\r\n\tNotably, the book encourages academic scholars and researchers to contribute to the modern concepts of CSR. Fundamentally, it speaks for well-developed literature for entrepreneurs and managers, thus assisting them in the decision-making process. \r\n\tFurthermore, this book is of great value to policymakers, practitioners, and corporations, thus contributing to various disciplines (e.g., social science and management). \r\n\tThese proposed themes encourage future researchers and professionals to share their ideas, concepts and work concerning these subject domains. All these suggested topics had recommended under the rubrics of CSR. Perhaps, all the professionals, researchers, and scholars are welcome to submit their piece of work, in particular to the suggested topics. \r\n\tIndeed, the recommended topics include the following but are not limited to these only. \r\n\t• Corporate Governance and Sustainability \r\n\t• Green Innovation and CSR \r\n\t• Social Entrepreneurship \r\n\t• Green Economy and Social and Environmental Sustainability \r\n\t• Sustainable Development and Industrialization
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1. Introduction
Effective diagnosis of heart disease remains one of the main tasks of clinical medicine due to the high prevalence and socio-economic importance of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, which in recent decades, have become a pandemic [1]. In most European countries per 100,000 people. Population accounts for no more than 300 deaths from cardiovascular diseases. It is clear that the need to improve methods for heart diseases detection is extremely actual. First of all, this applies to non-invasive methods that are the most accessible and safe.
Analysis of the electrical activity of the heart is still the most common, affordable, and cheapest method of objective examination of the heart. However, the sensitivity and specificity of routine electrocardiographic examination are not high enough. It is known, for example, that the resting ECG, assessed by its routine criteria, remains normal in approximately 50% of patients with chronic coronary heart disease, including during episodes of chest discomfort [2]. Improving diagnostics is possible only on the basis of innovative technologies.
The purpose of this chapter is to give an example of innovative technology introduced into practice, designed to register and evaluate subtle changes in the electromagnetic field of the heart for early diagnosis of the most common and dangerous heart diseases.
2. MCG definition and a brief insight to the magnetocardiography milestones
Magnetocardiography allows recording magnetic fields without body invasion and any risks through the skin-surface methodology. The detected fields are created by the heart’s electrical activity. However, the signal is pretty weak to export the samples for storing and assessment, making the technique demanding, e.g., typical level of a magnetic field generated by heart muscle currents is between 10−10 and 10−12 Tesla, whereas the Earth’s magnetic field and the urban noise levels are considerably higher (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Specimens of generated magnetic fields.
The 1963 study by McFee and Balue records the first magnetocardiograms [3]. To obtain the game-changing magnetocardiogram human data they applied a couple of coils, containing a ferromagnetic core wrapped around with thin copper wire for several million times in each, kept at room temperature. The experiments were held at a far-away country location, to avoid the urban electromagnetic hindrance. Nevertheless, the output of the detector had flaws.
The research progress for alloys in the early 70’s introduced the use of superconducting magnetometers. Cohen at al. initially applied the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometer in a room with antimagnetic protection, to detect a magnetocardiogram with improved dimensional accuracy and better spatial-to-noise property.
These SQUID magnetometers remain the only available device to record MCGs. The MCG studies by Cohen at al. had an enormous contribution to the basics of MCG recordings methodology, but cannot be considered a clinically relevant study, even though physicians took part in a few measurements. Then, in the early 80’s Germany, USA, Finland, Japan, and Italy had some preliminary clinical research studies. At that time, a sole SQUID sensor was moved step by step across the measurement layout at the area near the anterior torso. The first commercially-made multi-channel systems became available in 1988–1990 with the help of Siemens, Philips, and BTI cooperation. In fact, only properly shielded rooms could be used for those systems’ operation (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Philips multi-scan MCG system inside a highly-shielded room.
Today, there are numerous MCG laboratories in countries such as the United States, Germany, China, South Korea, Italy, Finland, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Taiwan, India, and others.
In Ukraine, research in the field of magnetocardiography was initiated by specialists of the Institute of Cybernetics. VM Glushkov NASU together with specialists of the Institute of Cardiology in 1992. These studies began with the use of a single-channel MCG system. The work of the Kyiv group was pioneering from the very beginning because it was aimed at solving the most pressing problem—the diagnosis of coronary heart disease in difficult cases, i.e., in patients with uninformative results of routine tests such as ECG and resting echocardiography [4, 5]. Also, it is extremely important that the magnetocardiographic system developed by Ukrainian scientists can work in a normal unshielded room, which made the method of magnetocardiography suitable for wide clinical application (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
9-channel MCG-system (Cardiomox) in unshielded hospital setting.
3. Technical means of magnetocardiography and procedure of patients examination
Measurement of ultra-weak magnetic fields that occur during the work of the human heart and are almost a million times smaller than the magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field (≈10−4Tl), requires very sensitive equipment. A significant increase in the sensitivity of biomagnetic measurements was achieved with the introduction of SQUID magnetometers, which operate on the basis of the stationary Josephson effect at a temperature of liquid helium (4.2 K). Beginning in 1970, when the SQUID magnetometer was first used [6], the MCG registration procedure became available for medical research and clinical practice.
Each of the currently known MCG systems can be divided into three functional modules. The first module (measuring) contains a registration part, which consists of sensors, antenna systems, and electronics for reading sensor signals. The second module (control) includes electronic units and microprocessor control of the entire system. The third (software module) provides computer processing of signals and their display using an application package with a high level of intelligent software. Additional hardware and software for protection against magnetic interference are used in each module.
Our MCG-system CARDIOMOXMCG 9 is installed in an unshielded clinical setting and during normal daytime operation, environmental noise was relatively constant. During acquisition, power lines represent the most dominant source of high amplitude noise (Figure 4A).
Figure 4.
Samples of the MCG signals. (A) Initial channel 21 output (power noise included), (B) Same channel: 50 Hz notch filtered data, (C) Same channel: averaged signal, DC offset corrected prior to the P-wave, (D) Averaged signal in at all 36 registration sites.
The position of the examined object is idle on the back. The MCG detections are held inside a six-by-six rectangular nettings that create an area (4 cm2) over the precordial area making nine prethoracic sites. The sensor is moved to the thorax as close as possible, right above the heart, starting from the jugulum (Figure 5). All points are aligned with this reference point with the help of a rigid grid pitch.
Figure 5.
A typical grid applied for getting the records, the precordial area covered has the dimensions 20 cm* 20 cm. The starting point for the sensor is just higher the jugulum.
Having the SQUID detector in an unmovable position over the adjustable table for examinations, the patient was moved to each designed grid position (9 in total) without leaving the idle lying state.
The above-described measuring grid is the most widely used. There are other types of grids, in some grids, each point is set taking into account its own anatomical landmark.
The registration records were taken to collect data from each site for 30 seconds with 1 kHz sampling frequency while a 0.1–120 bandpass filter was applied. At the same time, the surface ECG lead II was registered. All the obtained data was written onto memory devices for later processing. It took from 7 to 8 minutes to measure each intended location.
