\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5811",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents new insights into the development of different aspects of petroleum science and engineering. The book contains 19 chapters divided into two main sections: (i) Exploration and Production and (ii) Environmental Solutions. There are 11 chapters in the first section, and the focus is on the topics related to exploration and production of oil and gas, such as characterization of petroleum source rocks, drilling technology, characterization of reservoir fluids, and enhanced oil recovery. In the second section, the special emphasis is on waste technologies and environmental cleanup in the downstream sector. The book written by numerous prominent scholars clearly shows the necessity of the multidisciplinary approach to sustainable development in the petroleum industry and stresses the most updated topics such as EOR and environmental cleanup of fossil fuel wastes.",isbn:"978-953-51-3810-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3809-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3981-2",doi:"10.5772/65538",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",numberOfPages:440,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"33b7777178f4a179ba475e3e15405427",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",publishedDate:"February 7th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5811.jpg",numberOfDownloads:44324,numberOfWosCitations:71,numberOfCrossrefCitations:83,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:148,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:302,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 15th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 15th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92105/images/system/92105.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor has over 24 years of experience, built upon his technical, operational, and management roles in the industry and academia. Mansoor holds a BSc degree in Geology, MSc, and Ph.D. degrees both in Petroleum Engineering. He was involved in different disciplines such as project management, geology, flow assurance, piping construction, artificial intelligence, environmental engineering, drilling and production engineering, He has lectured several courses at the University Technology Malaysia (UTM), Petroleum University of Technology (PUT), and Islamic Azad University (IAU). He is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and registered as a Chartered Petroleum Engineer at Energy Institute, and EIA subject specialist at DOE Malaysia. He has published more than 50 publications on International peer-reviewed Journals and conferences, has contributed to 5 textbooks, and served in many scientific committees. Currently, he is working as an Associate Professor at UTM and involved in several consultancies in petroleum engineering and energy transition. Mansoor is actively involved in multidisciplinary studies and currently, his main focus is on Energy Transition.",institutionString:"PETRONAS",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"768",title:"Petroleum Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-petroleum-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"56887",title:"Petroleum Source Rocks Characterization and Hydrocarbon Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70092",slug:"petroleum-source-rocks-characterization-and-hydrocarbon-generation",totalDownloads:7867,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is proposed to give the principal learning on the application of the formation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation to exploration activities. The evaluation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation is a very important skill for explorationists to define the location and type of petroleum prospects in a region. In this chapter, subsurface samples from case study (Sayun-Masilah basin) were used to determine the source rock characteristics and petroleum generative potentials of prospective source rocks. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the source rock in this basin was done by means of geochemical and geophysical approaches for four rock units. It is clear that Madbi Formation is considered the main source, in which the organic carbon content reached up to more than 5.2 wt%. The types of organic matter from rock-eval pyrolysis data indicated that type I kerogen is the main type, in association with type II, and a mixture of types II and III kerogens. The study of the different maturation parameters obtained from rock-eval pyrolysis, such as Tmax and vitrinite reflectance, reflects that the considered rock units are occurred in different maturation stages, ranging from immature to mature sources. One-dimensional basin modeling was performed to analyze the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion history of the source rocks in the study area based on the reconstruction of the burial and thermal maturity histories in order to improve our understanding of the hydrocarbon generation potential. Calibration of the model with measured vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) and borehole temperature (BHT) data indicates that the paleo-heat flow was high at Late Jurassic. The models also indicate that the early hydrocarbon generation in the Madbi source rock occurred during late Cretaceous and the main hydrocarbon generation has been reached approximately at Early Eocene. Therefore, the Madbi source rock can be considered as generative potentials of prospective source rock horizons in the Sayun-Masilah basin.",signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56887",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56887",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",surname:"Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq"}],corrections:null},{id:"56676",title:"Petroleum Extraction Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70360",slug:"petroleum-extraction-engineering",totalDownloads:1826,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the information about rotary drilling rig components, their purpose and principles of operation is presented through the in-depth analysis of hoisting, rotating and circulating equipment. Detailed classification of drilling fluids and its content is followed by the thorough investigation of the phenomenon of drilling fluid losses. The effects of drilling mud additives and loss circulation materials on rheology and the rate of penetration of drilling mud are supported by the studies of comparing the rate of penetration of drilling mud with various loss circulation materials. Finally, the fluid capability to form filter cake on the borehole walls is presented through the physical simulation of flow.",signatures:"Tatjana Paulauskiene",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56676",authors:[{id:"173567",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Paulauskiene",slug:"tatjana-paulauskiene",fullName:"Tatjana Paulauskiene"}],corrections:null},{id:"57399",title:"Optimal Planning for Deepwater Oilfield Development Under Uncertainties of Crude Oil Price and Reservoir",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71078",slug:"optimal-planning-for-deepwater-oilfield-development-under-uncertainties-of-crude-oil-price-and-reser",totalDownloads:1312,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development planning of deepwater oilfield directly influences production costs and benefits. However, the uncertainties of crude oil price and reservoir and the special production requirements make it difficult to optimize development planning of deepwater oilfield. Although there have been a number of scholars researching on this issue, previous models just focused on several special working conditions and few have considered energy supply of floating production storage and offloading (FPSO). In light of the normal deepwater production development cycles, in this paper, a multiscenario mixed integer linear programming (MS-MILP) method is proposed based on reservoir numerical simulation, considering the uncertainties of reservoir and crude oil price and the constraint of energy consumption of FPSO, to obtain the globally optimal development planning of deepwater oilfield. Finally, a real example is taken as the study objective. Compared with previous researches, the method proposed in this paper is testified to be practical and reliable.",signatures:"Zhang Haoran, Liang Yongtu, Ma Jing, Di Pengwei, Yan Xiaohan\nand Huang Zhongliang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57399",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57399",authors:[{id:"219463",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoran",surname:"Zhang",slug:"haoran-zhang",fullName:"Haoran Zhang"},{id:"221017",title:"Prof.",name:"Yongtu",surname:"Liang",slug:"yongtu-liang",fullName:"Yongtu Liang"},{id:"221018",title:"Mr.",name:"Jing",surname:"Ma",slug:"jing-ma",fullName:"Jing Ma"},{id:"221019",title:"Mr.",name:"Pengwei",surname:"Di",slug:"pengwei-di",fullName:"Pengwei Di"},{id:"221020",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaohan",surname:"Yan",slug:"xiaohan-yan",fullName:"Xiaohan Yan"},{id:"221021",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhongliang",surname:"Huang",slug:"zhongliang-huang",fullName:"Zhongliang Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"56472",title:"Drilling Fluids for Deepwater Fields: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70093",slug:"drilling-fluids-for-deepwater-fields-an-overview",totalDownloads:2688,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increasing oil demand around the world along with the depletion of onshore and shallow water oil reserves have forced the oil companies moving into the development of deepwater subsea hydrocarbon reservoirs. Drilling fluids play a key role in all drilling operations, but they get a greater relevance in deepwater environments where the technological challenges of drilling at these extreme conditions generate significant operational risks as well as very high costs during the development of this kind of fields. The operational issues and concerns related to the drilling fluid design and application for deepwater fields are generally well known: narrow pore/fracture pressure gradient margins, wellbore stability, clay swelling, gas hydrates formation, formation damage, salt formations, lost circulation, stuck pipe, cuttings transport and environmental and safety aspects. Therefore, the present chapter aims to give an overview on the main challenges and research related to drilling fluid design and application for deepwater fields through the revision of the state of the art of the current and innovative technological solutions reported in literature.",signatures:"Luis Alberto Alcázar-Vara and Ignacio Ramón Cortés-Monroy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56472",authors:[{id:"149837",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis A.",surname:"Alcazar-Vara",slug:"luis-a.