxanthin is a naturally occurring pigment mainly found in tropical fruit like papaya, highlighting its accumulation in citrus fruit such as oranges and tangerines [28]. This xanthophyll is closely related to β-carotene since, aside from being a vitamin A precursor, their structures are very similar, varying by just the addition of a hydroxyl group in one of the β-ionone rings in β-cryptoxanthin’s structure (Figure 3d), resulting in a bipolar conformation. These conformation makes its bioaccumulation easier, facilitating food coloring as well as being more nutritionally valuable, contributing to vitamin A production [29]. Moreover, β-cryptoxanthin intake has been associated with a reduced risk of inflammatory diseases, like polyarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis, by suppressing bone resorption and stimulated bone formation [30].
Fucoxanthin (Figure 3e) is mostly known for giving the characteristic brownish/olive-green color to brown algae (Phaeophyceae), as in species belonging to the genus
Generally, natural sources of carotenoids are divided into: i) fruits, vegetables and flowers; ii) microorganisms (microalgae, cyanobacteria, fungi, bacterial and yeasts); and iii) by-products (peels, seeds and skin).
There is a wide variety of fruits and vegetables recognized as natural sources of carotenoids in human diet. Besides, flowers, recently introduced in gastronomy, appeared to be a suitable source of carotenoids (Table 1). In general terms, the most relevant carotenoid found among these groups is β-carotene, although lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene and zeaxanthin are also highlighted as major carotenoids. Reviewed literature showed very different ranges of carotenoid concentrations depending on the analyzed tissue, variety, ripening stage, geographical origin, etc. [40, 41]. Nevertheless, Table 1 points to fruit as the most relevant source of carotenoids.
Source | Main Carotenoids | Carotenoid Content (mg/g) | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Apricot | β-car, β-crypt, Lut, Zea | 0.07–0.08 (DW) | [42] | |
‘Gac’ oil | α−/β-Car, Lyc | 1.8–11 (FW) | [43, 44] | |
Goji | β-car, β-crypt, Zea | 0.04–0.51 (FW) | [45] | |
Kaki | β-car, β-crypt, Lut, Zea | 0.03–0.07 (DW) | [42] | |
Banana and plantain | α−/β-Car, Lut | 0.01–0.04 (DW) | [46, 47] | |
Mandarin juice | ζ−/ β-car, β-crypt | 0.01 (DW) | [41] | |
Mango | α−/β-Car, β-crypt, Lut, Zea | 3–129 (FW) | [40] | |
Orange | α−/ β−/ζ-car, β-crypt, Lut, Zea | 0.01–0.03 0.01–0.02 (DW) | [41, 48] | |
Papaya | β−/ζ-car, β-crypt, Lyc, Vio, Zea | 0.14–4.13 (FW) | [49, 50] | |
Peach | β-car, β-crypt, Lut, Zea | 0.04–0.09 (DW) | [42] | |
Broccoli | Lut, Neo | 8.5–11.6 (DW) | [51] | |
Carrot | α−/β-car, Lut, Lyc | 0.01–0.8 (DW)(TC’s) | [52, 53] | |
Kale | Zea | 1.6–2.5 (DW) | [54] | |
β-car | 0.10 (DW) | |||
Neo | 0.12 (DW) | |||
Lettuce | Lut | 0.1–0.13 (DW) | [55] | |
β-car | 2.2–2.9 (DW) | |||
Pea | Lut | 0.01–0.02 (DW) | [56] | |
β-car | 0.01–0.02 (DW) | |||
Pepper | β-car | 0.39–0.71 (DW) | [57] | |
Zea | 0.31–0.73 (DW) | |||
Spinach | Neo | 0.1–0.2 (FW) | [58] | |
Lut | 0.34–0.53 (FW) | |||
β-car | 0.2–0.32 (FW) | |||
Sweet corn | Lut | 0.02 (DW) | [59] | |
β-car | 0.01 (DW) | |||
Tomato | β-car | 0.01 (FW) | [60] | |
Lyc | 0.05–0.08 (FW) | |||
TCs | 0.04–0.2 (FW) | |||
Blue centaurea | β-car, Lut | 0.06 (DW) | [61] | |
Blue borage | β-car, Lut | 1.8 (DW) | ||
Camelia | β-car, Lut | 0.2 (DW) | ||
Xanthophylls | 0.001–0.003 (P) (DW) 0.04–0.07 (L) (DW) | [62] | ||
Marigold | Lut | 0.0002–0.006 (DW) | [63] | |
Nasturtium | Lut | 0.4–1.2 (DW) | [64] | |
Pansies | β-car, Lut, Zea | 0.2–1.1 (DW) | [61, 65] | |
Snapdragon | β-car, Lut, Zea | 0.03 (DW) | [65] |
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of carotenoids content in different species of fruits, vegetables, and flowers.