4. The role of Electrophysiology for magnetocardiography
The ion current at cellular membranes in cardiac muscle cells defines their depolarisation and repolarisation. The latter also depends on single ions’ temporally different permeability. Due to this, a shift arises in the membrane followed by changes in both the intra and extracellular volume currents. The spreading of these volume currents throughout the body causes the potential to alter the surface of the skin, so an electrocardiograph is able to detect the electrical potential changes once again. The nature and the functionality of the heart’s specific cardiac conductivity system work in a way that it is electrically induced from the bottom state to the apex state. To apply the modeling for the heart’s electrical activity, it can be substituted by a current dipole (also known as an equivalent dipole). Having the dipole with a distributed electrical field around it, the magnetic field should exist around it as well. The Biot-Savart approach helps to calculate the spatial dispersion induced by the dipole respectively. Here we define the magnetocardiogram as a recording of the frequent alternations in the magnetic field raising due to the cardiac cycle.
5. The MCG and the ECG key differences
Of course, MCG has similar morphological properties likewise ECG: we set a P-wave, a QRS complex, and T- and U- waves. Temporal correspondence between them is also most similar to ECG [7]. The majority of MCG devices make the magnetic field components measurement in a perpendicular way (radial or z-component) to the anterior chest (Bz). The key difference between dimensional layouts for ECG and MCG is their spatial alignment by 90° (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Dimensional correspondence of electrical and magnetic fields.
MCG is more sensitive to currents tangential to the chest surface, whereas ECG is more sensitive to radial currents.
Moreover, MCG is affected by isolated (vortex) current sources, which do not prevent any drops in potential on the body surface and thus the ECG is not able to detect them [8]. On the other hand, MCG is less influenced by conductivity alternations in the body (lungs, muscles, skin) than ECG. The MCG method does not invade the body at all, making the issues in the skin to electrode contact neglectable while being faced during the ECG. The switching in the ischemic diastolic TP and “true” ST switching is detected separately from each other by means of the direct-current MCG, due to the fact of missing potentials originating from the skin-electrode area.
6. Metrics and information technologies for the analysis of magnetocardiographic data based on two-dimensional visualization of the solution of the inverse problem of magnetostatics
The direct result of pre-processing of the data is 36 magnetocardiographic curves located at observation points—nodes of intersection of a rectangular grid, which is linked to the anatomical landmarks of the chest (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
36 MCG curves of healthy volonteer.
A detailed analysis of the morphology of MCG in healthy people was carried out. It was established that MCGs are similar to ECGs, recorded at the same points. The areas in which these or those elements of the MCG cardiac complex have the greatest amplitude have been analyzed. So, the wave P has the largest amplitude in the central zone of the upper half of the measuring grid corresponding to the V1 lead of ECG. The largest R—peak is recorded in the center of the measuring grid near the angle of the sternum, the deepest S-wave is in the left upper quadrant of the grid The deepest q is recorded in the upper left corner of the grid. In this area, the ventricle complex has the form qRs or qR. The complex Rs prevails in the right part of the grid. The ST segment is located close to the isoline at all registration points. The highest positive tooth T is recorded in the same area as the largest R-peak, the deepest negative to this in the same area where the deepest S-wave is. The U-wave is always positive and best expressed in the left upper quadrant. The constitutional features of the normal MCG as well as features related to gender and age are also analyzed. It was found that men have significant differences in the magnitude of the QRS complex, depending on their age (up to 50 years the magnitude is higher), and growth (the higher growth, the greater the magnitude). In women, such differences are revealed in connection with weight—the more weight, the greater the magnitude. Totally for all categories, the coefficient of variation of the magnitude in healthy individuals is very high (0.48). This gives reason to doubt the advisability of applying criteria based on absolute values.
At the initial stage of development of magnetocardiography, the methods of its analysis copied the methods of analysis of electrocardiograms, the nomenclature of names of teeth, segments, and intervals developed for ECG analysis was used without changes. However, the analysis of individual MCG curves does not allow us to see the main advantage of magnetocardiography—high sensitivity to changes in the spatial distribution of the magnetic field at the points of the measurement plane and the associated density of ionic currents in the heart. This goal can be obtained after solving the inverse problem of magnetostatics.
This expression stands for the redesigning of the electrical activity in the heart using the recordings obtained above the surface of the human body. Since the measured magnetic field in MCG is found outside the very surface of the body and just over it, it is detected in a measurement surface from a short distance to the skin enclosing the chest cage.
Therefore, the next step in the analysis and interpretation of MCG data were methods closely related to the creation of modern information technologies.
For spatial fixation of data during MCG record the observation points are used. – These are nodes of intersection of a square grid. The magnetic signal is recorded at a frequency of 1 kHz. So the signal curve consists of individual “pieces” corresponding to individual “moments” of time. In other words, for each moment of time in 1 millisecond in points of a grid of measurements (6х6 points with a step of 40 mm on mutually perpendicular axes), it is possible to allocate simultaneously 36 values of a magnetic signal. If these signals are interpolated within the measurement area to a more “frequent (with smaller distances between nodes)” grid, it is possible to construct a spatial distribution of the measured magnetic signal in the form of a magnetic field map. Thus, on the basis of 36 synchronous averaged MCG curves, two-dimensional (within 1 millisecond of time) magnetic field distribution maps are constructed using two-dimensional interpolation algorithms. Further, with the help of algorithms for solving the “inverse problem”, equiinduction maps of the magnetic field distribution can be “converted” into the corresponding instantaneous maps of the distribution of current density vectors (CDV maps). A fundamental novelty of the proposed analysis of MCG data is the use of a new methodological approach—to assess the dynamics of changes in current density during the cardio cycle using maps sequentially arranged in time (dynamic mapping). This approach has identified a number of new MCG indicators, which, on the one hand, have a clear electrophysiological meaning, and on the other—to exclude the impact on research results of technical and design features of the MCG system used due to the analysis of relative values.
In the next stage, the analysis of the dynamics of the selected parameters of CDV maps in the selected time intervals of the cardio cycle (QRS, ST-T, Ta-e) with an arbitrary or specified time step (4–10 ms).
CDV instant maps and sets of such maps during cardio cycle intervals are the main diagnostic image and object of analysis in magnetocardiography. Each individual map, and even more so a set of cards during a certain phase of the cardio cycle, contains multifaceted information. Therefore, to take full advantage of the method for analysis, it is necessary to use not a single indicator, but their combination.
The following concepts define the classification of the CDV maps.
The electrical generator while being repolarized can be considered as an extended current origin placed at the borderline zone splitting excited and unexcited areas of myocardium. Having normal ventricular repolarization, this wave-front of excitation which is also integrated into a homogeneous conductivity medium has to be moved left-downwards within a 10°–80° sector. This model considers a couple of current types: the first one is known as “impressed current”, since it is originated from “impressed” currents which are the transmembrane potential gradient and passive volume currents. On the other hand, put into homogeneous conductivity these volume currents contribute to two vortices, which are symmetrical and equivalent. The processed mapping has a dipolar layout closer to ideal (Figure 8) containing only one location with relatively larger vectors pointing left and downwards.
Figure 8.
The concept of current distribution in case of homogeneous conductivity.
Green arrows display the “impressed currents”, concentric-oriented curves represent current lines of the “volume” currents.