-alcazar-vara",fullName:"Luis A. Alcazar-Vara"},{id:"202407",title:"MSc.",name:"Ignacio R.",surname:"Cortés-Monroy",slug:"ignacio-r.-cortes-monroy",fullName:"Ignacio R. Cortés-Monroy"}],corrections:null},{id:"57663",title:"Evaluation of Different Correlation Performance for the Calculation of the Critical Properties and Acentric Factor of Petroleum Heavy Fractions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71166",slug:"evaluation-of-different-correlation-performance-for-the-calculation-of-the-critical-properties-and-a",totalDownloads:1201,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The characterization of petroleum fluids is fundamental for the calculation of their thermodynamic properties. Laboratory experiments are able to identify a limited number of pure components present in a sample. All remaining species, the so called “cut”, are characterized by its molecular weight and density. The thermodynamic calculations performed using cubic equations of state require the critical properties and the acentric factor, which are unknown for the petroleum “cut.” In this chapter, different correlations are used to calculate the critical properties and the acentric factor of the “cut” fraction. The performance of the correlations is evaluated through the comparison of a simulated pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) experiment using an equation of state and experimental data of two reservoir fluids.",signatures:"Dacid B. Lacerda, Rafael B. Scardini, André P. C. M. Vinhal, Adolfo P.\nPires and Viatcheslav I. Priimenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57663",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57663",authors:[{id:"151079",title:"Dr.",name:"Viatcheslav",surname:"Priimenko",slug:"viatcheslav-priimenko",fullName:"Viatcheslav Priimenko"},{id:"219709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Pires",slug:"adolfo-pires",fullName:"Adolfo Pires"},{id:"221927",title:"BSc.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Scardini",slug:"rafael-scardini",fullName:"Rafael Scardini"},{id:"221928",title:"BSc.",name:"David",surname:"Lacerda",slug:"david-lacerda",fullName:"David Lacerda"},{id:"221929",title:"MSc.",name:"Andre",surname:"Vinhal",slug:"andre-vinhal",fullName:"Andre Vinhal"}],corrections:null},{id:"56405",title:"Characterization of Crude Oils and the Precipitated Asphaltenes Fraction using UV Spectroscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering and Microscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70108",slug:"characterization-of-crude-oils-and-the-precipitated-asphaltenes-fraction-using-uv-spectroscopy-dynam",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Analysis of crude oil composition provides important information that impacts on the recovery, handling, and transportation of hydrocarbons. Crude characterization also provides data in the analysis of geochemistry of the source of origin. Crude oil characterization by optical methods is usually difficult because of its dark color; however, those characterizations are crucial because they give information that can affect some analysis procedures. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy is a simple and practical technique that allows the characterization of crude oil through dilution in solvents. A comparative study of crude oil solutions contrasted with their asphaltene fractions was performed. Each solution was analyzed in triplicate, on a UV-vis spectrophotometer. Calibration curves for both raw solutions showed no significant variations, indicating stability. Additionally, the results of dispersion and migration phenomena indicated stability only for crude oil solutions. The aggregate size dispersion was different for each type of crude and varied with respect to time. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the type of morphology present for each type of asphaltene.",signatures:"Ernestina Elizabeth Banda Cruz, Nohra Violeta Gallardo Rivas, Ulises\nPáramo García, Ana Maria Mendoza Martinez and José Aarón Melo\nBanda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56405",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56405",authors:[{id:"174756",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernestina Elizabeth",surname:"Banda Cruz",slug:"ernestina-elizabeth-banda-cruz",fullName:"Ernestina Elizabeth Banda Cruz"},{id:"175028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana María",surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez",fullName:"Ana María Mendoza-Martínez"},{id:"186469",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",surname:"Paramo-Garcia",slug:"ulises-paramo-garcia",fullName:"Ulises Paramo-Garcia"},{id:"198863",title:"Dr.",name:"Nohra",surname:"Gallardo Rivas",slug:"nohra-gallardo-rivas",fullName:"Nohra Gallardo Rivas"},{id:"198864",title:"Dr.",name:"José Aarón",surname:"Melo Banda",slug:"jose-aaron-melo-banda",fullName:"José Aarón Melo Banda"}],corrections:null},{id:"57744",title:"Density Anomalies in Crude Oil Blends Reflect Multiple Equilibrium States of Asphaltene Colloidal Aggregates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71813",slug:"density-anomalies-in-crude-oil-blends-reflect-multiple-equilibrium-states-of-asphaltene-colloidal-ag",totalDownloads:1247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Density measurements revealed anomalies of nonideality (maxima of excess density) at some compositions in binary blends of light and heavy crude oils from diverse origins. By IR absorption measurements, density anomalies were attributed to increased contents of suspended asphaltene colloidal-sized particles/aggregates in the blends. By comparison with a database of world’s native crude oils, it was concluded that density anomalies may correspond to different equilibrium structural states of asphaltene colloids that occur at several specific asphaltene contents, apparently common for petroleum media of any origin.",signatures:"Igor N. Evdokimov, Aleksey A. Fesan and Aleksandr P. Losev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57744",authors:[{id:"219813",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Evdokimov",slug:"igor-evdokimov",fullName:"Igor Evdokimov"},{id:"219814",title:"MSc.",name:"Aleksey",surname:"Fesan",slug:"aleksey-fesan",fullName:"Aleksey Fesan"},{id:"219815",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandr",surname:"Losev",slug:"aleksandr-losev",fullName:"Aleksandr Losev"}],corrections:null},{id:"58435",title:"A Realistic Look at Nanostructured Material as an Innovative Approach for Enhanced Oil Recovery Process Upgrading",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72672",slug:"a-realistic-look-at-nanostructured-material-as-an-innovative-approach-for-enhanced-oil-recovery-proc",totalDownloads:1547,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the continuous rise in energy demand and decline in reserves, the Petroleum Industries are constantly in search of inventive and novel approaches to optimize hydrocarbon recovery despite several decades of deployment of conventional and enhanced strategies. This chapter presents an in-depth analysis of nanomaterial (nanoparticles), their unique characteristics and potentials in relation to smart field development, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and CO2 geosequestration. The particles surface functionalities, unique size dependent property, adsorption, and transport behavior were scrutinized. The materials precise role in enhancing reservoir parameters that influences rock–fluid interactions, and reservoir fluid distribution and displacement such as permeability, wettability, interfacial tension, and asphaltene aggregate growth inhibition were evaluated. The study argues that the application of nanoparticle based fluids as novel EOR approach offers more holistic measures, potentials, and opportunities than micro and macro particles and can stimulate the continuous evolution of EOR processes even under harsh reservoir conditions, thus, offering better benefits over conventional surface-active agents. We believe this study will significantly impact the understanding of EOR with respect to nanoparticles, which is crucial for augmenting reservoir processes and to accelerate the realization of nanoparticles for EOR and CO2 sequestration processes at industrial scale.",signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Ahmed Barifcani, Maxim Lebedev,\nMohammad Sarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58435",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58435",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"},{id:"179077",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Barifcani",slug:"ahmed-barifcani",fullName:"Ahmed Barifcani"},{id:"189371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Sarmadivaleh",slug:"mohammad-sarmadivaleh",fullName:"Mohammad Sarmadivaleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"57782",title:"Lessons Learned from Our Recent Research in Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (C-EOR) Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71816",slug:"lessons-learned-from-our-recent-research-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-c-eor-methods",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As a result of the ever-increasing global energy demand coupled with the rapid decline of the oil production, the games of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) are played in many oilfields worldwide especially in China. It was reported that EOR jobs produced 45.1 × 104 m3/d of oil production rate in 2014 all over the world, proving the significance of these jobs. Due to the complex geology, chemical enhanced oil recovery (C-EOR) methods are considered the predominant technology in China and takes nearly 86% of the total EOR projects currently. This fact motivates us to develop novel and more advanced C-EOR methods for different geological types of Chinese reservoirs such as high temperature and pressure, ultralow permeability, heavy oil reservoirs, etc. Through 20 years’ efforts, many advantageous C-EOR methods have been successfully developed in our group and tested in oilfields such as stabilized foam injection, nanofluid flooding, functional polymer flooding, etc. Herein, this chapter summarized the latest experimental results of three representative C-EOR methods. More attentions were given to the relationship between bulk properties and flow behaviors in porous media. The lessons learned from our research in C-EOR were also discussed in this chapter.",signatures:"Bing Wei, Peng Wei, Shuai Zhao and Wanfen Pu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57782",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57782",authors:[{id:"218419",title:"Dr.",name:"Bing",surname:"Wei",slug:"bing-wei",fullName:"Bing Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"57310",title:"Numerical Study of