Abbreviations: DW: dry weight, FW: fresh weight, L: leaves, P: petals. Carotenoids: α−/β−/γ−/ζ-car: α−/β−/γ−/ζ-carotene, β-crypto: β-cryptoxanthin, lyc: lycopene, lut: lutein, neo: neoxanthin, TCs: total carotenoids content, vio: violaxanthin, zea: zeaxanthin.
Carotenoids extracted from fruits, vegetables and flowers become too expensive due to high production costs associated with large production areas required. Besides, the supply of carotenoids extracted from plants becomes unstable, since it is dependent on unpredictable climatologic conditions [66]. Therefore, more sustainable and green approaches have been explored for a more efficient carotenoids’ collection, including the use of microorganism or the reutilization of agricultural by-products
Nowadays, the interest on microbial carotenoids has increased because of their low production area requirements when compared to plants. Besides, microbial cultures are nearly independent of climatic conditions, seasonality and soil composition. Current technological advances permit a tight control of culturing conditions, which improves the efficiency of microbial carotenoid production and reduces costs. Examples of efficient production of carotenoids using microalgae, bacteria, yeasts or fungi are displayed in Table 2, that demonstrates the huge variability of microorganisms capable of producing specific types of carotenoids being the most relevant β-carotene, lutein, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and torulene (Table 2).
Species | Most abundant Carotenoids | Content (mg/g) | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
β-car | 0.001–0.0045 (DW) | [67] | ||
Ast | 2–20 (DW) | [68] | ||
Ast | 6–19 (DW) | [69] | ||
Canthaxanthin | N.D | [70] | ||
Lut | 0.01 (DW) | [71] | ||
β-car | 1.50 (DW) | |||
Decaprenoxanthin and derivatives mono−/diglucosides; Lyc | 0.3–0.4 (DW) | [72] | ||
β-Car | 0.01–3.1 (CDW) | [73] | ||
Zea | 0.01–0.9 (CDW) | |||
Carotenoids, glucoside derivatives | 0.4–0.5 (DW) | [72] | ||
Zea; β-Crypto; β-Car; β-Zeacarotene | 0.5–0.6 (DW) | |||
Zea; β-Crypto; β-Car; β-Zeacarotene | 0.7–0.8 (DW) | |||
Carotenoids and glucoside derivatives | 0.7 (DW) | [72] | ||
Carotenoids and glucoside derivatives | 0.5 (DW) | [72] | ||
Fungi | β-car | 30 (DW) | [68] | |
Lyc | >900 (DW) | |||
β-car | 0.275–0.698 (DW) | [74] | ||
β-car | 0.05–10 (DM) | [68] | ||
Yeasts | Ast | 0.000725–0.007642 (DW) | [75, 76] | |
β-car | 0.0172 (DW) | [77] | ||
Torulene | 5–14 (DW) | [78, 79] | ||
Torularhodin | 32.2 (DW) | |||
Torulene | 18.2 (DW) | [79, 80] | ||
Torularhodin | 9.3 (DW) | |||
Torulene | 0.0001 (DW) | [79] | ||
Torularhodin | 0.00001 (DW) | |||
Ast | 0.0026–0.001 (DW) | [112] |
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of carotenoids content in different species microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi and cyanobacteria.
Abbreviations: DW: dry weight; CDW: cold-water-dispersible; N.D: not determined. Carotenoids: ast: astaxanthin, β-car: β-carotene, β-crypto: β-cryptoxanthin, lut: lutein, lyc: lycopene, TCs: total carotenoids content; zea: zeaxanthin.