The appearance of inhomogeneity of conductivity due to some pathophysiological processes in the myocardium results in asymmetry and deformation of the vortexes (Figure 9), hence smaller portion of current vectors will be directed left-downwards.
Green arrows display the “impressed currents”, concentric-oriented curves represent current lines of the “volume” currents.
Following the greater raise in abnormality, likewise, for ischemia issues, we monitor the appearance of the supplementary excitation wavefronts. These wave-fronts are pathological and definitely will represent the layout of maps with a non-dipolar structure (Figure 10). Thus, we encounter so-called supplementary locations (clusters) of current vectors. Usually, their directions are not pointed left and downwards, leading to the state where the amount of normally pointed vectors continuously drops. However, we do not neglect situations where the areas with supplementary vectors are pointed left and downwards. Anyways, these kinds of layouts should be named abnormal as well have given the decrease in homogeneity, i.e., the detection of supplementary areas (clusters).
Figure 10.
The concept of current distribution with strong inhomogeneity (inhomogeneous conductivity (two excitation wave-fronts of equal strength).
Green arrows display the “impressed currents”, concentric-oriented ´curves represent current lines of the “volume” currents.
Hence, the basic method of analysis of the spatial structure of the current distribution map is based on the concept of “proper” direction [9]. For each current density vector, the normal direction is known, i.e., the sector within the pie chart from 0° to 180° and from −180° to 0°, which is used in the ECG, in which direction this vector is considered normal, i.e., “appropriate”. In this case, the “proper” direction has a clear link to the interval of the cardio cycle to which this map belongs. Thus, during ventricular repolarization (from point J to the end of the T wave) the direction in the sector of 10°−80° is “appropriate”. It is known that during ventricular depolarization, the excitation sequentially covers the interventricular septum, anterior-apical area, sidewall, and posterior-inferior region of the left ventricle. Each of these phases of depolarization has its own “proper” direction of current density vectors (Figure 11a–e).
Figure 11.
Distribution maps of CDV of a healthy volunteer (left) and pie charts (right) of depolarization: a) interventricular septum (phase 1), b) anterior wall and apex of the left ventricle (phase 2), c)lateral wall of the left ventricle (phase 3), d) basal myocardium (phase 4), e) ventricular repolarization (ST-T).
The quantitative parameter of this type of analysis is a normalized 100% anomaly index (Abnormality Index—AI), i.e., the ratio of the sum of the lengths of vectors directed in the correct, “proper” for each time directly to the sum of lengths of vectors having different from the “proper” direction. From the electrophysiological point of view, this indicator reflects the ratio of ion fluxes flowing in the “proper” direction and in a direction different from the “proper” one. The next stage of the analysis is the assessment of the processes of de- and repolarization of the ventricles in general. The average AI values during the QRS complex—AIQRS total as well as during the ST-T interval—AISTT total is calculated.
Another group of indicators is designed to assess the homogeneity of the repolarization process—the similarity of the spatial structure of the maps and the smoothness of the curve of the total current (i.e., the curve consisting of arithmetic sums of values of all current density vectors for each instantaneous map during the studied interval).
To quantify the homogeneity of the spatial structure of maps over time, the correlation coefficient (similarity) score between all maps during the ST-T interval was proposed. To estimate the smoothness of the curve of changes in the total current, the shape of this curve is analyzed. The duration (in% to the total duration of the ST-T interval) of the section of this curve from its beginning to the inflection point, i.e., to the moment of the beginning of its monotonic growth (ADur) is determined. The higher the Scor value and the lower the Adur value, the more similar the CDV maps are within the ST-T interval and the higher the homogeneity of the repolarization process as a whole. Decreases in similarity score values and increases in Adur almost always occur due to the changes at the initial part of the ST segment. The duration of one initial site corresponds to the time during which some areas of the myocardium are in a later phase of the transmembrane action potential compared to neighboring areas. In other words, the duration of this section reflects the degree of regional heterogeneity of repolarization.
Finally, the time dependence curve of the correlation coefficient of the current map with the map at the apex of the R wave during the ORS complex is investigated. In other words, the degree of similarity of each current map with the map at the top of the tooth R, i.e., with the map in which the value of the total current is greatest. The correlation coefficient between all maps during the QRS—CcorQRS complex is calculated. The shape of the correlation curve of the current map with the map at the top of the R wave is also analyzed. Normally, this curve has 3 characteristic inflection points (Figure 12a)—between the first phases of depolarization, the 2nd and 3rd phases, and 3th and 4th phases. In pathology, these points, especially 1 and 3 are smoothed or completely absent (Figure 12b).
Figure 12.
Influence curves of the correlation coefficient of the current map with a map on the top of the tooth R: in healthy volunteer; b) in patients with a large MI.
The calculation of the above set of temporal and spatial features is based on a key electrophysiological concept—the increase of electrical heterogeneity (heterogeneity) of the myocardium in the occurrence of pathological processes, such as ischemia.
In our opinion, one of the main ways to increase the functional efficiency of magnetocardiography is to build systems for automatic classification of magnetocardiograms based on the ideas and methods of machine learning and pattern recognition.
We have developed a method for analyzing CDV maps during ST-T intervals based on pattern recognition.
Correlation analysis was used to classify each current density map. The main idea of the method of current density distribution map classification based on correlation analysis is to find and compare the correlation coefficients of the map under analysis with each of the maps in the reference set. Reference sets consist of pre-classified by the doctor current density distribution maps, each of which belongs to one of the groups corresponding to a certain state of the cardiovascular system. For each of the classified maps, the correlation coefficients of the vector of values and the vector of directions with the corresponding vectors of each of the maps from the reference set are calculated as follows [10]:
Where n is the dimension of the vectors, for our case n = 100,
xi, and yi are values of vectors for which the correlation coefficient is calculated and x—x–, and y—y–are the mean values of the vectors, calculated as follows:
x—=1n∑i=1nxi2x–=1n∑i=1nxiE2
y—=1n∑i=1nyi3y–=1n∑i=1nyiE3
After that, the values of the obtained correlation coefficients for two vectors are multiplied; thus, the resulting correlation coefficient is obtained, which takes into account both the modulus correlation and the direction of the current density vectors. As a result, a set of the resulting correlation coefficients with the maps of each group of the reference set is obtained for each map. After that, an array of m maximum values of the resulting correlation coefficient is formed for each group, and their average value is found. Thus, for each CDDM we obtain a set of key-value pairs with the groups corresponding to the state of the cardiovascular system as keys, and the above described average values of the maximum correlation coefficients as corresponding values. The maximum of these values indicates the group to which the map of the distribution of the current density to be classified should be assigned. The best result was obtained for m in the range of 1–5, and the accuracy of classification in these cases is highest and does not significantly depend on the number of maximum values; therefore, in this study, we use m = 3.
One of the methods for pattern classification is the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) rule. It classifies each unlabeled object according to the majority label of its k-nearest neighbors in the training set. Despite its simplicity, the k-NN rule often yields competitive results and in certain domains, when cleverly combined with prior knowledge, it can help to solve even quite difficult classification tasks.
