\r\n\t(1) Sustainable Waste Management; \r\n\t(2) Micro(nano)plastics in the Environments; \r\n\t(3) Electronic Waste and Circular Economy; \r\n\t(4) Reducing, Recycling and Recovery of Agricultural and Food Waste; \r\n\t(5) Biomass Valorization: Waste to Resources; \r\n\t(6) Governmental Policy on Waste Management and Valorization.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book will offer a timely opportunity for knowledge exchange of sustainable management agenda for biological waste and remediation of soil, water and air in the local context, which satisfies the environmental compatibility, financial feasibility and social needs. It will deliberate on state-of-the-art treatment technologies, advanced management strategies, and political issues pertaining to recycling and recovery of organic waste.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-913-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-912-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-914-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4ef7ac85e87a3131afb9b858b79aa870",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Tao Zhang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11256.jpg",keywords:"Waste Management, Microplastics, Nanoplastics, Electronic Waste, Agricultural Waste, Food Waste, Recycling, Recovery, Biomass, Resources, Governmental Policy, Environmental Protection",numberOfDownloads:15,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Zhang was a visiting scholar at Arizona State University in 2014 and at the University of Hohenheim in 2017. He is the director of the Circular Economy Committee of the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences and Water Treatment and Recycling Committee of the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences. He has been authorized 17 invention patents in China and has won the Chinese prize for the "Outstanding Young Scientist” in 2019.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185487/images/system/185487.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tao Zhang is an Associate Professor and Ph.D. Supervisor at the College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, China. His academic background covers waste management, wastewater treatment, utilization of agricultural waste. He is awarded the Scientific Chinese - Outstanding Young Scientist Award, the Innovation Award for Industry-University-Research Cooperation of China, the Character Award - Invention and Entrepreneurship Award of China Association of Inventions. His H-index is 23 (Scopus) and he has published more than 50 papers in Chemical Engineering Journal, Water Research, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Green Chemistry, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, and so on. Amongst, 11 ESI Highly Cited Paper and 4 ESI Hot Paper. 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1. Introduction
New protocols in the early diagnosis and treatment of cancer have led to major improvements in the long-term survival of patients. However, aggressive chemotherapy or radiotherapy of the pelvic region, often lead to infertility, due to the damage of the follicles and/or oocytes that are present in the ovaries. In women the probability of sterilization due to cancer therapy varies with age, the type of treatment, and the follicular reserve in the ovary. Safeguarding their reproductive potential is a very important issue for women that have not yet started or completed their family, and even more so in pre-pubertal girls. Several options, some of which are still in the experimental phase, can now be offered to these women to (partially) preserve their fertility.
In this review, we will, after briefly describing the anatomy and physiology of an ovary, discuss the detrimental effects of chemotherapy and radiation on ovarian function. Subsequently, the various options that are currently available or are still in an experimental phase, for preserving fertility in women and pre-pubertal girls, will be discussed. These options (with the exception of option (i)), deal with cryopreserving either oocytes, embryos or ovarian tissue until the patient has been cured.
Minimizing the effects of radiation of the inner pelvic region by transposing the ovaries from the radiation area.
Standard IVF procedures can be offered to women who are awaiting chemotherapy and radiotherapy for neoplastic disease. This procedure results in the generation of embryos that can be transferred after recovery of the disease. This option has its limitations, since it not only requires the presence of a male partner, but also delays cancer treatment during ovarian stimulation. In addition, the number of embryos that can be produced is restricted, and the chance of achieving a pregnancy after transfer of a cryo-preserved embryo is only 8-30%. Furthermore, the presence of estrogen-sensitive tumors is a contra-indication for this type of treatment, as high estradiol levels are induced during a normal IVF procedure, although alternative stimulation protocols with aromatase-inhibitors are nowadays available for these specific patients. Most importantly, this treatment is not an option for pre-pubertal girls, or for post-pubertal girls who are not yet involved in a stable relationship.
Aspiration of oocytes, followed by cryopreservation and IVF (if necessary preceded by in vitro maturation). This option has already been applied to a number of patients. Although the same drawbacks that apply to standard IVF are applicable, this procedure is mainly aimed at the treatment of post-pubertal girls/young women without a stable relationship. Only limited scientific data are currently available to substantiate its efficacy and long-term safety.