Low Salinity Water Flooding in Naturally Fractured Oil Reservoirs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71299",slug:"numerical-study-of-low-salinity-water-flooding-in-naturally-fractured-oil-reservoirs",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the increase of the activities in the oil industries, higher interest has been given to enhance the recover the trapped oil and produce more oil from the matured reservoirs. Worldwide, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is implemented in most reservoirs to recover additional amounts of oil that are not recovered during secondary recovery by water flood or gas injection. Recently, a numerous techniques such as thermal, miscible, immiscible and chemical has proposed to enhanced oil recovery and to increase the producible oil from oil reservoirs. The suitability and the success of a specific EOR process are highly sensitive to reservoir and fluid characteristics, recovery efficiency, availability of injected fluids, and costs. One of the common techniques which have been proposed recently is low salinity water flooding where the sea water with a controlled salinity and salt content is used to alter the rock wettability or enhance the fine migration and resulted in higher oil production. This study aims to investigate the possibility of using low salinity water flooding in naturally fractured reservoirs. The wettability changes are taking into account in terms of oil/water relative, saturation and capillary pressure as these parameters play a key role during the simulation of brine injection. The results show that the oil recovery significantly increases specially for water wet reservoirs as the reason behind is the decreasing water production after the breakthrough of the low saline brines.",signatures:"Reda Abdel Azim, Sara Faiz, Shaik Rahman, Ahmed Elbagir and\nNour Al Obaidi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57310",authors:[{id:"218418",title:"Dr.",name:"Reda",surname:"Abdelazim",slug:"reda-abdelazim",fullName:"Reda Abdelazim"},{id:"219791",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Faiz",slug:"sara-faiz",fullName:"Sara Faiz"},{id:"219792",title:"MSc.",name:"Nour",surname:"Al Obaidi",slug:"nour-al-obaidi",fullName:"Nour Al Obaidi"},{id:"219793",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Al Bagir",slug:"ahmed-al-bagir",fullName:"Ahmed Al Bagir"}],corrections:null},{id:"58515",title:"Experimental Study of the Effect of Composite Solvent and Asphaltenes Contents on Efficiency of Heavy Oil Recovery Processes at Injection of Light Hydrocarbons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72673",slug:"experimental-study-of-the-effect-of-composite-solvent-and-asphaltenes-contents-on-efficiency-of-heav",totalDownloads:1267,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The current state of research in the field of solvent injection techniques for increase of heavy oil production efficiency is discussed in the chapter. As a result of a series of experiments on the physical modeling of oil displacement processes in a porous medium in large-sized model, features of asphaltene precipitation and the formation of fixed residual oil upon injection of solvent based on light alkanes are revealed. The oil displacement by n-hexane was studied and the difference in the composition of residual oil in the zones of dispersion and diffusion has been shown. The influence of the composition of asphaltenes peculiarities on the dynamics of oil recovery and on the accumulated oil recovery during the injection of n-hexane, as well as the composition and quantity of asphaltenes precipitated in the porous medium, has been estimated. The effect of toluene and nonylphenol additives on the proportion of asphaltenes in the residual oil and cumulative oil recovery has been evaluated using the Ashalchinskoye field oil as an example of heavy oil in the physical modeling of injection of n-hexane as the base solvent.",signatures:"Dmitry N. Borisov, Dmitry V. Milordov, Svetlana G. Yakubova and\nMakhmut R. Yakubov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58515",authors:[{id:"199911",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Milordov",slug:"dmitry-milordov",fullName:"Dmitry Milordov"},{id:"199912",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Yakubova",slug:"svetlana-yakubova",fullName:"Svetlana Yakubova"},{id:"220871",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Borisov",slug:"dmitry-borisov",fullName:"Dmitry Borisov"},{id:"225467",title:"Dr.",name:"Makhmut",surname:"Yakubov",slug:"makhmut-yakubov",fullName:"Makhmut Yakubov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57857",title:"Total Acid Number Reduction of Naphthenic Acids Using Supercritical Fluid and Ionic Liquids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71812",slug:"total-acid-number-reduction-of-naphthenic-acids-using-supercritical-fluid-and-ionic-liquids",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Naphthenic acids (NAs) are complex mixture of predominately alkyl-substituted cycloaliphatic carboxylic acids and small amount of acyclic acids present in crude oil, heavy oil and in oil sands bitumen. They are toxic components in refinery wastewater and in oil sand extraction water and lead to corrosion problems within the oil refineries. Therefore, the amount of NAs needs to suppress in petroleum oils and wastewater came from petroleum industry. This paper reviews the supercritical fluids (SCFs)- and ionic liquids (ILs)-based acidity reduction process from heavy oils by reviewing open literature. The potential benefits of SCFs- and ILs-based acidity reduction process of heavy oils are also explored. The reviewed articles reveal that total acid number (TAN) removal increase with increasing reaction time and temperature by the action of SCF. Supercritical methanol (SC-MeOH) has higher potentiality for removing acidity of NAs than supercritical water (SCW) without deposition of coke. TAN removal from NAs using SCF follows first order kinetics on TAN removal. ILs can reduce acidity of heavy oil either forming zwitterionic species or building cage structure around NAs through specific chemical bonds. Thus, non-catalytic SCF- and ILs-based TAN reduction process can open a new window to reduce acidity of heavy oils.",signatures:"Pradip Chandra Mandal and Mitsuru Sasaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57857",authors:[{id:"220293",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradip",surname:"Mandal",slug:"pradip-mandal",fullName:"Pradip Mandal"},{id:"220294",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuru",surname:"Sasaki",slug:"mitsuru-sasaki",fullName:"Mitsuru Sasaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"56361",title:"Conducting Polymers Films Deposited on Carbon Steel and Their Interaction with Crude Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70091",slug:"conducting-polymers-films-deposited-on-carbon-steel-and-their-interaction-with-crude-oil",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The formation of scale/solids deposits inside the pipelines is a frequent problem in the petrochemical industry. These scales can be organic as the asphaltenes and inorganic as the accumulations of salts, which apart from blocking the inside of the pipes can also cause a change in the integrity of the steel. Therefore, it is necessary to avoid the conditions where deposition occurs, together with chemical and mechanical methods of remediation to mitigate the deposition. In this work we intend to use conductive polymers in order to inhibit the deposition of asphaltenes on carbon steel surfaces, by using polypyrrole (PPy) as material capable of conducting electrical current. The electrodeposition of PPy on carbon steel were performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and chronoamperometry (CA). The results showed that under certain experimental conditions it is possible to make a PPy film with adequate characteristics. Important factors were the grip and electrochemical stability of the formed film on steel, which depends on the electrosynthesis technique and in some cases favoured by a pre-treatment with a 10% HNO3 solution applied to the steel prior to electropolymerization. The PPy films deposited with pre-treatment completely covered the steel surface and showed better stability, adherence and generated a hydrophobic material.",signatures:"Oscar E. Vázquez‐Noriega, Javier Guzmán, Nohra V. Gallardo‐Rivas,\nReinaldo David Martínez Orozco, Ana M. Mendoza‐Martínez, María\nYolanda Chávez Cinco, Luciano Aguilera Vázquez and Ulises\nPáramo‐García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56361",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56361",authors:[{id:"175028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana María",surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez",fullName:"Ana María Mendoza-Martínez"},{id:"186469",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",surname:"Paramo-Garcia",slug:"ulises-paramo-garcia",fullName:"Ulises Paramo-Garcia"},{id:"198863",title:"Dr.",name:"Nohra",surname:"Gallardo Rivas",slug:"nohra-gallardo-rivas",fullName:"Nohra Gallardo Rivas"},{id:"186467",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria Yolanda",surname:"Chavez-Cinco",slug:"maria-yolanda-chavez-cinco",fullName:"Maria Yolanda Chavez-Cinco"},{id:"198866",title:"MSc.",name:"Oscar E.",surname:"Vázquez-Noriega",slug:"oscar-e.