The result of k-NN classification depends significantly on the metric used to compute distances among different feature vectors. In [11], it was shown that using different distances for k-NN classification gives an opportunity to decrease the error rates for different classification problems, such as face recognition, spoken letter recognition, and text categorization. It was also demonstrated that a k-NN classifier with a correctly chosen distance metric shows better results, even when compared to SVM used for same classification tasks.
In this study, the three most commonly used metrics, which are special cases of Minkowski distance, Eucledian, Cityblock, and Chebychev, were examined. Let us consider X as a 1-×-32 feature vector of a classified CDDM and Y as a feature vector of each CDDM in the training set. In our study, binary classifiers with three different distance metrics were developed. A classifier with an Eucledian metric distance between two points Xs and Yt, whose coordinates are values of X and Y, respectively, is defined as follows:
d2st=xs−ytxs−yt′4dst2=xs−ytxs−ytE4
For Cityblock (also known as Manhattan) metric:
dst=∑j=1nxsj−ytj5dst=∑j=1n∣xsj−ytj∣E5
where n is the size of vectors X and Y, and in our case n = 32–number of features.
For Chebychev metric:
dst=xsj−ytjE6
2142 current density distribution maps were analyzed, which were assigned to 6 different groups depending on the verified diagnosis of the patient. These maps amounted to 6 basic databases of reference images. Each of these databases includes maps that are most specific to a particular disease.
These groups are as follows: normal, left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), non-coronary heart disease, microvascular disease, myocardial infarction, and coronary heart disease (coronary heart disease) other than MI. In turn, the norm group is divided into 2 subgroups, the LVH group—into 3 subgroups, and the coronary heart disease group—into 6 subgroups. Thus, in the end, we have 14 categories. Correlation coefficients were calculated for the current map relative to the reference base of maps for each of the 14 subcategories.
Next, the results of the classification of individual consecutive maps on the ST-T interval were averaged for the entire ST-T interval. As a result, we obtain the probabilities of belonging to a particular magnetocardiographic examination in each of the 14 categories for each MCG examination (Figure 13).
Figure 13.
Correlation coefficients for the consecutive CDV maps relative to the reference base of maps for each of the 14 categories.
In this case, the highest probability of belonging to the category of coronary heart disease, subcategory 1
7. Clinical approbation of metrics of analysis of magnetocardiographic data on the basis of two-dimensional visualization of the solution of the inverse problem of magnetostatics. Multicenter studies
The purpose of using any diagnostic parameter is to formulate a clinically significant diagnostic conclusion, i.e.:
decision on the presence or absence of a pathological process;
in the case of a process—determining the severity.
The set of features has higher diagnostic accuracy than a single feature. Thus, there is a problem with forming from a set of parameters of a single complex indicator, which synthesizes various aspects of the information contained in each individual indicator. Such an indicator can be created on the basis of the method of linear discriminant analysis (LDA). As a result, a discriminant function is automatically built. If the value of the function is greater than the threshold, the results of the MCG test are positive, if less—negative.
Another, empirical-statistical approach, which is used to form a comprehensive index, is calculated on the basis of scores. When using this approach, the values of all quantitative indicators are a priori divided into ranges. When the value of an individual indicator falls into the appropriate range, it is given a certain number of points. Then the number of points of all indicators is summed. If the sum of points exceeds a certain threshold, the MCG test is considered positive, if on the contrary—negative. If the test is positive, the number of points determines the severity of the pathology on the principle—the higher the score, the more pronounced the pathology. Such scores are widely used in electrocardiography (Sylvester score, Freuleher score, CIIS and others), as well as to assess the results of the test with dosed exercise (Duke’s index). We have created an integrated scoring criterion of the additive type for the diagnosis of myocardial ischemia using MCG. The value of this criterion was recently investigated by us in two multicenter studies involving foreign colleagues. A two-center study was conducted at the National Military Medical Clinical Center and at the Catholic Clinical Philippusstift (Essen, Germany) [12]. We examined 79 patients with complaints of chest pain and normal or non-informative results of ECG and echocardiography at rest, i.e., in difficult-to-diagnose cases. All patients underwent coronary ventriculography. According to the results of coronary angiography, patients were divided into subgroups with stenosis> 70% in at least one of the main coronary arteries (subgroup 1a) and a subgroup of persons without hemodynamically significant stenosis (subgroup 1b). Control group 2 consisted of 30 healthy volunteers close in age. Table 1 shows the indicators of diagnostic value of the complex MCG index to detect significant stenosis of the coronary arteries in difficult-to-diagnose cases.
Diagnostic value parameters
Comparison of subgroups 1а и 1b
Comparison of subgroup 1а with subgroup 2
Sensitivity, %
93
93
Specificity, %
84
94
PPV, %
85
94
NPV, %
93
93
Table 1.
Diagnostic value of complex MCG index.
The goal of any diagnostic test is to reduce the uncertainty level and to increase the confidence of the investigator in valuable decision-making. The present study investigates a group of patients for whom this decision is performed on the basis of coronary angiography. The pretest probability of hemodynamically significant coronary artery stenosis in patients analyzed was about 50%; therefore, the degree of uncertainty is the highest in this case. Post-MCG probability to use analogous to post-ECG probability that a hemodynamically significant stenosis is absent is 85% in the case of negative result of MCG-study. In the case of a positive MCG result, the probability of haemodynamically significant stenosis is 93%.
Thus, the results of our MCG-study reduce uncertainty in decision-making. Coronary angiography should be considered for patients with positive MCG-results. In the case of negative MCG-results, the invasive procedure could be avoided.
An even larger multi-center study was conducted in three leading clinics in Beijing under the guidance of specialists from the main hospital of the Chinese Navy. A total of 133 people were examined (mean age 59 ± 3.1 years). All surveyed individuals were divided into three groups. The first group (61 people) consisted of patients with severe myocardial ischemia who met the criteria for revascularization: the degree of coronary artery stenosis was ≥80% or was between 50% and 80%, with a margin of coronary blood flow ≤0.8.
The second group (13 people)—patients whose myocardial ischemia is confirmed by the “gold standard”—invasive coronary angiography but has not yet met the criteria for revascularization. The third group (59 people) is the control group. The percentage of coincidence of ICG results and coronary angiography in each group was as follows: for severe coronary heart disease—85.45%, for mild coronary heart disease—77.78%, in the control group—87.10%.
Achieved a total sensitivity of 93.75%, a specificity of 87.10%, PPS was 88.24%, and NPV 93.10%.
Thus, magnetocardiographic examination is a reliable method of diagnosing chronic coronary heart disease, including in difficult-to-diagnose cases.
Analyzing the possibilities of using different methods for myocardial ischemia detection, it is necessary to take into account their position on the steps of the “ischemic cascade”. For example, systolic myocardial dysfunction, which is detected by echocardiography under load, in the ischemic cascade manifests itself later than the heterogeneity of blood flow. Manifestation of myocardial ischemia in the form of changes in the ST segment on the ECG is manifested even later and therefore the possibilities of the ECG in the detection of myocardial ischemia, even under load, are limited. At the top of the ischemic cascade is the anginal syndrome. What is the place of the MCG in this context? In our opinion, in some cases, the ICG at rest is outside the ischemic cascade, recording the “history” of episodes of past myocardial ischemia that have occurred before. The rather high sensitivity of the MCG is due to the fundamental physical advantages of the method. The rather high values of diagnostic accuracy of MCG received in numerous research are reached at rest. The causes of electrophysiological changes at rest in patients with coronary heart disease are diverse. First of all, these are changes in repolarization as a result of apoptosis. Also, previous episodes of myocardial ischemia can lead to cell necrosis in limited areas of the myocardium, causing impaired electrogenesis. Several articles have shown that transient ischemia contributes to an increase in interstitial endocardial fibrosis in patients with a history of MI. It is also suggested that in coronary heart disease already at rest there is a significant alternative to the level of myocardial blood supply. This in turn can also lead to subtle electrophysiological changes that are already taking place at rest.