As an alternative, cryopreservation of small ovarian cortex strips containing primordial follicles can be offered. After the patient has been cured, these cortex strips can subsequently be retransplanted either heterotopically or orthotopically. This procedure has been successfully used to re-establish female fertility in humans in a limited number of cases. A major problem with these avascular implants however is their relative short life expectancy and follicular loss due to long term ischemic injury directly after reimplantation.
Cryopreservation and subsequent reimplantation of intact ovaries may be a valuable addition to the existing array of options, especially for pre-pubertal girls and post-pubertal girls/women without a stable relationship. An important safety issue of this procedure is obviously the chance of reintroduction of malignant cells that may be present in the cryopreserved intact ovary. For this reason, patients with solid types of tumor and diffuse types of cancer such as leukemia that have a high chance of metastasizing to the ovaries, will have to be excluded from this kind of therapy. The cryobiological and surgical aspects of the preservation and retransplantation of an organ in toto, is technically clearly more challenging than the cryopreservation and transfer of isolated cells or tissue strips. The advantages of this approach are obvious; immediate revascularization of the transplanted ovary ensures that less ischemic damage is inflicted to the ovarian tissue post-thawing, and that more follicles will survive. In addition menses, normal long term reproductive functions, and normal hormonal status will be restored.
Finally, we will go into the safety of the procedure. Inevitably the autotransplantation of cortical strips or intact ovaries carries the risk of reintroducing malignant cells from the graft into the recipient.
The increase in knowledge of the biology and treatment of cancer has been accompanied by an increase in the efficacy of cancer therapies. Long term survival rates for many cancer types have therefore increased accordingly (Gatta et al., 2009). Consequently, the quality of life of cancer survivors is becoming an important issue.
The possibility to have genetically concordant progeny is for many people an event that is essential for an unrestricted quality of life as an adult (Schover, 2009). The loss of fertility that may result from cancer therapy, is therefore an additional complication on top of an already difficult period spent on conquering a devastating disease.
With this in mind, it is of the utmost importance to explore the possibilities for fertility preservation in patients that are to be treated with a gonado-toxic therapy. For post-pubertal boys and men, this can be achieved relatively easy via the cryopreservation of their semen prior to start of the therapy. For pre-pubertal boys this is not an option, as semen production is initiated during puberty. Also for this group of patients options for fertility preservation are being developed.
In this paper we confine ourselves to fertility preservation for female patients. We discuss the causes of anti-cancer therapy-related infertility, and review the current options for fertility preservation. We illustrate this matter with two case reports from our own clinical practice. In addition we discuss some as yet experimental procedures, that may in the future be offered to patients requiring fertility preservation.
2. Ovaries, oocytes and female reproduction
The human ovary is spherical structure with a mean volume of 7 cm3 (range 2-15 cm3; Munn et al., 1986). The inner ovarian mass, the medulla, consists mainly of stromal cells and contains the larger blood vessels. The outer layer of the ovary consists of the cortical tissue, spanning 2-3 mm. This tissue is rich in extra-cellular matrix proteins and poor in capillaries, and contains the vast majority of the follicles containing oocytes that comprise the ovarian reserve. The most important role of the follicle is to protect the oocyte, and support its development. Follicles are comprised of layer(s) of theca cells and granulosa cells. Different stages of follicles can be distinguished, ranging from primordial follicles to primary follicles, and via secondary finally to tertiary (antral) follicles.
In contrast to males in whom spermatogenesis is a continuous process resulting in the uninterrupted generation of fresh spermatozoa, in women a fixed number of oocytes is formed during embryogenesis from 1000-2000 germ cells. These germ cells are present in the human embryo at 30 days after conception. After 9-10 weeks, these cells transform to oogonia (Baker, 1972), that degenerate for the greater part between 10 and 20 weeks of gestation. After 5 months of gestation, the first meiotic division is initiated in the remaining oogonia, resulting in the differentiation to primary oocytes. At this stage the meiotic division process is arrested, and the oocytes enter a stage of dormancy (Wandji, 1996). At birth only 300.000 to 400.000 oocytes remain in the ovaries. From birth, the number of oocytes gradually decreases, and at the beginning of puberty around 200.000 oocytes remain. Under the influence of pituitary gonadotropic hormones (Gougeon, 1996; Oktay, 1997), each month a cohort of primary oocytes is recruited, and resumes development. Usually only one primary oocyt completes the first meiotic division. This secondary oocyt again enters a stage of dormancy, and is ovulated. The second dormant stage is only lifted after fertilization by a sperm cell. Around the age of 50 years, the total oocyte reserve is almost depleted and the woman enters menopause. In addition to age, several factors may affect the follicular reserve, leading to an early exhaustion and to premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). These factors include fertility-threatening therapies that are discussed in more detail in the next section.