Food waste has been increased in the last years driven by an increasing population, expected to reach 10 billion people by 2050, and inefficient and unsustainable production systems [81]. These factors boosted waste production, which is usually composted or burnt, emitting high amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere. To counteract this situation, multiple strategies have been explored in the last decades, such as the revalorization of wastes as source of biomolecules. In fact, peels, seeds, husks, pomace or pulp are recognized as alternative sources of compounds with diverse biological properties [82].
Table 3 collects information about potential agricultural and food by-products as sustainable sources of carotenoids.
By-product | Most abundant Carotenoids | Content (μg/g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Tucumã peels | β-car | 68–88 (FW) | [83] |
Peach palm peel | 71–75 (FW) | ||
Mandarin epicarp | β-car | 1397–1417 (DW) | [84] |
Melon peels | β-car | 67–915 (DW) | [85] |
β-crypto | 3–49 (DW) | ||
Atlantic shrimp cooked shell | Ast | 57.3–284.5 (DW) | [86] |
Grape canes | Lut; β-car | 0.3–2.4 (DW) | [87] |
Peels and pulp of persimmon | β-crypto | 6500–167,000 (DW) | [88] |
β-car | 6900–45,000 (DW) | ||
Pressed palm fibers | α-car | 142–305 (DW) | [89] |
β-car | 317–713 (DW) | ||
Mango peel | α−/β-car; crypto | 5600 (β-car) (DW) | [90] |
Skin and seeds of tomatoes | Lyc | 3.8–166.4 (DW) | [91] |
β-car | 0.6–26.4 (DW) | ||
Lut | 0.8–10.8 (DW) | ||
Carrot by-products | β-car | 230 (FW) | [92] |
Carrot juice processing waste | β-car | 240 (DW) | [93] |
Tomato peels and seeds | Lyc | 410 (P);28 (S) (FW) | [94] |
β-car | 31 (P); 5.2 (S) (FW) |
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of carotenoids content in different by-products derived from agricultural and food industries.
Abbreviations: P: peel; S: seeds. Carotenoids: ast: astaxanthin, α−/β-car: α−/β-carotene, β-crypto: β-cryptoxanthin, lut: lutein, lyc: lycopene. FW – Fresh weight, DW – Dry weight.
In the last decades, macroalgae have been pointed out as a promising source of carotenoids. These photosynthetic organisms contain high amounts of pigments involved in light absorption for nourishment. However, they also have a secondary role related with damage protection from UV exposition. The main xanthophylls found in macroalgae include fucoxanthin, lutein, or zeaxanthin, being fucoxanthin the most abundant one, while β-carotene stands out from carotenes (Table 4). The main advantage of using macroalgae, is that invasive species can be used as an alternative source of carotenoids.
Species | Most abundant Carotenoids | Content (mg/g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Fuco | 2.0–3.5 (DW) | [95] | |
Fuco | 0.4–6.4 (DW) | [96] | |
Fuco | 0.42 (DW) | [97] | |
Fuco, Lut | 5.2 (DW) 0.3 (DW) | [98] | |
1.4 (DW) 0.1 (DW) | |||
Fuco | 18.6 (DW) | [99] | |
β-car, lut, zea | 0.0029 (TCs, FW) | [100] | |
Lut | 0.3 (FW) | [101] | |
Fuco | 0.0084 (TCs, DW) | [102] |
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of carotenoids content in different macroalgae species.
Abbreviations: DW: dry weight, FW: fresh weight, β-car: β-carotene, fuco: fucoxanthin lut: lutein, TCs: total carotenoids content, zea: zeaxanthin.
In the last century, pigment extraction has been performed using solid–liquid extraction with different organic solvents. Extracts were later purified via semipreparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [103] or clean up and separation columns using organic solvents such as hexane or dichloromethane [104]. The use of non-polar solvents for carotenoid extraction like petroleum ether or hexane has been linked with toxicity, having a negative impact in the environment in the long term. In addition, in the current legislation regarding the use of these solvents for the production of food ingredients is not allowed. For this reason, in the latest years, novel “greener” extraction processes have been developed for pigment recovery, including supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) and microwave assisted extraction (MAE) (Table 5). Implementing these techniques improved, among other things, extraction times, yields and solvent usage [105].