-vazquez-noriega",fullName:"Oscar E. Vázquez-Noriega"},{id:"198868",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Guzmán-Pantoja",slug:"javier-guzman-pantoja",fullName:"Javier Guzmán-Pantoja"},{id:"205433",title:"Dr.",name:"Reinaldo David",surname:"Martínez-Orozco",slug:"reinaldo-david-martinez-orozco",fullName:"Reinaldo David Martínez-Orozco"},{id:"205434",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",surname:"Aguilera-Vázquez",slug:"luciano-aguilera-vazquez",fullName:"Luciano Aguilera-Vázquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56966",title:"Desulfurization of Dibenzothiophene by Pseudomonas fluorescens (UCP 1514) Leading to the Production of Biphenyl",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70430",slug:"desulfurization-of-dibenzothiophene-by-pseudomonas-fluorescens-ucp-1514-leading-to-the-production-of",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dibenzothiophene (DBT) is a typical recalcitrant thiophenic sulfur component of fuels, and its desulphurization has been a model reaction in the treatment of these compounds. Based on this information, the potential of Pseudomonas fluorescens (UCP 1514) on the desulfurization of dibenzothiphene was studied, in order to use it for reducing the sulfur content of diesel oil in compliance with environmental regulations. The result of biodegradation by the bacteria was determined by undertaking high-performance liquid chromatography of the metabolites produced. These can also be identified by gas chromatography with a mass spectrometry detector, and doing so revealed a sulfur-free product, biphenyl, as the final product of the degradation process. The results showed a decrease of 73% in dibenzothiophene content, which means that P. fluorescens removes sulfur from dibenzothiophene with a good selectivity to form biphenyl. These promising results indicate that P. fluorescens has an interesting potential to degrade sulfur-containing compounds in diesel oil and thereby could help in removing sulfur content from diesel oil. The process of microbial desulfurization described herein can be used particularly after carrying out hydrodesulfurization. Consequently, the sulfur content could be reduced even further. Applying P. fluorescens UCP 1514 in dibenzothiophene could help to understand the nature of the biodegradation process and to achieve the regulatory standards for sulfur level in fossil fuels.",signatures:"Thayse A.L. Silva, Manfred Schwartz, Patrícia M. Souza, Ian Garrard,\nGalba M. Campos-Takaki and Elias B. Tambourgi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56966",authors:[{id:"148881",title:"Dr.",name:"Galba Maria",surname:"Campos-Takaki",slug:"galba-maria-campos-takaki",fullName:"Galba Maria Campos-Takaki"},{id:"197341",title:"Dr.",name:"Ian",surname:"Garrard",slug:"ian-garrard",fullName:"Ian Garrard"},{id:"197344",title:"Dr.",name:"Elias B",surname:"Tambourgi",slug:"elias-b-tambourgi",fullName:"Elias B Tambourgi"},{id:"197345",title:"Dr.",name:"Thayse Alves De Lima E",surname:"Silva",slug:"thayse-alves-de-lima-e-silva",fullName:"Thayse Alves De Lima E Silva"},{id:"197346",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia Mendes",surname:"Souza",slug:"patricia-mendes-souza",fullName:"Patricia Mendes Souza"},{id:"197347",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",surname:"Schwartz",slug:"manfred-schwartz",fullName:"Manfred Schwartz"}],corrections:null},{id:"56921",title:"Reduction in the Sulfur Content of Fossil Fuels by Cunninghamella elegans (UCP 0596) to Dibenzothiophene Compound",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70432",slug:"reduction-in-the-sulfur-content-of-fossil-fuels-by-cunninghamella-elegans-ucp-0596-to-dibenzothiophe",totalDownloads:1339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biodesulfurization (BDS) is one of the most promising technologies used together with traditional hydrodesulfurization (HDS) to reduce the sulfur content of fossil fuels. In this research study, a strain of Cunninghamella elegans (UCP 596) was isolated from mangrove sediments to metabolize an organosulfur dibenzothiophene (DBT) compound in the concentrations of 0.5 and 1 mM and transform to DBT sulfone (DBT-5-dioxide), followed by dibenzothiophene 5,5-dioxide and 2-hydroxybiphenyl metabolites, thus suggesting the use of the “4S” metabolic pathway. The fungus also degraded the DBT completely in the first 24 h of growth on a 2.0 mM DBT concentration by angular deoxygenation, which suggests that a new second metabolic pathway was used. The DBT was consumed as the carbon source, and the sulfur was removed in the form of sulfite ion. A new product, benzoic acid, was formed at the end of the catabolism of DBT by C. elegans using an angular route.",signatures:"Patrícia Mendes de Souza, Thayse Alves de Lima e Silva, Marcos\nAntonio Barbosa Lima, Luciana de Oliveira Franco, Manfred\nSchwartz, Paulo Henrique da Silva, Lúcia Roberta Barbosa, Aline\nElesbão do Nascimento, Kaoru Okada and Galba Maria de Campos-\nTakaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56921",authors:[{id:"148881",title:"Dr.",name:"Galba Maria",surname:"Campos-Takaki",slug:"galba-maria-campos-takaki",fullName:"Galba Maria Campos-Takaki"},{id:"197345",title:"Dr.",name:"Thayse Alves De Lima E",surname:"Silva",slug:"thayse-alves-de-lima-e-silva",fullName:"Thayse Alves De Lima E Silva"},{id:"197346",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia Mendes",surname:"Souza",slug:"patricia-mendes-souza",fullName:"Patricia Mendes Souza"},{id:"197334",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Antonio Babosa",surname:"Lima",slug:"marcos-antonio-babosa-lima",fullName:"Marcos Antonio Babosa Lima"},{id:"197335",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana De Oliveira",surname:"Franco",slug:"luciana-de-oliveira-franco",fullName:"Luciana De Oliveira Franco"},{id:"197336",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",surname:"Schwartz",slug:"manfred-schwartz",fullName:"Manfred Schwartz"},{id:"197337",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaoru",surname:"Okada",slug:"kaoru-okada",fullName:"Kaoru Okada"},{id:"197339",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline Elesbão Do",surname:"Nascimento",slug:"aline-elesbao-do-nascimento",fullName:"Aline Elesbão Do Nascimento"},{id:"197340",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",surname:"Alves Da Silva",slug:"carlos-alberto-alves-da-silva",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Alves Da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"58250",title:"Microbial Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon– Contaminated Marine Environments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72207",slug:"microbial-bioremediation-of-petroleum-hydrocarbon-contaminated-marine-environments",totalDownloads:5102,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:38,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Petroleum pollution has become a serious environmental problem, which can cause harmful damage to the environment and human health. This pollutant is introduced into the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Various physicochemical and biological treatments were developed for the cleanup of contaminated environments. However, bioremediation is based on the metabolic capabilities of microorganisms, and it is considered as the most basic and reliable way to eliminate contaminants, particularly petroleum and its recalcitrant compounds. It is more effective alternative comparing to classical remediation techniques. A high diversity of potential hydrocarbon degrader’s microorganisms was reported, and bacteria constitute the most abundant group, which has been well studied for hydrocarbon degradation. Several bioremediation approaches through bioaugmentation or/and biostimulation have been successfully applied. The interest on the optimizing of different parameters to achieve successful bioremediation technologies has been increased. In this chapter, we summarize the diversity and the hydrocarbon degradation potential of microorganism involved in the remediation of contaminated environments. We also present an overview of the efficient bioremediation strategies used for the decontamination of polluted marine environments.",signatures:"Mouna Mahjoubi, Simone Cappello, Yasmine Souissi, Atef Jaouani\nand Ameur Cherif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58250",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58250",authors:[{id:"107040",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",surname:"Cappello",slug:"simone-cappello",fullName:"Simone Cappello"},{id:"219462",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouna",surname:"Mahjoubi",slug:"mouna-mahjoubi",fullName:"Mouna Mahjoubi"},{id:"223935",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasmine",surname:"Souissi",slug:"yasmine-souissi",fullName:"Yasmine Souissi"},{id:"223936",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameur",surname:"Cherif",slug:"ameur-cherif",fullName:"Ameur Cherif"}],corrections:null},{id:"56439",title:"Petroleum Degradation: Promising Biotechnological Tools for Bioremediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70109",slug:"petroleum-degradation-promising-biotechnological-tools-for-bioremediation",totalDownloads:2243,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of the most common chemicals involved in the soil contamination or soil pollution is petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs). As we know that PH-contaminated soil affects human health directly, such as (i) contact with soil, (ii) via inhalation of vaporized contaminants, and (iii) infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption. Microbiological processes play an important role in the removal of PHs and take advantage of the catabolic versatility of these organisms to degrade such compounds either partially or completely (mineralization). Thus, the present chapter moves around the relationship of microorganisms with PHs. Based on this concept, this chapter has been designed to address the following relevant issues: How to isolate PH-degrading microorganisms by co-enrichment and optimized enrichment methods? How to study the microbial community structure by high-throughput sequencing method? What are the metabolic versatilities of microorganisms for degrading PHs? How to treat the environmental problems through biological means? What are the available ecotoxicity studies for the analysis of residual PHs after the microbiological treatment at the PHs-contaminated sites? Thus, the aim of this chapter is to explain the importance of microorganisms in cleaning the oil-contaminated environments.",signatures:"Maddela Naga Raju and Laura Scalvenzi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56439",authors:[{id:"182387",title:"Dr.",name:"Naga Raju",surname:"Maddela",slug:"naga-raju-maddela",fullName:"Naga Raju Maddela"},{id:"198840",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",surname:"Scalvenzi",slug:"laura-scalvenzi",fullName:"Laura Scalvenzi"}],corrections:null},{id:"58096",title:"Organic Contaminants in Refinery Wastewater: Characterization and Novel Approaches for Biotreatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72206",slug:"organic-contaminants-in-refinery-wastewater-characterization-and-novel-approaches-for-biotreatment",totalDownloads:1802,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Addressing major environmental issues, such as water pollution, is essential nowadays in realizing sustainable development. The ever-increasing world population and industrial development have led to the introduction of different types of chemicals to the environment, leading to considerable deterioration in environmental quality. A major class of these chemicals is phenolic compounds, which are hazardous pollutants and highly toxic even at low concentrations. In recent years, researchers have realized the importance of extracting new bacterial strains that are effective in treating different types of highly contaminated wastewaters at different severe conditions. They also focused considerable amount of research on developing new types of reactors that would provide efficient mixing and reduce mass transfer limitations. The aim is to develop and evaluate effective reactor systems and biocatalysts for the biodegradation of major contaminants in petroleum refinery wastewater. This chapter examines the different available options for the treatment of refinery wastewater with more focus on novel biotreatment