3. Effects of radio- and chemotherapy on female fertility
3.1. Chemotherapy
Cytotoxic therapy may affect all components of the follicle, including granulosa cells, theca cells, and of course the oocyt itself (Sobrinho et al., 1971; Blumenfeld et al., 1999). In addition, interactions between these cell types that are required for oocyt development may be disturbed, resulting in the demise of the oocyt. Damage may become manifest by reduced ovarian weight, stromal fibrosis and in a reduction in the number of oocytes and ovarian follicles (Warne et al., 1973; Meirow et al., 1999; Oktem & Oktay, 2007).
The effect of chemotherapy on fertility is dependent on the type of the cytotoxic agent, the dose, and the duration of the therapy. Alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide, L-phenyalanine mustard, and chlorambucil permanently damage ovarian tissue by interacting with DNA (Meirow et al., 1999; Manger et al., 2006; Oktem & Oktay, 2007). Analysis of a group of 138 young females receiving the alkylating agent busulfan as a preparative regimen for indicated that 83% of these women showed signs of fertility impairment, demonstrating the potentially very severe effects of this type of compounds (Borgmann-Staudt et al., 2011). Mertens et al. (1998) showed an even higher percentage of 99% in gonadal dysfunction for women receiving allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. The cumulative dose of the cytotoxic drug being administered is an important factor in determining the level of ovarian insufficiency (Goldhirsch et al., 1990). Permanent ovarian insufficiency was more often induced when high dosages of drugs were administered during a short period of time, compared to low doses given over a longer time (Koyama et al., 1977).
In addition the age of the patient is pivotal in determining the amount of damage that is inflicted to the ovary. Older women, with an already decreased number of primordial follicles, have a higher risk of developing acute complete POI, compared with young women who still possess numerous primordial follicles (Schilsky et al., 1981; Sanders et al., 1996; Tauchmanova et al., 2002). Prepubertal girls seem less vulnerable to cytotoxic drugs than adults (Chiarelli et al., 1990). This may be explained by the fact that several chemotherapeutical drugs affect DNA replication and/or RNA and protein synthesis, and are therefore targeted at metabolically active cells. In prepubertal ovaries all follicles are in a dormant, metabolically quiescent state, and therefore less prone to chemotherapy induced damage. In contrast, in adult ovaries a number of follicles will be in an active state, and therefore more prone to chemotherapy induced damage. Nicosia et al. (1985) actually showed in ovarian autopsy material derived from patients having received chemotherapy, that the number of growing follicles was reduced, whereas the number of primordial follicles remained the same.
3.2. Radiotherapy
Similar to the effects of chemotherapeutical agents on DNA integrity, ionizing radiation, amongst other effects, also interferes with DNA function. As a consequence, also radiotherapy may negatively affect the ovarian reserve. Analogous to chemotherapy, the (cumulative) dose and the fractionation schedule determine the degree of damage to the ovary (Gosden et al., 1997). The human oocyte is exceptionally sensitive to radiation (Howell & Shalet, 1998) and the estimate of the LD50 ( the lethal dose need to kill half the total number of oocytes) seems to be less than 2 Gy (Wallace et al., 2003). Also for radiation therapy, the age of the patient is an important factor in determining the level of damage. A dose of 4 Gy leads to sterility in 30% of young women, and in 100% of women over 40.
Not surprisingly, the combination of radiotherapy with chemotherapy increases the risk of POI (Williams et al., 1999; Wallace et al., 2005; Chemaitilly et al., 2006). Abdominal radiotherapy in combination with alkylating agents increased the risk of POI 27-fold (Byrne et al., 1992). By the age of 31, 42% of patients treated with this combination therapy, was postmenopausal, compared with 5% of women in the normal population.
3.3. Effects on pregnancy and health of newborns
In addition to their effects on oocytes and follicles, chemotherapy and radiotherapy may also influence uterine function. Radiation may lead to impaired uterine growth in premenarchal girls and failure of uterine development during pregnancy, leading to miscarriages, premature births and intrauterine growth retardation (Ogilvy-Stuart et al., 1997; Critchley, 1999; Critchley et al., 1992; 2002; Wallace et al., 2005). Comparable results were described by Salooja et al. (2001), who showed that in women that had received total body irradiation prior to autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplantation, are at high risk for maternal and fetal complications. These problems are probably a consequence of uterine vascular damage and reduced elasticity of the uterine musculature.