It is known that myocardial ischemia is accompanied by activation of free radical processes, and it is obvious that this should be manifested by disturbances in the functioning of ion channels, changes in TPD, and excitability of conductive cells and cardiomyocytes. It can be assumed that changes in MCG parameters in patients with coronary heart disease at rest are due to changes in electrophysiological characteristics such as resistance of membranes and intercellular connections, and the rate of conduction.
That is, we can conclude that due to its high sensitivity, the MCG at rest reveals the effects of episodes of transient ischemia (apoptosis, interstitial fibrosis, inhomogeneity of perfusion, and metabolism) [13].
Sufficiently high sensitivity of MCG is caused by fundamental physical advantages of the method. The result of these physical advantages is that the MCG signal more completely and accurately reflects electrical processes of the heart. MCG is much more sensitive than ECG to myocardial ischemia, thus MCG signal is changed even in cases when the shape of the ECG signal does not differ from normal. This advantage of MCG most clearly could be demonstrated by the shift of ST-segment (Figure 14).
Figure 14.
ECG in 12 leads (A) and MCG (B) of the patient with 2 vessels CAD (high-grade RCA and LCX stenosis).
Figure demonstrates standard ECG and MCG, registered on the same day almost simultaneously. There are no ST-segment shifts registered in any of the ECG leads. On the contrary, at points 14 and 20, there is a depression of ST-segment, and at points 4,5, and 6—an elevation of it.
It is important to understand that the presence of depression and elevation simultaneously within the 36-point MCG grid has the same electrophysiological basis as reciprocal changes in ST-T interval of ECG leads. In the case above, there is an ST depression in the right-central quadrant of grid (points 14,20) and elevation in left-upper quadrant of MCG grid. In our opinion, this configuration may reflect ischemia of the inferior wall of the left ventricle. Naturally, the identified dislocations of the ST segment will clearly appear on the CDV maps throughout this segment. We have developed the atlas of representative current density maps within ventricular repolarisation we have seen in patients with different variants of chronic CAD. We have selected “difficult-to-diagnose” patients with normal or uncertain, non-specific results of the routine tests. In that way, we would like we wanted to highlight the role of MCG in clinical routine—to feel out the gap between routine but non-sensitive diagnostic methods and much more expensive advanced non-invasive and invasive techniques [14].
8. Metrics and information technologies for the analysis of magnetocardiographic data based on three-dimensional visualization of the solution of the inverse problem
The original advanced method to solve the inverse problem of magnetostatics based on the results of measurements of the magnetic heart signal was developed recently. As the first step, a model of a point source of magnetic field (i.e., magnetic dipole) was used. The location and magnetic moment vector of magnetic dipole uniquely defined by known (measured) values of magnetic field at given points in space [15]. In the subsequent stages of data processing and conversion, other models of the signal source are also used. For example, the source of the magnetic field can be represented as a set of N different magnetic dipoles distributed in the volume of the heart [16]. In this case, the results of measurements of the magnetic field to determine the location of several signal sources are distributed as independent in the three-dimensional volume of the human heart. A model of a flat system of “currents” (distribution of the current density vector) is used for spatial analysis of the magnetic cardio signal and its sources. It is assumed that in space the selected plane, which is parallel to the plane of measurement, is secant with respect to the volume of the heart and is located at a given distance from the plane of measurement. In the proposed Primin and Nedayvoda algorithm, the coordinate of the plane with signal sources is a variable and its value is also determined by the measurements of the magnetic field—as the value of the z-th coordinate of the dipole source, which was determined at the previous stage of MCG signal processing. The problem for a planar current system is based on the application of the double integral Fourier transform and takes into account the spatial configuration of the magnetic flux transformer SQUID gradientometer [17]. An algorithm for converting information to solve the inverse problem was developed in the case if the results of measurements of the magnetic cardio signal need to determine the values of current density vectors in a given set of slices (“layers”) [18]. Each of the layers is located in a plane parallel to the measurement plane, the coordinates (“depth”) of each layer are set either with a given step (uniform distribution) or discretely based on the results of solving the inverse problem obtained in the previous stages (non-uniform distribution).
The power distribution of the current density vector is presented in the form of a so-called polar diagram. The principle of plotting is based on the segmentation scheme adopted as a standard in the analysis of measurement results in computed tomography and ultrasound of the heart [19]. Software implementation assumes that the three-dimensional surface consists of 5 segments: 1—anterior, 2—lateral, 3—inferior, 4—septal, and 5—apical.
Three-dimensional imaging methods have been successfully used to solve several important clinical problems, including, for example, determining the viability of the affected areas of the myocardium in patients with various forms of coronary heart disease. Thus, a fairly high level (74%) was found between the contractility of the segments of the anterior wall of the left ventricle and the current density in this area of the myocardium in patients with chronic coronary heart disease [20].
9. Myocardial damage in patients recovered from COVID-19
2 years ago, a new challenge for humanity emerged—Covid-19 pandemic. It has led to well over 200 million infections, with a fatal outcome in over 4.5 million cases. Of the survivors, the majority showed long-haul symptoms – now often called Long COVID [21].
One of the important long-term clinical consequences of COVID-19 seems to be heart damage [22]. Signs and symptoms of possible heart damage after COVID-19 may include severe fatigue, palpitations, chest pain, shortness of breath, and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) due to neurologic disturbances, post-exertional fatigue, and higher troponin levels.
In addition, heart inflammation appears to be prominent in COVID-19. This might involve both the myocardium and the pericarditis, causing severe fatigue without other obvious symptoms. The diagnosis of myocarditis is relatively inaccurate because both tests and diagnostic protocols are lacking precision. The course of the illness is therefore unknown at present, but some early reports have shown that symptoms lingered for a median of 47 days before diagnosis was accomplished by cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging [23].
Magnetocardiography, due to its high sensitivity is a potentially valuable method to detect the signs of myocardial damage in patients with COVID-19.
Therefore, 59 patients (mean age 42 ± 3.9 years) who recovered from COVID-19 were examined as it was shown in section 2 of this chapter in the Main Military Hospital of Ukraine and in the 8th People’s Hospital of Guangzhou. This group was divided into two subgroups depending on the time elapsed since recovery: 1–3 months after recovery (11 patients) and 7–10 month after recovery (48 patients). 78 healthy volunteers constituted the control group. These persons were examined earlier, in 2017–2018.