options.",signatures:"Taghreed Al-Khalid and Muftah H. El-Naas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58096",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58096",authors:[{id:"219926",title:"Prof.",name:"Muftah",surname:"El-Naas",slug:"muftah-el-naas",fullName:"Muftah El-Naas"},{id:"222785",title:"Dr.",name:"Taghreed",surname:"Al-Khalid",slug:"taghreed-al-khalid",fullName:"Taghreed Al-Khalid"}],corrections:null},{id:"57237",title:"Analytical Methods for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Global Trend of Distribution in Water and Sediment: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71163",slug:"analytical-methods-for-polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-and-their-global-trend-of-distribution-in-wa",totalDownloads:4421,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:34,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are major organic pollutants in the environment, which are toxic to humans and biota, given their carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic nature. In this chapter, we carried out an overview of the sources and toxicity of PAHs, their common analytical methods of determination in the water and sediment samples, and also their global trend of distribution, with a view to provide baseline guidance for relevant control authorities. The choice methods for determining these contaminants are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV/fluorescence detectors and GC/MS. Mass spectrometer coupled with GC is preferred because it offers robust identification of the analyte compounds both by retention time and mass spectrum, with additional structural information. Results collated revealed an extensive distribution of PAHs with total mean concentrations ranging from 0.0003 to 42,350 μg/L in water and 0 to 1.266 × 109 μg/kg (dw) in the sediment. PAHs in the two environmental matrices were much higher in the regions with intense oil exploration, shipping and industrial activities. It is therefore necessary to regularly monitor their levels in the aquatic environment, so as to provide mitigation options that will prevent risk to humans and aquatic animals.",signatures:"Abiodun Olagoke Adeniji, Omobola Oluranti Okoh and Anthony\nIfeanyi Okoh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57237",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57237",authors:[{id:"219919",title:"Dr.",name:"Abiodun",surname:"Adeniji",slug:"abiodun-adeniji",fullName:"Abiodun Adeniji"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"219921",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Okoh",slug:"anthony-okoh",fullName:"Anthony Okoh"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6561",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e80257a8be3236c4d1ae37c21b7d2671",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6829",title:"Petroleum Chemicals",subtitle:"Recent Insight",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"058919afbb548d3448e70238b4637e84",slug:"petroleum-chemicals-recent-insight",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6829.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4751",title:"Storage Stability of Fuels",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc73beb5dc74410e15c8ee19ee4de722",slug:"storage-stability-of-fuels",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"7609",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",subtitle:"New Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62359d9c21b76f899be04fa0f8b46668",slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",bookSignature:"Ariffin Samsuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7609.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"120519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ariffin",surname:"Samsuri",slug:"ariffin-samsuri",fullName:"Ariffin Samsuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6466",title:"Shale Gas",subtitle:"New Aspects and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02763c6398f049c222acf6a774dd38ee",slug:"shale-gas-new-aspects-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Ali Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6466.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7314",title:"Exploitation of Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources",subtitle:"Hydraulic Fracturing and Other Recovery and Assessment Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2eba15587cac74206f978e72a0cef2f9",slug:"exploitation-of-unconventional-oil-and-gas-resources-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-recovery-and-assessment-techniques",bookSignature:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Eshiet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195037",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Israel",surname:"Eshiet",slug:"kenneth-imo-imo-israel-eshiet",fullName:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Israel Eshiet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and 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\r\n\tGeostatistical modeling too often falls into the trap of "button pushing" on commercial software without an understanding of the basic underlying principles. After more than 30 years of teaching earth modeling classes, it is clear that the base knowledge of geostatistical principles has grown amongst earth modelers, yet, there remains a great deal more to learn. Many modelers today have become lost in software products and rely too heavily on embedded defaults, or suggestions from colleagues.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is intended to be a companion to modelers interested in knowing the practical meaning of what is behind the buttons they are pushing. It is not a textbook on the mathematics of geostatistics or the evolution of its theory. It is a guide to help make practical decisions and simply explain the “why” and “how” of what works and what does not. Further, it will attempt to answer questions where difficult choices and resulting implications are not clear; e.g. What variogram model should I use? What simulation algorithm is best? How many realizations should I run? After a review of basic principles and common pitfalls, case study examples will be drawn from both conventional and unconventional reservoirs. The case studies will be followed by a constructive review from a panel of experts geostatisticians articulating both strong and weak points of the models, and offer suggestions. Finally, the impact of high-performance computing, machine learning, data analytics (big and small), Python, and R will be discussed with a view towards successful earth modeling for the next decade.
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Al-Jiffry and Owaid AlMalki",authors:[{id:"153686",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Aljiffry",fullName:"Bilal Aljiffry",slug:"bilal-aljiffry"},{id:"165263",title:"Dr.",name:"Owaid",middleName:null,surname:"Almalki",fullName:"Owaid Almalki",slug:"owaid-almalki"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"967",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Basic Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d61ca05025c7154ff4579b2d6c95d7ae",slug:"liver-transplantation-basic-issues",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/967.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2060",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Technical Issues and Complications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1a1413332fb74229afd9d4d68248cbc",slug:"liver-transplantation-technical-issues-and-complications",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2060.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3164",title:"Hepatic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e54bf2639e53e684ac2233e94ae53c19",slug:"hepatic-surgery",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3164.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6502",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e1e8b08aab8583fc30db6351ae123d6",slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6502.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7528",title:"Surgical Challenges in the Management of Liver Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581524c01bd3dca324da84c25aa31a48",slug:"surgical-challenges-in-the-management-of-liver-disease",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7528.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"2060",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Technical Issues and Complications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1a1413332fb74229afd9d4d68248cbc",slug:"liver-transplantation-technical-issues-and-complications",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2060.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5155",title:"Frontiers in Transplantology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f358194cd9d33671b03808b346f354dc",slug:"frontiers-in-transplantology",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem, Ahmed F. El-Kased and Ahmed El-Shaarawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5155.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72629",title:"Photogrammetry as an Engineering Design Tool",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92998",slug:"photogrammetry-as-an-engineering-design-tool",body:'Reverse engineering is based on the study of certain principles and information of a product. The main function of reverse engineering is to obtain the maximum information about an element or device, including its geometry and appearance, among other things [1, 2]. Its first appearance was around World War II, in military operations.
The field of application of this type of engineering is very wide, highlighting the 3D digitalization used mainly for research, analysis, and reasoning of the technology used by other companies, for the development of elements without making use of specific information (redesign), and for the tasks of inspection or virtual metrology of a product in almost every industry [3].
The main 3D digitization technologies are shown in Figure 1, among which photogrammetry stands out for its ease of use and low cost.
Classification of 3D scanning technologies.
Photogrammetry is distinguished by the measurement on photographs, allowing to obtain from any object its real dimensions, position, shape, and textures [4, 5]. These processes or this science emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century, being as old as photography. The first photogrammetric device and the first methodology were created in 1849 by the Frenchman Aimé Laussedat. He, “the father of photogrammetry,” used terrestrial photographs and compiled a topographic map. This method was known as iconometry, which means the art of finding the size of an object by measuring its image. Digital photogrammetry was born in the 1980s, having as a great innovation the use of digital images as a primary data source [6, 7].