4. Current options for fertility preservation
4.1. Ovarian transposition
An way to prevent damage to the ovaries caused by ionizing radiation therapy applied to the pelvic region, is to surgically move the ovary temporarily to a location outside the field of radiation (Hadar et al., 1994; Howard, 1997). This procedure, referred to as oophoropexy, can be performed laparoscopically. Potential ovarian insufficiency following transposition may occur if the ovaries are not entirely moved outside the field of radiation, or when they spontaneously migrate back to their original position. Ovarian failure can also occur when the ovarian vascular pedicle has been compromised by the surgical procedure (Feeney et al., 1995). Oophoropexy is a safe and effective procedure, allowing preservation of ovarian function in 80% of cases (Bisharah & Tulandi, 2003).
4.2. Vitrification of oocytes
Cryopreservation of mature or immature oocytes is an obvious approach to preserve fertility. As no fertilization of the oocytes is yet required, this is option is especially suitable for women without a partner. The collection of mature oocytes requires stimulation with follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). This procedure, that may have to be repeated to obtain a sufficient number of oocytes, takes at least two weeks, and is therefore only suitable for women for whom it is safe to postpone their cancer treatment. The use of high doses of FSH makes this option unsuited for women with oestradiol-sensitive breast tumors, as high levels of oestradiol are induced by the FSH treatment (Sonmezer & Oktay, 2006) This caveat may be circumvented by the simultaneous use of aromatase inhibitors /anti oestrogens such as letrozole or tamoxifen (Oktay et al., 2005b; Sonmezer & Oktay, 2006). Alternatively, immature oocytes can be collected without prior stimulation. This procedure may also be used for young (prepubertal girls). Evidently, these immature oocytes must be matured in vitro (IVM) before they can be fertilised (Gosden, 2005).
After collection of the oocytes, they have to be cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen for long term storage. The formation of ice crystals during the freezing process may severely damage the oocyte, rendering it useless for further use. This is especially the case for mature oocytes, as they possess a fragile and sensitive meiotic spindle. Immature oocytes are in this respect less sensitive. Cryodamage can be prevented by freezing the oocytes in the presence of cryoprotective agents via specific protocols, either by slow freezing, or via vitrification (Cao et al., 2009; Chian et al., 2009; Kuwayama et al., 2005). During the latter procedure, that appears to result in more oocytes surviving the process undamaged, the oocytes are frozen extremely rapidly (> 12.000 C/minute), in the presence of high concentrations of cryoprotectant, resulting in the prevention of ice crystal formation.
A consequence of the cryopreservation procedure (either slow freezing or vitrification) is hardening of the zona pellucida. Therefore, cryopreserved oocytes can only be fertilized via intracytoplasmatic sperm injection (ICSI). As the pregnancy rate per cryopreserved oocyte is approximately 3% (Kuwayama et al., 2005; Cobo et al., 2007; Homburg et al., 2009), a large number of oocytes, equivalent to several stimulation cycles and/or oocyte retrieval procedures, are required to achieve a reasonable chance of progeny. The exact number of children conceived with cryopreserved oocytes is unknown, but it is estimated to be over 500 worldwide. Postnatal parameters such as birth weight and incidence of congenital anomalies, were comparable with the reference population, indicating the safety of this procedure (Borini et al., 2007; Chian et al., 2008).
4.3. Cryopreservation of embryos
For women with a partner, the generation and cryopreservation of embryos is a suitable option. Obviously, this option will generally require ovarian stimulation, and is therefore subject to the same limitations as mentioned previously for the collection and cryopreservation of mature oocytes – the cancer treatment has to be postponed to allow for one or more ovarian stimulation(s), and extreme caution has to be taken when stimulating women with hormone sensitive tumors. The factor time may be circumvented by skipping the stimulation with FSH and collect immature oocytes instead. Evidently, in that case IVM has to be performed prior to fertilisation of the oocytes. Employing tamoxifen or letrozole based stimulation regimes may be used in the case of hormone sensitive tumors (see previous paragraph) (Oktay et al., 2005a, 2005b; Sonmezer & Oktay, 2006). Oktay et al. (2005b) has shown that in cancer patients who had been stimulated with this compound, recurrence rates were not elevated compared to cancer patients who had not been receiving any ovarian stimulation. Although we should keep in time that the follow up period was confined to only a limited number of years.