The method of data analysis was based on pattern recognition (see section 5 of this chapter). The probabilities of CDV maps within ST-T interval belonging (i.e., correlation coefficients) to six basic databases of reference images have been calculated. Each of these databases includes maps that are most specific to a particular disease. Then, the rank of category called “Non-coronary Heart Diseases” was determined. This rank (i.e., the relative value of the correlation coefficient) could be from 1 to 6.
To evaluate the difference between the examined groups, non-parametric Wilcoxon—Mann—Whitney test, designed to assess categorical variables, was used (Table 2).
Patients, recovered from COVID-19, total M±m, n = 59
The rank of category “Non-coronary Heart Disease” in groups examined.
p ≤ 0.05 in comparison with control group.
There is a highly statistically significant difference between the rank of CDV maps, which belongs to the category “Non-coronary Heart Diseases” between the group of patients recovered from COVID-19 and the control group. In patients, who recovered from COVID the signs of non-coronary heart diseases are much more pronounced, than in the control group. This is especially true for recently recovered patients, within 1–3 months before MCG-examination (Figure 15).
Figure 15.
A diagram, showing the average correlation coefficients of CDV maps with 6 basic databases of reference images in a 61-years patient who has recently recovered from COVID-19. The highest correlation with the “Non-coronary Heart Diseases” category is observed.
At the same time, the differences between the group of patients, who recovered from covid relatively long ago and the control group take place only at the level of a tendency (p ≤ 0.25).
Note that all examples of the application of the new metric for the analysis of subtle changes in the magnetic field of the human heart are critical parts of the relevant new diagnostic technologies.
The meaning of the development and implementation of any new diagnostic technology is to solve difficult diagnostic problems that are difficult to solve with existing methods. The above examples of new metrics developed by us fully meet the criteria for solving a complex diagnostic problem in cardiology, and in the first place, there is a wide range of differential diagnosis and low availability and/or high cost of diagnostic methods already included in existing clinical guidelines on this problem. In addition, it should be noted that a key sign of the maturity of the new technology is the presence of certificates of conformity issued by the authorized department of a country, as well as patents confirming its novelty. In this context, it should be noted that in addition to national certificates and patents, our proposed metrics as a result of careful long-term testing of the most modern procedures and received the relevant international certificates and patents for inventions. This is a guarantee of further intensive use of the unshielded magnetocardiography in medical practice at the international level.
The emerging diagnostic technology regarding existing ones might play one of the three future roles: replacement, triage or adds one [24]. At present, magnetocardiography can play the role of triage and supplementation among well-established methods for diagnosing myocardial damage of various origins. Further development of the method requires further, larger multicenter studies involving several dozen clinics in different countries.
10. Conclusions
The development of new information technologies and metrics based on magnetocardiography for the analysis of small changes in biological signals is a modern technological trend that improves the accuracy of many diagnostic methods, including methods of analysis of electrical activity of the heart.
New magnetocardiographic metrics for the analysis of the spatial structure of 2D magnetocardiographic current density distribution maps allow to diagnose myocardial ischemia with high accuracy, which has been proven in the course of intercenter studies.
Metrics based on three-dimensional visualization (polar diagram) of the electrical activity of the ventricles of the heart on the basis of magnetocardiographic data provide an opportunity to solve important clinical problems, in particular to determine the viability of affected myocardial infarction in patients with various forms of coronary heart disease.
New metrics for 2D magnetocardiographic current density distribution maps analysis, based on pattern recognition allow to detect signs of myocardial damage in patients, who recently recovered from COVID-19. Further, larger studies are needed to confirm these findings.
Acknowledgments
The authors want to express their sincere gratitude to outstanding experts in physics, mathematics, cryogenic engineering Drs. Michael Primin, Volodymyr Sosnytskyy, Pavlo Sytkovy, Igor Nedayvoda, Yury Minov, Pavlo Shpylevoi, Mykola Budnyk, Yury Frolov from Glushkov Institute for Cybernetics of NAS of Ukraine as well as Dr. Anton Popov and Eugen Udovichenko from National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute”. In addition, the authors warmly thank the great teams of leading hospitals in Ukraine, China, and Germany, with whom they were lucky to productively cooperate.
Special thanks to Mr. Bin-Zhen Zhang from North University of China, Mrs. Wei-Wei Quan from Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University, as well as Mrs. Xiang-Yan Kong from Ningbo University for their outstanding efforts aiming to develop MCG-technology in China.
\n',keywords:"magnetocardiography, coronary artery disease, non-coronarogenic diseases, myocardial damage, COVID-19, pattern recognition",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81837.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81837.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81837",totalDownloads:3,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 21st 2022",dateReviewed:"April 13th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter deals with magnetocardiography—a specific section of electrocardiography, which is designed to analyze the magnetic component of the electromagnetic field of the heart. Magnetocardiography is described as clinical information technology (IT), i.e., a set of methods, software, and hardware combined into a technological chain, the product of which is an automated diagnostic report. There are several examples of magnetocardiographic information technology implementation in clinical routine, aiming to register and evaluate subtle changes in the electromagnetic field of the heart for early diagnosis of the most common and dangerous heart diseases, especially coronary heart disease. It is shown that new metrics of analysis of spatial structure of 2D and 3D magnetocardiographic maps of current density distribution allow diagnosis with high accuracy of various forms of myocardial ischemia as well as myocardial damage in patients, recently recovered from COVID-19.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81837",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81837",signatures:"Illya Chaikovsky, Anatoly Kazmirchyk, Sergey Sofienko, You-Bin Liu, Ya-Feng Zhou, Xie Feng, Lin Xu and Yan-Fei Huang",book:{id:"11218",type:"book",title:"Electrocardiograms",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Electrocardiograms",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Umashankar Lakshmanadoss",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11218.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-529-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-528-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-530-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"13913",title:"Dr.",name:"Umashankar",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmanadoss",slug:"umashankar-lakshmanadoss",fullName:"Umashankar Lakshmanadoss"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. MCG definition and a brief insight to the magnetocardiography milestones",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Technical means of magnetocardiography and procedure of patients examination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The role of Electrophysiology for magnetocardiography",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The MCG and the ECG key differences",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Metrics and information technologies for the analysis of magnetocardiographic data based on two-dimensional visualization of the solution of the inverse problem of magnetostatics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Clinical approbation of metrics of analysis of magnetocardiographic data on the basis of two-dimensional visualization of the solution of the inverse problem of magnetostatics. Multicenter studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Metrics and information technologies for the analysis of magnetocardiographic data based on three-dimensional visualization of the solution of the inverse problem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Myocardial damage in patients recovered from COVID-19",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, Chamberlain AM, Chang AR, Cheng S, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2018 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018;137(12):67-492'},{id:"B2",body:'Simoons ML, Hugenholtz PG. Estimation of the probability of exercise in duced ischemia by quantitative ECG analysis. Circulation. 