The main phases of digital photogrammetry are analysis of the shape of the object and planning of the photos needed to be taken; calibration of the camera; image processing with specific software to generate a cloud of points; and transfer of this point cloud to the CAD software to create a 3D model. The accuracy of the reconstruction depends on the quality of the images and textures. Photogrammetry algorithms typically indicate the problem, such as minimizing the sum of the squares of a set of errors, known as “package fit” [8]. Structure algorithms, from motion (SfM), can find a set of 3D points (P), a rotation (R), and the camera position (t), given a set of images of a static scene with 2D points in correspondence, as shown in Figure 2 [10].
Structure of the motion algorithm [
Photogrammetric technology is generally based on the illumination of one object and the inclusion of solutions derived from the measurement of conjugated points, appearing in two photographic images or measuring the conjunction of points in multiple photographic images (three or more images). There are different photogrammetric techniques. One of them is to ensure that the surface of the object has enough light and optical texture to allow conjugated dots to be paired through two or more images. In some cases, optical texture can be achieved by projecting a pattern over the surface of the object at the time of image capture [11, 12, 13].
The basic mathematical equations underlying photogrammetry, called collinearity equations, are responsible for unifying the coordinate system of the image in the camera with the object being photographed [14] (Eqs. (1)–(3)):
where
where
The plane of the image can be transformed analytically into its
There are two main factors that induce photogrammetry measurement errors: System error due to lens distortion and random error due to human factors.
System error due to lens distortion. It causes a point in the image in the plane to move from its true position (
In the lens, the largest error occurs at the point of the projected image. Therefore,
Random error due to human factors. Theoretically, a point captured in two different photos is enough to set its 3D coordinates. To complete this, this step requires an identification and marking of the point in the two images. Any human can have failures in the marking of points, giving rise to the random error.
From the analytical photogrammetry, it is possible to describe the evolution from photogrammetry to digital, based on physical and mathematical principles. The main distinction is given by the nature of the measurement of the information taken in the images [15].
The analytical photogrammetry coordinates the image, and the gray digital image is evaluated with the digital photogrammetry. In both methods appropriate Gaussian-Markov evaluation procedures are used. Pertinent relations between object space models and image space data are obtainable. Radiometric concerns take a more important role than previously. The data evaluation of the gray value of the digital image is no longer based on the digital image correlation. As an alternative, the gray values of an image are projected directly onto the models in the object space, this being a new principle. However, these numerical procedures in digital photogrammetry need to be stabilized by adjustment methods. Thus, the original concept of digital photogrammetry can be pragmatic to images from any sensor.
Considerable advances in digital photogrammetry have been made in recent years due to the availability of new hardware and software, such as image processing workstations and increased storage capacity [16, 17].
The main camera and photography parameters are focal length, focal point, bias, distortion, and pixel error; they will allow more accurate calibration [18] and are shown in Figure 3.
Scheme of operation of a camera objective.
Included in the optical part of the camera, it is in charge in projecting the image that crosses it on the same plane and in outstanding conditions of sharpness. Therefore, it is a matter of focusing on the objects that are at equal distance on the focal plane. From certain distance, all the objects will be projected on the same plane. The light points are transmitted to an element that composes the scenario. As a result of diffraction, this is shown as a circular point with a halo around it and concentric rings, named Airy discs. Suppressing them is unfeasible because it is a physical light effect. Even so, it would be desirable for such rings to be as diffuse and thin as possible [17, 19].
Its resolving capacity depends on two parameters: aberrations and diffraction. One of the main functions of the objective is to suppress aberrations. When the diaphragm is closed, the aberrations are placated, and the only limiting factor is diffraction. When the diaphragm is opened, diffraction diminishes its significance in the wake of aberrations, which add up to force [20].
This parameter is measured from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane, when the camera focused toward the infinity [5, 21]. Normal lenses are those which have a distance close to the diagonal of the cliché. The representation of the focal length is shown in Figure 4.
Representation and focal length types on a camera.
Relative aperture (
It is shown by the denominator, known as brightness or “f-number.” In a different way, the aperture is the span through which light enters to be captured by the sensor. The more spacious the opening will be, the more light will enter the sensor as the number becomes smaller [4, 7]:
This is the viewing angle of the camera and is closely related to the focal length and dimension of the sensor [8, 22]. A schematic representation is proposed in Figure 5.
Focal distances and corresponding angles.
It is a mechanism that keeps the light passing through the lens into the closed camera. At certain intervals of time, it has the ability to open, allowing the passage of light so that the film can be impressed. The opening time can be set [21].
It is related to the permissiveness that occurred between obtaining a sharp image with a suitable impression and another less adequate exposure, although also producing a sharp image. Depth of focus is altered by lens magnification and numerical aperture, and under some pretexts, large aperture systems have more pronounced depths of focus than low aperture systems, even if the depth of field is small [19].
Depth of field is the area of sharp reproduction seen in the photograph. In this one, there are some objects observed which are located at a certain distance, as well as others more distant or adjacent to them [20].
Its function is to modify the light received in order to obtain a digital systematization. The sensor is called pixel in its minimum element. A digital image consists of a set of pixels. The technology based on complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors is the most applied. The sensors consist of a semiconductor and sensitive material in the visible spectrum, between 300 and 1000 nm [10]. Charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors are becoming obsolete due to the cost and speed of processing images.
The comparison reading of the information in the CMOS sensors has the advantage of obtaining enough captures, obtaining readings using less time and with greater flexibility. Using a high dynamic range of work, high contrasts and a correct display of objects are achieved. In terms of quality, the physical size of the sensor is more significant than the number of cells or resolution. A large unit may allow higher-quality photographs to be taken than another sensor with a higher resolution but with a smaller surface [23].
As far as color is concerned, it must be seen that color is just a human visual perception. In order to be able to glimpse the color of an object, it is necessary to have a light source and something that reflects this light. A color is represented in digital format by applying a system of representation. The most commonly used is the RGB system. To represent a color, the exact percentages of primary red, primary green, and primary blue (RGB, red, green, blue) must be available. By this way, the color is displayed through the implementation of three numbers [24].
The function of this element is to enlarge or decrease the percentage of light circulating through the target. The diaphragm aperture is related to the percentage of aperture it has. It is counted in f-numbers. The step is the shift from one value to the next. The ratio of luminosity, according to the scale of the f, does it in a factor of 2 [5] (Figure 6).
Solution to (a) different openings, (b) shutter speeds, and (c) ISO.
The first step in taking a picture is focusing. The most commonly used types of automatic focusing are [25]:
Phase detection autofocus (PDAF). Its management is done by applying photodiodes through the sensor. The focusing element is moved in the lens to focus the image. It is a slow and inaccurate system due to the use of photodiodes.
Dual pixel. This method uses more focus points along the sensor than the PDAF. This system uses two photodiodes at each pixel to compare minimal dissimilarities. This is the most effective focusing technology.
Contrast detection. It is the oldest of the three systems exposed. Its operation theoretically bases that the contrast of an image is greater, and its edges are appreciated in a clearer way, when it is focused correctly. The disadvantage is its slowness.
A photograph is a perspective image of an object. If straight lines are drawn from all points of an object to a fixed point (called point of view or center of projection) and lines are considered that cross an intermediate surface (called projection surface), the image is drawn on this surface and is known as perspective [1, 26].
The camera is responsible for executing and materializing perspectives of objects. The projection surface is the flat extension of the image sensor or the capture surface. Focal distance is the orthogonal distance separating the viewpoint from the projection surface. Knowing the distance between the point of view and the plane that contains the points of the object, the focal distance with which the photograph was taken and the inclination of the plane in which the points of the object to be measured are located with respect to the projection plane, the reliable coordinates of the points can be disintegrated, using basic trigonometry (Figure 7).
Diagram of the projection of a camera.
The orthogonal and the geometric perspectives are the most widely used in photogrammetry. Using a conventional camera (reel or digital), a geometric perspective will be plotted. From a photograph in which the points of the object to be measured are in a plane parallel to the projection plane or the one on which the photographic film is spread, the real position of the points in space is obtained by using Eqs. (18)–(19):
where
It would be in front of more complex expressions if the planes that contain the points are not parallel to the one of projection, being indispensable to know the inclination of the plane having as reference the plane of projection. In practice, in order to avoid complications in the calculation of coordinates, photographs are usually taken in a way that the planes are parallel.