Theoretically, in women with hormone sensitive tumors oocytes can also be collected in a spontaneous (non-stimulated) cycle. However, the very limited number of oocytes that can be collected this way (one or two per cycle) makes this a very inefficient option and is therefore not advisable (Brown et al., 1996).
Embryo cryopreservation is an established and efficient technique, with reported implantation rates per thawed embryo between 8 and 30% (Frederick et al., 1995; Selick et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2001; Son et al., 2002; Senn et al., 2006), that has resulted in the birth of tens of thousands of children worldwide. In the future, new cryopreservation techniques such as vitrification may further improve the efficiency of this technique (Kuwayame et al., 2005).
4.3.1. Case report A: Emergency IVF in a patient with breast cancer
Mrs. X was diagnosed 3 years ago with breast cancer. She then underwent a lumpectomy of the right breast, and received radiotherapy. Shortly thereafter a unilateral recurrence was found, and a mastectomy with lymph node dissection was performed. Pathologic examination revealed an invasive ductal carcinoma, positive for estrogen and progesterone receptors. No tumor cells were found in the lymph nodes, and no other indications for metastatic disease were found. Additional chemotherapy courses were planned.
At this stage the patient, now 35 years of age, and her partner visited the Centre for Reproductive Medicine of our hospital, and expressed their interest in fertility preservation. After establishing that the current reproductive status of herself as well as of her partner showed no abnormalities, the possibilities for fertility preservation were discussed. Although oocyte vitrification and ovarian tissue banking were in theory viable options, the couple was counseled to proceed with an emergency IVF-ICSI attempt, followed by cryopreservation of the embryos, as this would probably give the highest chance of progeny within the time limit set by the oncologist.
The ovarian stimulation protocol was started one month after the mastectomy. Regarding the hormone receptor positive status of the tumor, a regimen combining FSH and letrozol was selected in order to avoid the high oestradiol levels associated with ovarian hyperstimulation. The treatment eventually resulted in the retrieval of 13 oocytes, 12 of which could be inseminated via ICSI. Of the 7 resulting embryos, 3 were eligible for cryopreservation. The efficacy of the letrozol treatment was demonstrated by the finding that during the stimulation with FSH, oestradiol levels did not rise beyond 1000 pmol/L.
The patient than completed 5 cycles of chemotherapy. In addition, she received adjuvant hormonal therapy. Menses had stopped and the patient suffered from hot flushes. Two years later at age 37, the patient wanted to achieve pregnancy. After discontinuation of medication, the hot flushes diminished and menses did resume. Five months later the patient conceived spontaneously, but unfortunately the pregnancy ended in an abortion. As further spontaneous conceptions did not occur, two cycles of fresh IVF were performed. Although the second cycle resulted in a pregnancy, this again ended in an abortion. The patient is now being prepared to receive the embryos that were cryopreserved prior to the start of her chemotherapy.
4.4. Cryopreservation of ovarian cortical tissue strips
As mentioned previously, each fertility preservation option is aimed at a specific group of patients. When the patient is prepubertal, when there is no partner is available for the generation of embryos, or when the cancer treatment cannot be postponed in order to perform ovarian stimulation, cryopreservation of ovarian tissue strips may be an alternative approach. Silber et al. (2005) showed previously that transplantation of fresh (non cryopreserved) ovarian cortex strips between identical twin sisters was actually feasible. The development of efficient freezing and thawing protocols for cortex strips has rendered this technique applicable for fertility preservation purposes and has recently led to the thirteenth live birth (Donnez et al., 2011).
Although still experimental, this option is nowadays being performed on an increasing scale. Cortical fragments can be obtained laparoscopically, and slow frozen using DMSO as a cryoprotectant. Care should be taken to minimize the thickness of the cortical strips to 1 mm, to facilitate diffusion of the cryoprotectant into the tissue. In addition, thin fragments will suffer less from ischemic damage, which is a serious problem after retransplantation. A significant proportion (60-95%) of (growing) follicles that survive the freezing and thawing process, is actually lost due to warm posttransplantation ischemia (Baird et al., 1999; Nisolle et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2000; Aubard et al., 1999, Aubard, 2003; Liu et al., 2002). Cortical strips can be autotransplanted heterotopically (for instance subcutaneous in the forearm), or orthotopically. Thus far, only orthotopic transplantation has led to the birth of a number of healthy offspring (Donnez et al.,2004; Meirow et al.,2005, 2007; Demeestere et al., 2006; 2007; 2010; Andersen et al.,2008; Schmidt et al., 2011; Ernst et al., 2010).