Source | Carotenoids | Conditions | Recovery (μg/g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
SFE | ||||
β-car | CO2, 60 °C, 300 bar | 15,000 (DW) | [113] | |
α−/β-car, β-crypto, lyc, lut, zea | CO2 + EtOH, 30 MPa | 392 (TCs) | [108] | |
Carotenoids | CO2 + EtOH, 25°C, 20 min, 20 MPa | 47,000–53,000 | [109] | |
Lut | CO2, 65°C, 55 MPa | 3000 (DW) | [114] | |
Ast, β-car, lut, neo, zea | CO2 + 10% EtO, 25°C, 20 min, 20 Mpa | 73; 60, 436, 671, 90 | [115] | |
Tomato, apricot, peach, pumpkin (Fl, Pe), pepper (Fl, wastes) | β-car, lut, lyc | CO2/EtOH, 59°C, 30 min, 350 bar | 88–100% β-car | [116] |
PLE | ||||
Carrot by-products | β-car | EtOH 99%, 60–180°C, 5 min, 50 bar, 1–5 cycles of 2 min | 120–230 (FW) (soft soggy carrots) 80–190 (FW) (orange carrots) | [92] |
β-crypto, β-car, lut, zea | MeOH: THF 2:8 (v:v), 40 °C, 5 min, 103 bar | Kaki: β-crypto ≤29, lut ≤ 13, zea ≤ 18 Apricot: ≤48 (β-car) | [42] | |
Fucoxanthin | 90% EtOH, 110°C, 5 min, 1500 psi | 420 | [97] | |
β-car, zea | 125°C, 20 min, 10.5 MPa | Zea ≤14,000 β-car ≤8000 | [117] | |
UAE | ||||
Dark red tomato | Lyc | EtAc: tomato paste 8:1 (V/W), 86°C, 29 min | 89,000 | [118] |
MAE | ||||
Carrot juice wastes | β-car | Flaxseed oil: wastes 8:1 g/g, 165 W, 9.4 min | 775,000 | [93] |
Novel extraction techniques to efficiently recover carotenoids from natural sources.
Abbreviations: DW: dry weight, EtOH: ethanol, EtAc: ethyl acetate, Fl: flesh, FW: fresh weight, L: leaves, MeOH: methanol, Pe: peels, THF: tetrahydrofuran. Carotenoids: ast: astaxanthin, α−/β-car: β-carotene, β-crypto: β-cryptoxanthin, lyc: lycopene, lut: lutein, neo: neoxanthin, TCs: total carotenoids, zea: zeaxanthin.
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) emerged in 80s decade as a promising alternative to conventional organic extractions [106]. This is a process where a compound is separated from its matrix making use of the unique properties of supercritical fluids as solvents, being CO2 the most commonly used. Supercritical fluid technology applies pressures and temperatures above the critical point of the extracting solvent, leading to a balanced state between liquid and gas phases. This balance confers low viscosity, high diffusivity, enhanced solubility and no surface tension, facilitating mass transfer [107]. However, this process involves a high cost, due to high temperatures and pressures requirements. Moreover, CO2 only dissolves non-polar molecules, although using a co solvent overcomes this issue, being ethanol the most employed [108, 109].
As well as in SFE, pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), also called accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), makes use of high temperature and pressure, although along with a liquid solvent to accelerate the extraction of specific analytes from solid matrices. In this system, pressure is high enough to keep the solvent liquid without hampering extraction performance. However, extraction time, temperature, solvent type and volume have influence on extraction performance, especially temperature and solvent type. Temperature range is mostly comprised from 40 to 180°C and it has been seen that the use of
Ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) also emerged as a novel technique, which employs using ultrasonic waves that propagate causing the implosion of bubbles, phenomenon known as cavitation. This perturbation leads to a diffusion of the solute from the porous matrix to the solvent. Nowadays, UAE is used for extracting various compounds including carotenoids from a wide diversity of matrices, such as macroalgae, microalgae and plants. This technique is environment-friendly, simple, cheap and efficient, reporting high yields when compared to conventional techniques, although the reproducibility of the samples is jeopardized by equipment’s aging [111].