It is based on the capture of a scene by means of a sensitive material. In analog photography, this corresponds to the film and in digital photography, the sensor. Exposure is based on three variables to control the entry of light into the focal plane (sensor) and achieve an adequate exposure [9]:
ISO Sensitivity: it indicates the amount of light required to take a picture. The higher the light, the lower the ISO.
Diaphragm opening: it inspects the light reaching the focal plane, along with the shutter speed, and regulates the depth of field of the photograph.
Shutter speed: shutter opening time allows light to reach the sensor. The higher the shutter speed, the lower the percentage of light reaching the sensor.
When a sensor has the ability to capture as many tones (dynamic range) and information (light) as its ability allows, the picture is perfectly exposed.
It measures the amount of light and dark tones that a camera has the ability to capture in the same picture. It shows the amount of tonal nuances that a camera is capable of capturing, measurable by contrast and sharpness.
Contrast and sharpness are based on the differentiation of tonality with which a pair of white and black lines are obtained, captured, or reproduced. It is measurable of the degree of detail, being 100% when both lines can be perfectly differentiated as pure whites and blacks. Resolution and contrast are closely related concepts. If the contrast falls below 5%, it is difficult to observe any detail, which is shown more clearly and distinctly the higher it is. Frequency and modulation are shown in the way they are altered when light passes through the different optical components of the lens of the photographed image, thanks to contrast transfer functions. As the viewer moves away, a substantial loss of contrast begins to be noticed [12].
By performing a contrast correction, different filters are applied to the central zones instead of the peripheral zones. An example of contrast and resolution is shown in Figure 8.
Contrast sensitivity change as a function of the spatial frequency of the target.
One of the most outstanding components of a camera is the photographic lens, which produces a series of aberrations that distort the images of the photographs, making difficult to visualize the correct dimensions of the object [27, 28]. There are different types of aberrations, being the most common in photographic lenses:
Point aberrations: housed in the position arranged by the paraxial optics. It is a “stain” instead of a point. There are also chromatic aberration, spherical aberration, astigmatism, and coma.
Shape aberrations: the point is shown as a point but with a different position to the one arranged by means of paraxial approximation. This is a systematic error and can be of two types: field curvature and distortions.
Field curvature: defect when creating the image, being curved instead of flat. It is difficult to correct the aberration, but it can be mitigated in a low percentage.
Distortion: only affects the shape of the image. It occurs due to the difference in the scale of reproduction of the image off-axis. If an object with straight lines is photographed, such as a square, the center lines will appear straight, and the edge lines will curve inward or outward producing the so-called barrel or cushion distortions. This aberration is not corrected by closing the diaphragm. This error affects the tone of the image and needs to be corrected.
Stability of environmental conditions must be achieved:
Temperature: the ideal temperature for taking a photograph should be between approximately 18 and 26° in order to avoid dilatation of the lens.
Wind: calm wind, to avoid hindrances when taking the photo.
Illumination: sufficient light bulb. In most cases, natural light is not sufficient, and it is necessary to use spotlights or other artificial elements.
Other significant parameters, such as the texture of the element, significantly help the quality of the 3D reconstruction, and optimal results are obtained with the highest level of ambient light (exposure 1/60, f/2.8, and ISO sensitivity 100). The surface of an element should be opaque, with Lambertian reflection and surface homogeneity. A single point on the surface of the object must be visible from at least two or more sensors [26, 29].
Image quality is a prerequisite for working with it properly. There are two main characteristics that define it:
Resolution in amplitude (bit depth): number of bits per point of an image
Spatial resolution: the number of pixels per unit area
Image processing is the transformation of an input image into an output image. It is carried out to facilitate the analysis of the image and to obtain a greater reliability of this [30]. Among the transformations, those that eliminate noise or variation in the intensity of the pixels stand out. There are two types of operations: individual operations (rectification or binarization) and neighborhood operations (filtering).
This is a visual tool very useful for the study of digital images. With the naked eye, it is possible to study the contrast or the distribution of intensities, because it follows the following discrete function of Eq. (20):
where
Histogram areas.
The most common errors in the image, which prevent good image quality, can be identified in the histogram and are muted tones, black areas, overexposure or burned areas, and backlight. In order to know that a good image is acquired, the best thing is to have a histogram that has the shape of a Gauss bell, that is to say, that has the most information in the central part and less in the extremes. Another important point is that the histogram must embrace and reach both ends, so as to ensure that there are blacks and whites in the photograph.
The representation of an image with two values is obtained. The dimensions of the image are still preserved. The decision threshold must be chosen correctly and used in a step filter with an algorithm similar to Eq. (21):
where 0/1 represents the black/white values and
Grayscale (left) and binary (right).
To obtain an image with sufficient quality, the binarization must correspond with white pixels to the objects of interest, being the blacks of the environment. If the object of interest turns out to be darker than the environment, a reversal is applied after the binarization. The most important point in the process is the calculation of the threshold. There are different methods for this: histogram, clustering, entropy, similarity, spatial, global, and local.
The setting of the threshold value is latent, due to its difficulty, in all methods. The techniques are supported by statistics applied to the histogram. They are as follows: carry error method, Otsu method, and Saulova’s pixel deviation method.
It is based on a convolution operation between the two-dimensional functions image, f, and a nucleus, called h, in digital images. This operation aims to transform the value of a pixel p into the position (
These operations modify the spatial coordinates of the image. There are several operations that are easy to understand and apply, such as interpolation, rotation, rectification, and distortion correction.
Due to the geometry of the lens, it reproduces a square object with variations in its parallel lines. There are three types of distortion: barrel, pincushion, and mustache (combination of the first two) (Figure 11) [25, 33]. This error is negligible in a photograph of a natural scene, but to take engineering measurements and obtain a virtual object, it is necessary to compensate for the distortion. There is a mathematical model for the treatment of distortion.
Types of lens distortion.
The barrel distortion is centered and symmetrical. Therefore, to correct the distortion of a certain point, a radial transformation is performed, expressed mathematically in Eq. (22):
where
The radial function
The second one is based on an approach (Eq. (24)):
The values
Image correction is necessary because either it is difficult to keep the optical axis vertical at all points of the shot or the axis is tilted toward the vertical. Vertical images are obtained free of displacement because of the inclination of the shot but still have inclinations, product of the depth of the workpiece. Displacements can be suppressed by applying differential grinding or orthorectification process. In the original digital image or a scan, the technique is applied pixel by pixel. In a scanned image, the initial data are the coordinates of the control points. The procedure is divided into two steps:
Determination of the mathematical transformation related to real coordinates and those belonging to the image
Achievement of new image, being aligned to the reference system
After this process, it is necessary to know that all the pixels of the resulting orthophotography have their level of gray, performing a digital resampling [17, 34]. Figure 12 shows an unrectified (left) and rectified (right) photograph.
Visual example of photo rectification.
Several resamples are made on the initial image. Three resampling methods are regularly used: bilinear interpolation, nearest neighbor, and bicubic convolution. The transformations to be applied to the images are [19] Helmert transformation; affine transformation; polynomial transformation; and two-dimensional projective transformation.
To obtain a 3D model of an object from a 2D one, photographs must be taken from different views, with adequate quality. From these photographs, the reconstruction process begins.
3D reconstruction is the process by which real objects are reproduced on a computer. Nowadays there are several reconstruction techniques and 3D mesh methods, having a function to obtain an algorithm that is able to make the connection of the set of representative points of the object in form of surface elements. The efficiency with which the techniques are used will be linked to the final quality of the reconstruction.
The stereoscopic scene analysis system presented by Koch uses image matching, object segmentation, interpolation, and triangulation techniques to obtain the 3D point density map. The system is divided into three modules: sensor processing, image pair processing, and model-based sequence processing.
Pollefeys features a 3D reconstruction process based on well-defined stages. The input is an image sequence, and the output of the process is a 3D surface model. The stages are the following: image ratio, structure and motion recovery, dense matching, and model construction.
Another proposal is expressed by Remondino. He presents a 3D reconstruction system following these steps: image sequence acquisition and analysis, image calibration and orientation, matching process and the generation of points, and 3D modeling [18].
It is used in revolutionary pieces. With only one photograph, it is possible to obtain the axis and dimensions. In 1978 Barrow and Tenenbaum demonstrated that the orientation of the surface along the silhouette can be calculated directly from the image data, resulting in the first study of silhouettes in individual views. Koenderink showed that the sign of the silhouette’s curvature is equivalent to that of the Gaussian curvature. Thus, concavities, convexities, and inflections of the silhouette indicate hyperbolic, convex, and parabolic surface points, respectively. Finally, Cipolla and Blake exposed that the curvature of the silhouette has the corresponding sign as the normal curvature along the contour generator in the perspective projection. A similar result was derived for the orthographic projection by Brady [35].