1977;56:552-559. DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.56.4.552'},{id:"B3",body:'Gerhard B, Richard M. Detection of the magnetic field of the heart. American Heart Journal. 1963;66(1):95-96'},{id:"B4",body:'Chaikovsky I, Lutay M, Sosnitsky V, et al. 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DOI: 10.1097/MCA.0000000000000107'},{id:"B13",body:'Buja LM, Entman ML. Modes of myocardial cell injury and cell death in ischemic heart disease. Circulation. 1998;98:1355-1357. DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.98.14.1355'},{id:"B14",body:'Chaikovsky I, Auth-Eisernitz S, Avolin B, et al. Atlas of typical magnetocardiographic maps for diagnosis of CAD within ST-T interval. In: Proc. of 14th International Conference on Biomagnetism, Boston. 2004. pp. 393-394'},{id:"B15",body:'Primin M, Nedayvoda I. Mathematical model and measurement algorithms for a dipole source location. International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics. 1997;8(2):119-131'},{id:"B16",body:'Primin M, Nedayvoda I. Inverse problem solution algorithms in magnetocardiography: New analytical approach and some results. International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics. 2009;29(2):65-81. DOI: 10.3233/JAE-2009-1001'},{id:"B17",body:'Primin MA, Nedayvoda IV. A method and an algorithm to reconstruct the spatial structure of current density vectors in magnetocardiography. Cybernetics and Systems Analysis. 2017;53(3):485-494. DOI: 10.1007/s10559-017-9950-6'},{id:"B18",body:'Primin M, Chaikovsky I, Berndt C, Nedayvoda I. Layer-to-layer heart electrical image based on magnetocardiography data in comparison with perfusion image based on PET. International Journal of Bioelectromagnetic. 2003;5(1):27-28'},{id:"B19",body:'Cerqueira MD, Weissman NJ, Dilsizian V, Jacobs AK, Kaul SLaskey WK,Pennell DJ. Standardized myocardial segmentation and nomenclature for tomographic imaging of the heart. A statement for Healthcare Professionals from the Cardiac Imaging Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2002;105(4): 539–542. DOI: 10.1067/mnc.2002.123122'},{id:"B20",body:'Chaikovsky I, Primin M, Nedayvoda I, Mjasnikov G, Kazmirchyk A, Lutay M, et al. Monitoring of myocardial viability in patients with myocardial infarction based on magnetocardiographic analysis of ventricular depolarisation. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2018;72(16):C89. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.475'},{id:"B21",body:'Callard F, Perego E. How and why patients made Long Covid. Society Science Medicine. 2021;268:113426'},{id:"B22",body:'Metkus TS, Sokoll LJ, Barth AS, Czarny MJ, Hays AG, Lowenstein CJ, et al. Myocardial injury in severe COVID-19 compared with non-COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome. Circulation. 2021;143:553-565. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.050543'},{id:"B23",body:'Puntmann VO, Carerj ML, Wieters I, et al. Outcomes of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in patients recently recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). JAMA Cardiology. 2020;5(11):1265-1273. DOI: 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.3557'},{id:"B24",body:'Bossuyt PM, Irwig L, Craig J, Glasziou P. Comparative accuracy: Assessing new tests against existing diagnostic pathways. British Medical Journal. 2006;332(7549):1089-1092'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Illya Chaikovsky",address:"illya.chaikovsky@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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To achieve such properties, these structures are based on techniques that allow detection and diagnosis of failures in real time. Detection signals faults and diagnostics provide the root cause and location. Fault detection is based on signal and process mathematical models, while fault diagnosis is focused on systems theory and process modeling. Monitoring and supervision complement each other in fault management, thus enabling normal and continuous operation. Its application avoids stopping productive processes by early detection of failures and by applying real-time actions to eliminate them, such as predictive and proactive maintenance based on process conditions. The integration of all these methodologies enables intelligent monitoring and supervision systems, enabling real-time fault detection and diagnosis. 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Therefore, this chapter addresses these research issues and demonstrates viable techniques of fault diagnosis and condition monitoring. To this aim, the design of the so-called fault detector relies on its estimate, which involves data-driven methods, as they result effective methods for managing partial information of the system dynamics, together with errors, model-reality mismatch and disturbance effects. In particular, the considered data-driven strategies use fuzzy systems and neural networks, which are employed to establish non-linear dynamic links between measurements and faults. The selected prototypes are based on non-linear autoregressive with exogenous input descriptions, since they are able to approximate non-linear dynamic functions with arbitrary degree of accuracy. The capabilities of the designed fault diagnosis schemes are verified via a high-fidelity simulator, which describes the normal and the faulty behaviour of a wind turbine plant. Finally, the robustness and the reliability features of the proposed methods are validated in the presence of uncertainty and disturbance implemented in the wind turbine simulator.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Silvio Simani and Paolo Castaldi",authors:[{id:"209626",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvio",middleName:null,surname:"Simani",slug:"silvio-simani",fullName:"Silvio Simani"},{id:"209627",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Castaldi",slug:"paolo-castaldi",fullName:"Paolo Castaldi"}]},{id:"65747",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82781",title:"Prognostics 102: Efficient Bayesian-Based Prognostics Algorithm in MATLAB",slug:"prognostics-102-efficient-bayesian-based-prognostics-algorithm-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1304,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"An efficient Bayesian-based algorithm is presented for physics-based prognostics, which combines a physical model with observed health monitoring data. Unknown model parameters are estimated using the observed data, from which the remaining useful life (RUL) of the system is predicted. This paper focuses on the Bayesian method for parameter estimation of a damage degradation model where epistemic uncertainty in model parameters is reduced with the observed data. Markov-chain Monte Carlo sampling is used to generate samples from the posterior distribution, which are then propagated through the physical model to estimate the distribution of the RUL. A MATLAB script of 76 lines is included in this paper with detailed explanations. A battery degradation model and crack growth model are used to explain the process of parameter estimation, the evolution of degradation and RUL prediction. The code presented in this paper can easily be altered for different applications. This code may help beginners to understand and use Bayesian method-based prognostics.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Ting Dong, Dawn An and Nam H. Kim",authors:[{id:"278745",title:"Prof.",name:"Nam-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"nam-ho-kim",fullName:"Nam-Ho Kim"},{id:"285438",title:"Ms.",name:"Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",slug:"ting-dong",fullName:"Ting Dong"},{id:"285439",title:"Dr.",name:"Dawn",middleName:null,surname:"An",slug:"dawn-an",fullName:"Dawn An"}]},{id:"70067",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90157",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2580,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]},{id:"68106",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88025",title:"Probabilistic Modeling, Estimation and Control for CALS Organization-Technical-Economic Systems",slug:"probabilistic-modeling-estimation-and-control-for-cals-organization-technical-economic-systems",totalDownloads:661,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Theoretical propositions of new probabilistic methodology of analysis, modeling, estimation and control in stochastic organizational-technical-economic systems (OTES) based on stochastic CALS informational technologies are considered. Stochastic integrated logistic support (ILS) of OTES modeling life cycle (LC), stochastic optimal of current state estimation in stochastic media defined by internal and external noises (including specially organized OTES-NS (noise support) and stochastic OTES optimal control) according to social-technical-economic-support criteria in real time by informational-analytical tools (IAT) of global type are presented. OTES-CALS are nonlinear and continuous-discrete. So we use approximate methods of normal approximation of probabilistic densities both for modeling and estimation. Spectrum of possibilities may be broaden by solving problems of OTES-CALS integration for existing markets of finances, goods and services. Analytical modeling, analysis, parametric optimization and optimal stochastic processes regulation in limits of illustrate some technologies and IAT given