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) is a relatively new extraction technique that combines microwave and traditional solvent extraction. Since the late 1980s, MAE has become one of the most popular and cost-effective extraction methods [112]. This technique is based on the application of microwaves for heating both solvents and matrices, increasing the kinetic of the extraction. Compared to conventional and novel (SFE and PLE) techniques, MAE reduced extraction time and solvent usage, leading to higher extraction rates and reduced costs [93].
Color is an important sensory attribute associated with safety and nutritional values of food, reason why, in the last years, consumer awareness regarding the use of synthetic food coloring has been increased. In order to develop a more natural food industry, natural pigment demand has raised, as is the case for carotenoids. These pigments are used for their coloring properties as well as for their antioxidant potential and biological functions. Carotenoids can be either applied directly into food matrices like beverages or pasta, among others [119, 120], or indirectly, into animal feeding to improve pigmentation of final products as in eggs or fish flesh [1, 29, 121]. Moreover, carotenoids have pointed out as promising ingredients in active packaging films. Their inclusion in protective films can improve the storing properties of the package, extending the shelf-life of the product, as well as transferring carotenoids’ nutritional values [122, 123]. Several applications of carotenoids in the food industry have been collected in Table 6.
Carotenoid | Origin | Application | Properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
β-Carotene | Fruits & vegetables | Free and encapsulated | Yellow colorant and antioxidant | [120] |
Incorporated into polymer materials | Antioxidant, O2 and light barrier | [123] | ||
α-Carotene | Free and encapsulated | Yellow colorant, anti-carcinogenic and antioxidant | [120, 124] | |
α-Tocopherol | High fat vegetables | Incorporated into polymer materials | Antioxidant | [123] |
Astaxanthin | Marigold flower | Incorporated into packaging material | Fish feeding for antioxidation and flesh coloring | [125] |
Bixin | Annatto seeds | Incorporated into polymer materials | Antioxidant, O2 and light barrier | [123] |
Canthaxanthin | Mushrooms | Alginate-pectin microencapsulation | Red colorant and antioxidant | [126] |
Cryptoxanthin | Mandarin, papaya, orange | Free and encapsulated | Orange colorant and antioxidant | [120] |
Lutein | Green vegetables | Encapsulation in food | Eye protection against AMD development or cataracts. Anticancer | [124] |
Lycopene | Tomato, watermelon, pink grapefruit, guava | Free and encapsulated | Red colorant, eye UV-protection, antioxidant | [120, 123, 124] |
Incorporated into polymer materials | Antioxidant, O2 and light barrier | |||
Zeaxanthin | Mandarin, papaya, orange | Orange colorant | Eye protection against macular degeneration and cataracts | [120, 124] |
Carotenoids applications in food industry.
Since the late 1980s, carotenoids implementation into food has significantly increased. Among all, β-carotene is the most applied one, being used for coloring oils and butters, providing a yellowish color. In addition, it has been also used to fortify different food matrices for its provitamin A activity [127]. Apart from β-carotene, other carotenoids have been incorporated as free molecules into food matrices (Table 6). However, the direct application of these natural pigments is limited by their low stability, so micro- and nanoencapsulation technologies have been applied. Multiple encapsulation technologies including spray or freeze drying, emulsion, spray chilling, extrusion coating, liposome entrapment, coacervation and ionic gelation [128] have been applied to improve solubility, chemical stability and bioavailability of pigments, as well as for masking unpleasant organoleptic properties [129]. Most of these technologies have been applied to encapsulate carotenoids, generally on a nanometric scale (≤100 nm). The type of encapsulation materials used for food applications have to be food-graded biopolymers such carbohydrates or gums (Persian gum), proteins (gelatin or whey), and animal or vegetal lipids [22, 26, 130]. Emulsion is also a prominent encapsulation processes, which results in an improved bio accessibility and bioavailability [131]. Lutein emulsions, β-carotene oil-in-water emulsions or microcapsules containing lycopene are just some examples of microencapsulation found in the food industry to improve the stability, bio accessibility and bioavailability of these pigments [129, 132, 133]. Similarly, multiple studies support carotenoids’ nanoencapsulation [134, 135].