First, the silhouette
Harmonic homology of the figure and its transformation to orthogonal projection [
The apparent contour is first manually segmented from the rectified silhouette. This can usually be done easily by removing the upper and lower elliptical parts of the silhouette. The points are then sampled from the apparent contour, and the tangent vector (i.e.,
For
where
This section is based on an investigation using a practical heuristic method, for the reconstruction of structured scenes from two uncalibrated images. The method is based on an initial estimation of the main homographies of the initial 2D point coincidences, which may contain some outliers, and the homographies are recursively refined by incorporating the point and line support coincidences on the main spatial surfaces. The epipolar geometry is then recovered directly from the refined homogenies, and the chambers are calibrated from three orthogonal vanishing points, and the infinite homography is recovered.
First, a simple homography-guided method is proposed to fit and match the line segments between two views, using Canny edge detector and regression algorithms. Second, the cameras are automatically calibrated with the four intrinsic parameters that vary between the two views. A RANSAC mechanism is adopted to detect the main flat surfaces of the object from 2D images. The advantages of the method are that it can build more realistic models with minimal human interactions and it also allows more visible surfaces to be reconstructed on the detected planes than traditional methods that can only reconstruct overlapping parts (Figure 14).
The matching results of the line segments in four main planes [
This is one of the fields where photogrammetry is most applied nowadays. In this specific point, the reconstruction is carried out applying Delaunay’s triangulation and the tetrahedron. Many data models based on tetrahedron mesh have been developed to represent the complex objects in 3D GIS.
The tetrahedron grid can only be used to represent the geometrical structure of geological objects. The natural characteristics of geological objects are reflected in their different attributes, such as different rock formations, different contents of mineral bodies, etc. It is defined that the attribute value of the internal point can be linearly interpolated from the attribute values in four vertices in a tetrahedron. But the attributes could change suddenly between different formations and different mineral bodies. To cope with sudden changes, interpolation of the tetrahedron is needed that can only be applied to six sides of a tetrahedron. Those interpolated points are only used as time data for the following processing [37].
This section presents a robust and precise system for the 3D reconstruction of real objects with shapes and textures in high resolution. The reconstruction method is passive, and the only information required is 2D images obtained with a camera calibrated from different viewing angles as the object rotates on a rotating plate. The triangle surface model is obtained through a scheme that combines the octree construction and the walking cube algorithm. A texture mapping strategy based on surface particles is developed to adequately address photographic-related problems such as inhomogeneous lighting, lights, and occlusion [38]. To conclude, the results of the reconstruction are included to demonstrate the quality obtained (Figure 15).
Flowchart to the reconstruction of objects.
The scheme combining octree construction and isolevel extraction through marching cubes is presented for the problem concerning the shape of the silhouette. The use of octree representation allows to reach very high resolutions, while the method of fast walking cubes is adapted through a properly defined isolevel function to work with binary silhouettes, resulting in a mesh of triangles with vertices precisely located in the visual object.
Calibration is performed on the camera and rotary table. One of the problems found is the discontinuity of the texture due to the nonhomogeneous lighting in different parts of the element due to shadows.
Next, the octree is represented. An octree is a hierarchical tree structure that can be used to represent volumetric data in terms of cubes of different sizes. Each octree node corresponds to a cube in the octree space that is entirely within the object. This opens up different possibilities: voxels, particles, triangles, and more complicated parametric primitives, such as splines or NURBS. Voxels are used to represent volumes but can also be used to represent surfaces. A related primitive is a particle that is defined by its color, orientation, and position. By marching the cube triangulation of the octree, the white and black points denote the corners of the cube that are inside and outside, respectively, while the gray points are the points of the triangle’s vertex on the surface (Figure 16).
From cube to triangulation, adapted from [
The application of the isolevel function calculated by means of the dichotomous subdivision procedure allows for the construction of a faithful model of the object. The triangular vertices that make up the object’s mesh are placed precisely on the surface of the digitized model even at low resolutions. This creates an efficient compromise between resolution and geometric accuracy. The octree construction followed by the walking cube algorithm generates a triangular mesh consisting of an excessive number of triangles, which must be simplified.
The reconstruction of objects is mainly based on the archeological field. The process to obtain the 3D model will be governed by Figure 17.
Steps to obtain the 3D model, adapted from [
First of all, corresponding or common characteristics must be found among the images of the object. The process occurs in two phases:
The reconstruction algorithm generates a reconstruction in which dimensions are not correctly defined. A self-calibration algorithm performs a reconstruction equivalent to the original one, formed by a set of 3D points.
All the pixels of an image are made to coincide with those of the neighboring images so that the system can reconstruct these points.
The system selects two images to set up an initial projective reconstruction frame and then reconstructs the matching feature points through triangulation.
Then a dense surface estimation is performed. To obtain a more detailed model of the observed surface, a dense matching technique is used. The 3D surface is approached with a triangular grid, to reduce geometric complexity and adapt the model to the requirements of the computer graphic display system. Then construct a corresponding 3D mesh by placing the triangle vertices in 3D space according to the values found in the corresponding depth map. To reconstruct more complex shapes, the system must combine multiple depth maps. Finally, it is provided with texture.
It is used for medical purposes in many cases, as a base for implants, splints, etc. The process consists of the following parts: acquisition and analysis of the image sequence; calibration and orientation of the images; matching process on the surface of the human body; and generation and modeling of the point cloud. Once the necessary images have been obtained from different points of view, the calibration and orientation of the images are carried out.
The choice of the camera model is often related to the final application and the required accuracy. The correct calibration of the sensor used is one of the main objectives. Another important point is image matching [40].
To evaluate the quality of the matching results, different indicators are used: an ex post standard deviation of the least squares adjustment, the standard deviation of the change in the x-y directions, and the shift from the initial position in the x-y directions. The performance of the process, in the case of uncalibrated images, can only be improved with a local contrast enhancement of the images.
Finally, 3D reconstruction and modeling of the human body shape is performed. The 3D coordinates of each matching triplet are calculated through a forward intersection. Using collinearity and the results of the orientation process, the 3D paired points are determined with a solution of least squares. For each triplet of images, a point cloud is calculated, and then all the points are joined together to create a unique point cloud. A spatial filter is applied to reduce noise and obtain a more uniform point cloud density. Figure 18 shows the results before and after filtering (approximately 20,000 points, left); a view of the recovered point cloud with pixel intensity (center); and a 3D human model (right).
3D reconstruction of a human body, adapted from [
The system is composed of two main modules. The first one is in charge of image processing, to determine the depth map in a pair of views, where each pair of successive views follows a sequence of phases: detection of points of interest, correspondence of points, and reconstruction of these. In this last phase, the parameters that describe the movement (rotation matrix R and translation vector T) between the two views are determined. This sequence of steps is repeated for all successive pairs of views of the set.
The second module is responsible for creating the 3D model, for which it must determine the total 3D points map generated. In each iteration of the previous module, the 3D mesh is generated by applying Delaunay’s triangulation method. The results obtained from the process are modeled in a virtual environment to obtain a more realistic visualization of the object [16].
The number of detected minutiae is related to the number of reconstructed 3D points and the quality of that reconstruction (higher number of details). Therefore, the higher the number of points on the map, the more detailed areas are obtained. In some cases this does not apply, due to the geometry of the object, for example, in a cube, more points can result in a distorted object.
The technological development of 3D photogrammetry makes it a real option in the various applications of 3D scanners. Among the different benefits it brings are faster raw data acquisition, simplicity, portability, and more economical equipment. Different studies have verified the accuracy and repeatability of 3D photogrammetry. These investigations have compared the digital models of objects obtained from 2D digital photographs with those generated by a 3D surface scanner. In general, the meshes obtained with photogrammetric techniques and with scanners show a low degree of deviation from each other. The surface settings of photogrammetric models are usually a little better. For these reasons, photogrammetry is a technology with an infinite number of engineering applications.
In this chapter the basic fundamentals, the characteristics of the acquisition, and the aspects to be taken into account to obtain a good virtual model from photogrammetry have been explained.
The authors would like to thank the call for Innovation and Teaching Improvement Projects of the University of Cadiz and AIRBUS-UCA Innovation Unit (UIC) for the Development of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies in the Aeronautical Industry.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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