plans.",book:{id:"8656",slug:"probability-combinatorics-and-control",title:"Probability, Combinatorics and Control",fullTitle:"Probability, Combinatorics and Control"},signatures:"Igor Sinitsyn and Anatoly Shalamov",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2584,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]},{id:"65244",title:"Fault Diagnosis Techniques for a Wind Turbine System",slug:"fault-diagnosis-techniques-for-a-wind-turbine-system",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The fault diagnosis and prognosis of wind turbine systems represent a challenging issue, thus justifying the research topics developed in this work with application to safety-critical systems. Therefore, this chapter addresses these research issues and demonstrates viable techniques of fault diagnosis and condition monitoring. To this aim, the design of the so-called fault detector relies on its estimate, which involves data-driven methods, as they result effective methods for managing partial information of the system dynamics, together with errors, model-reality mismatch and disturbance effects. In particular, the considered data-driven strategies use fuzzy systems and neural networks, which are employed to establish non-linear dynamic links between measurements and faults. The selected prototypes are based on non-linear autoregressive with exogenous input descriptions, since they are able to approximate non-linear dynamic functions with arbitrary degree of accuracy. The capabilities of the designed fault diagnosis schemes are verified via a high-fidelity simulator, which describes the normal and the faulty behaviour of a wind turbine plant. Finally, the robustness and the reliability features of the proposed methods are validated in the presence of uncertainty and disturbance implemented in the wind turbine simulator.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Silvio Simani and Paolo Castaldi",authors:[{id:"209626",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvio",middleName:null,surname:"Simani",slug:"silvio-simani",fullName:"Silvio Simani"},{id:"209627",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Castaldi",slug:"paolo-castaldi",fullName:"Paolo Castaldi"}]},{id:"65747",title:"Prognostics 102: Efficient Bayesian-Based Prognostics Algorithm in MATLAB",slug:"prognostics-102-efficient-bayesian-based-prognostics-algorithm-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1304,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"An efficient Bayesian-based algorithm is presented for physics-based prognostics, which combines a physical model with observed health monitoring data. Unknown model parameters are estimated using the observed data, from which the remaining useful life (RUL) of the system is predicted. This paper focuses on the Bayesian method for parameter estimation of a damage degradation model where epistemic uncertainty in model parameters is reduced with the observed data. Markov-chain Monte Carlo sampling is used to generate samples from the posterior distribution, which are then propagated through the physical model to estimate the distribution of the RUL. A MATLAB script of 76 lines is included in this paper with detailed explanations. A battery degradation model and crack growth model are used to explain the process of parameter estimation, the evolution of degradation and RUL prediction. The code presented in this paper can easily be altered for different applications. This code may help beginners to understand and use Bayesian method-based prognostics.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Ting Dong, Dawn An and Nam H. Kim",authors:[{id:"278745",title:"Prof.",name:"Nam-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"nam-ho-kim",fullName:"Nam-Ho Kim"},{id:"285438",title:"Ms.",name:"Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",slug:"ting-dong",fullName:"Ting Dong"},{id:"285439",title:"Dr.",name:"Dawn",middleName:null,surname:"An",slug:"dawn-an",fullName:"Dawn An"}]},{id:"70649",title:"Real-Time Fault Detection and Diagnosis Using Intelligent Monitoring and Supervision Systems",slug:"real-time-fault-detection-and-diagnosis-using-intelligent-monitoring-and-supervision-systems",totalDownloads:1065,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In monitoring and supervision schemes, fault detection and diagnosis characterize high efficiency and quality production systems. To achieve such properties, these structures are based on techniques that allow detection and diagnosis of failures in real time. Detection signals faults and diagnostics provide the root cause and location. Fault detection is based on signal and process mathematical models, while fault diagnosis is focused on systems theory and process modeling. Monitoring and supervision complement each other in fault management, thus enabling normal and continuous operation. Its application avoids stopping productive processes by early detection of failures and by applying real-time actions to eliminate them, such as predictive and proactive maintenance based on process conditions. The integration of all these methodologies enables intelligent monitoring and supervision systems, enabling real-time fault detection and diagnosis. Their high performance is associated with statistical decision-making techniques, expert systems, artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic and computational procedures, making them efficient and fully autonomous in making decisions in the real-time operation of a production system.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Gustavo Pérez Alvarez",authors:[{id:"216192",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:"Pérez",surname:"Alvarez",slug:"gustavo-alvarez",fullName:"Gustavo Alvarez"}]},{id:"69286",title:"Probabilistic Methods for Cognitive Solving of Some Problems in Artificial Intelligence Systems",slug:"probabilistic-methods-for-cognitive-solving-of-some-problems-in-artificial-intelligence-systems",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"As a result of the analysis of dispatcher intelligence centers and aerial, land, underground, underwater, universal, and functionally focused artificial intelligence robotics systems, the problems of rational control, due to be performed under specific conditions of uncertainties, are chosen for probabilistic study. The choice covers the problems of planning the possibilities of functions performance on the base of monitored information about events and conditions and the problem of robot route optimization under limitations on risk of “failure” in conditions of uncertainties. These problems are resolved with a use of the proposed probabilistic approach. The proposed methods are based on selected probabilistic models (for “black box” and complex systems), which are implemented effectively in wide application areas. The cognitive solving of problems consists in improvements, accumulation, analysis, and use of appearing knowledge. The described analytical solutions are demonstrated by practical examples.",book:{id:"8656",slug:"probability-combinatorics-and-control",title:"Probability, Combinatorics and Control",fullTitle:"Probability, Combinatorics and Control"},signatures:"Andrey Kostogryzov and Victor Korolev",authors:[{id:"148322",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Kostogryzov",slug:"andrey-kostogryzov",fullName:"Andrey Kostogryzov"},{id:"298431",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Korolev",slug:"victor-korolev",fullName:"Victor Korolev"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"968",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:230,paginationItems:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. 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The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"345713",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Szabó",slug:"csaba-szabo",fullName:"Csaba Szabó",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345719",title:"Mrs.",name:"Márta",middleName:null,surname:"Horváth",slug:"marta-horvath",fullName:"Márta Horváth",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"420151",title:"Prof.",name:"Novirman",middleName:null,surname:"Jamarun",slug:"novirman-jamarun",fullName:"Novirman Jamarun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"420149",title:"Dr.",name:"Rusmana",middleName:"Wijaya Setia",surname:"Wijaya Setia Ningrat",slug:"rusmana-wijaya-setia-ningrat",fullName:"Rusmana Wijaya Setia Ningrat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"339759",title:"Mr.",name:"Abu",middleName:null,surname:"Macavoray",slug:"abu-macavoray",fullName:"Abu Macavoray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Njala University",country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}},{id:"339758",title:"Prof.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Emikpe",slug:"benjamin-emikpe",fullName:"Benjamin Emikpe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ibadan",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"339760",title:"Mr.",name:"Moinina Nelphson",middleName:null,surname:"Kallon",slug:"moinina-nelphson-kallon",fullName:"Moinina Nelphson Kallon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Njala University",country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9528",title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9528.jpg",slug:"current-topics-and-emerging-issues-in-malaria-elimination",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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