A different way to incorporate natural pigments in human food is through animal feeding. By doing so, pigments get incorporated in foodstuff such as in fish flesh or eggs, giving a characteristic pigmentation and an increased nutritional value that will be further transferred to humans or animals [121, 136]. One of the main industries where carotenoids have been implemented is aquaculture. Fish factories have been making use of pigments such as β-carotene as an important source of provitamin A, which has been shown to improve the antioxidant capacity and immune system of fish, enhancing growth and preventing lipid peroxidation [137]. In fact, in aquaculture, different biological sources of xanthophylls such as green microalgae, yeast, krill, or crab waste have been utilized as feeding supplements. This complementary pigmentation enhances the nutritional value of fish products by providing strong antioxidant activity and higher amounts of provitamin A [1]. Other industry where pigments are widely use is poultry. EU approved egg yolk and poultry tissues pigmentations with yellow and red carotenoids, including lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin and capsanthin [136].
Natural pigments can also be incorporated into packaging materials to improve food preservation. Carotenoids such as lycopene or β-carotene prevent color alterations due to oxidation processes and UV-induced damage, providing stability to packaging polymers [123]. Besides, pigment migration from active packaging into food matrices has been reported, transferring the beneficial properties. As could be seen in Table 6, several carotenoids such have been included in active packaging, achieving promising results.
Synthetic pigments have been frequently used as food additives to improve food appearance since colorful products have been associated with healthy and high-quality properties by consumers. However, tendency has slowly shifted towards a stronger presence of natural ingredients due to a raising concern about the negative side effects associated with synthetic molecules. In this context, carotenoids have come up as an attractive replacement of synthetic pigments, being found in multiple sources, like plants, algae, fungi, microorganisms and by-products. Moreover, carotenoids have been linked with diverse beneficial properties, such as antioxidant, prevention of degenerative diseases, cancer and stimulation of the immune system. For all these reasons, carotenoids have caught the attention of many industries, including food, nutraceutical and cosmetic industries.
In order to extract these pigments, novel technologies emerged to improve the extraction rates of traditional techniques, mostly based on maceration. Among these new strategies, SFE and PLE highlight. Equipment may result into an initial economic expense, but they offer satisfactory extraction rates while minimizing solvent usage and experimental times.
Regarding food industry, carotenoids have been widely used for their application into food matrices or as part of packaging materials. Their inclusion as food additives or feed supplements for animals is the most extended and explored application, improving the organoleptic properties and nutritional values, aiming for a higher commercial acceptance. Besides, carotenoids have also been used as ingredients for active packaging films to extend products’ shelf-life. Regardless the matrix of inclusion, natural carotenoids have been incorporated as free molecules or encapsulated. This last strategy prolongs the stability and bio accessibility of carotenoids, protecting core ingredients from chemical degradation.
Furthermore, due to their extensive bioactivities, carotenoids are very useful to formulate new cosmetic ingredients. Besides, its antioxidant properties that can benefit the skin and promote skin regeneration and healthy aging, carotenoids also mitigate the harmful effects of UV radiation, which makes them excellent candidates for their application in cosmetic formulations as preservatives with photoprotective, antioxidant and anti-aging properties.
The research leading to these results was funded by Xunta de Galicia supporting the Axudas Conecta Peme, the IN852A 2018/58 NeuroFood Project and the program EXCELENCIA-ED431F 2020/12; to Ibero-American Program on Science and Technology (CYTED—AQUA-CIBUS, P317RT0003) and to the Bio Based Industries Joint Undertaking (JU) under grant agreement No 888003 UP4HEALTH Project (H2020-BBI-JTI-2019). The JU receives support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program and the Bio Based Industries Consortium. The project SYSTEMIC Knowledge hub on Nutrition and Food Security, has received funding from national research funding parties in Belgium (FWO), France (INRA), Germany (BLE), Italy (MIPAAF), Latvia (IZM), Norway (RCN), Portugal (FCT), and Spain (AEI) in a joint action of JPI HDHL, JPI-OCEANS and FACCE-JPI launched in 2019 under the ERA-NET ERA-HDHL (n° 696295).
The research leading to these results was supported by MICINN supporting the Ramón y Cajal grant for M.A. Prieto (RYC-2017-22891) and the FPU grant for Anxo Carreira Casais (FPU2016/06135); by Xunta de Galicia for supporting the post-doctoral grant of M. Fraga-Corral (ED481B-2019/096), the pre-doctoral grants of P. García-Oliveira (ED481A-2019/295), and by UP4HEALTH Project that supports the work of P. Otero and C. Lourenço-Lopes.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Being from various sources such as wastewater, landfill leachates, and solid residues, xenobiotics include phenols, plastics, hydrocarbons, paints, dyes, pesticides and insecticides, paper and pulp mills, and pharmaceuticals. Among biological processes for degradation of xenobiotics, fungal ones, being eco-friendly and cost cheap, have been investigated extensively because most of basidiomycetes are more tolerant to high concentrations of pollutants. Fungal bioremediation is a promising technology using their metabolic potential to remove or reduce xenobiotics. Basidiomycetes are the unique microorganisms that show high capacities of degrading a wide range of toxic xenobiotics. They act via the extracellular ligninolytic enzymes, including laccase, manganese peroxidase, and lignin peroxidase. Their capacities to remove xenobiotic substances and produce polymeric products make them a useful tool for bioremediation purposes. During fungal remediation, they utilize hazardous compounds, even the insoluble ones, as the nutrient source and convert them to simple fragmented forms. The aim of this chapter is to elucidate the ability of basidiomycetes to degrade xenobiotics. This is an overview to present the importance of extracellular enzymes for efficient bioremediation of a large variety of xenobiotics.",book:{id:"5242",slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",fullTitle:"Management of Hazardous Wastes"},signatures:"Mariem Ellouze and Sami Sayadi",authors:[{id:"182201",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariem",middleName:null,surname:"Ellouze",slug:"mariem-ellouze",fullName:"Mariem Ellouze"},{id:"182451",title:"Dr.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Sayadi",slug:"sami-sayadi",fullName:"Sami Sayadi"}]},{id:"17588",doi:"10.5772/22381",title:"Delignification Process of Agro-Industrial Wastes an Alternative to Obtain Fermentable Carbohydrates for Producing Fuel",slug:"delignification-process-of-agro-industrial-wastes-an-alternative-to-obtain-fermentable-carbohydrates",totalDownloads:7243,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"325",slug:"alternative-fuel",title:"Alternative Fuel",fullTitle:"Alternative Fuel"},signatures:"Oscar Sánchez, Roció Sierra and Carlos J. 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Awareness for increased agricultural production is on the increase, arising from the need to feed the ever-increasing human population. Interestingly, almost all agricultural activities generate wastes, which are generated in large quantities in many countries. However, these wastes may constitute a serious threat to human health through environmental pollution and handling them may result in huge economic loss. Unfortunately, in many developing countries where large quantities of these wastes are generated, they are not properly managed because little is known about their potential risks and benefits if properly managed. There are studies that address some of the challenges of agricultural solid wastes as well as suggestions on how they can be properly managed. In this chapter, we intend to explore the major sources of agricultural solid wastes, their potential risks, and how they can be properly managed.",book:{id:"9873",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo and Olufemi Adebukola Adebiyi",authors:[{id:"276527",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac Oluseun",middleName:null,surname:"Adejumo",slug:"isaac-oluseun-adejumo",fullName:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo"},{id:"328699",title:"Dr.",name:"O.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Adebiyi",slug:"o.a.-adebiyi",fullName:"O.A. Adebiyi"}]},{id:"64270",title:"Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana: Moving beyond the Status Quo",slug:"decentralization-and-solid-waste-management-in-urbanizing-ghana-moving-beyond-the-status-quo",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Waste management is competing with more pressing economic and social issues such as social protection programs, education, and health. The government of Ghana has therefore decentralized the waste management system in the country. With this development, local government authorities and private sector actors are now playing key roles in waste management in the country. This study sought to examine decentralized solid waste management in the Berekum and Dormaa Municipalities in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Specifically, it analyzed the involvement of the private sector in solid waste management, and the quality of waste management services in the two selected municipalities. Through a survey of 312 households, the study analyzed the performance improvement, regulatory policy, and sustainable service delivery of solid waste management in the municipalities. The study found that there were no mechanisms for full cost recovery to include majority of the residents, who patronize communal collection service. The study therefore recommends the adherence to normative standards and agreed rules, adoption, and use of appropriate cost recovery strategies for low-income groups as well as the restructuring of institutional arrangements to ensure user involvement and enforcement of legislation to improve municipal solid waste management in Ghana.",book:{id:"8580",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Richard Kyere, Michael Addaney and Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu",authors:[{id:"273978",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Addaney",slug:"michael-addaney",fullName:"Michael Addaney"},{id:"273981",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Kyere",slug:"richard-kyere",fullName:"Richard Kyere"},{id:"273982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas Ayaribilla",middleName:null,surname:"Akudugu",slug:"jonas-ayaribilla-akudugu",fullName:"Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu"}]},{id:"65314",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication and Management Strategies in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-disposal-in-mangrove-forest-environmental-implication-and-management-strategie",totalDownloads:1062,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Niger Delta is an oil rich region situated in the southern part of Nigeria. It is made up of nine states which hosts oil industries. There are a handful of businesses (super market, manufacturing companies, etc.) that service the over 40 million people living in the cities. This situation had led to the increase in solid waste in the city. Because of the problem of over population, and poor waste management strategies (e.g., lack of recycling habit and lack of equipment) the mangrove forest had become a dumping ground for waste. This action has impacted the health of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and has created a public health disaster for citizens because of increase in heavy metal concentration up the food chain. This chapter therefore, identifies poverty, lack of planning, poor behavior and poor technology as key factors affecting effective waste management in the Niger Delta. It suggests that good waste management system can be worked out if there is coordination between research institution and government in the implementation of recommendation by research institutes. Attitudinal change is also necessary on the part of citizens and government to enable a healthy interaction for the purpose of managing waste effectively.",book:{id:"8580",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",middleName:null,surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}]},{id:"51114",title:"Overview of Hazardous Waste Management Status in Malaysia",slug:"overview-of-hazardous-waste-management-status-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:6244,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter reviews the status of hazardous waste management in Malaysia. It highlights the sources of the hazardous waste, government policies on waste generation and management, the involvement of the stakeholders, and the various management procedures adopted in Malaysia. Currently, the manufacturing sector is the major contributor in hazardous waste generated in Malaysia. Other sectors that contribute include household, agriculture, medical, and other industrial sectors. Malaysian government’s resolve on human health protection and safeguarding the environment prompted various acts, regulations, and orders such as the popular Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974. The regulations made pursuant to the Environmental Quality Act have continuously improved to address the issues on the definition and classifications of hazardous waste and the management process in Malaysia. The management of hazardous waste in Malaysia is effectively growing as a result of continuous review of the regulations and enforcement of the acts. The stakeholders in the industries have also been active in keeping to the EQA regulations to keep the environment safe as much as possible.",book:{id:"5242",slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",fullTitle:"Management of Hazardous Wastes"},signatures:"Ogboo Chikere Aja, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, Mesfin Gizaw Zewge and\nMeheron Selowara Joo",authors:[{id:"181768",title:"Dr.",name:"Ogboo Chikere",middleName:null,surname:"Aja",slug:"ogboo-chikere-aja",fullName:"Ogboo Chikere Aja"},{id:"181769",title:"Dr.",name:"Mesfin Gizaw",middleName:null,surname:"Zewge",slug:"mesfin-gizaw-zewge",fullName:"Mesfin Gizaw Zewge"},{id:"182433",title:"Mr.",name:"Meheron",middleName:null,surname:"Selowara Joo",slug:"meheron-selowara-joo",fullName:"Meheron Selowara Joo"},{id:"184186",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain H.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Kayiem",slug:"hussain-h.-al-kayiem",fullName:"Hussain H. Al-Kayiem"}]},{id:"40529",title:"Solid Waste Management in Malaysia – A Move Towards Sustainability",slug:"solid-waste-management-in-malaysia-a-move-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:10112,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"2781",slug:"waste-management-an-integrated-vision",title:"Waste Management",fullTitle:"Waste Management - An Integrated Vision"},signatures:"Jayashree Sreenivasan, Marthandan Govindan, Malarvizhi Chinnasami and Indrakaran Kadiresu",authors:[{id:"154427",title:"Dr.",name:"Sreenivasan",middleName:null,surname:"Jayashree",slug:"sreenivasan-jayashree",fullName:"Sreenivasan Jayashree"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"146",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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