Cryopreservation of ovarian cortical strips is applicable for a wide range of different patients. Conception may require artificial reproductive techniques like IVF or ICSI, but may occur spontaneously as well. An additional advantage of this technique is resumption of the regular hormonal processes, leading to the reversal of the postmenopausal status that many patients experience after their cancer therapy. Follicular development and restoration of ovarian function usually occur 4-5 months after a transplantation procedure ( Donnez et al., 2006a; 2008), as more than 120 days are required to initiate follicular growth and approximately 85 days to the reach final maturation stage from a pre-antral follicle (Gougeon, 1985, Oktem & Oktay, 2008). Unfortunately, the survival time of a single autotransplanted number of strips is usually limited to a few months, with exceptions of survival up to approximately 3 years (Kim et al., 2009; Meirow et al., 2007; Silber et al., 2008a), requiring another surgical intervention to transplant a new set of cortex strips.
4.4.1. Case report B: Ovarian tissue cryopreservation in a patient with Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Mrs. Y was diagnosed with Hodgkin’s lymphoma at the age of twenty. As she was to start with six cycles of chemotherapy the next month, she visited our fertility Centre to discuss the options for fertility preservation.
Although the patient was at the time in a steady relationship, she regarded herself to young to start emergency IVF, as this would confront both herself and her partner with the definitive choice of having children together in the future. Ovarian hyper stimulation followed by cryopreservation of the retrieved oocytes was not considered an optimal option, as the time to the start of her chemotherapy was relatively short, allowing for only one cycle of hyperstimulation. As a consequence, only a limited number of oocytes would be obtained.
Eventually the choice was made for cryopreservation of ovarian cortical strips. At that time we could not offer her this procedure ourselves so we referred her to another centre. Biopsies of both ovaries were taken via a laparoscopic procedure, and 13 strips were cryopreserved. She then started with the chemotherapy. Since then, she has had two relapses, that were treated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and stem cell transplantation.
At the age of 27, the patient and her partner visited our Centre as she wished to conceive. She had now been in complete remission for 3 years. Hormonal examination showed that she was postmenopausal, indicating that both spontaneous conception as well as IVF treatments were no options to achieve pregnancy. The couple was referred back to the clinic where her ovarian tissue was cryopreserved, and is now considering autotransplantation of the ovarian cortical strips.
5. Future options for fertility preservation
Several alternative procedures are being evaluated to expand the current array of fertility preservation options. These include the isolation and cryopreservation of follicles from ovarian tissue that is harvested laparoscopically (Bedaiwy & Falcone, 2007; Feigin et al., 2007). However, isolation of follicles by either mechanical or enzymatic means is difficult, especially from human ovaries (Dolmans et al., 2006). In addition, this approach requires different cryopreservation techniques then for oocytes and embryos, and sophisticated in vitro maturation protocols to obtain oocytes that can be fertilized in vitro by IVF or ICSI.
A more promising future option may comprise the cryopreservation of an intact ovary, including its vascular pedicle. The vascular pedicle can be used to reconnect the thawed ovary to the circulation, thereby preventing the devastating effects of warm ischemia that is known to deplete the follicles in ovarian tissue transplanted without vascular anastomosis (Newton et al., 1996; Nisolle et al., 2000; Candy et al., 1997; Aubard et al., 1999; Baird et al., 1999; Aubard, 2003; Liu et al., 2008 ). However, the successful cryopreservation of an intact organ represents an immense technical challenge. Pioneering work by Parrot (1960) on murine ovaries provided proof of principle. Later reports showed that also in other mammalian species this proved to be a viable approach. Freezing and autologous grafting of whole ovaries has now been performed in rabbits (Chen et al., 2005), pigs (Imhof et al., 2004), and sheep (Bedaiwy et al., 2003; Arav et al., 2005; Imhof et al., 2006), yielding promising results. In rats (Wang et al., 2002) and sheep (Imhof et al., 2006), this procedure has actually resulted in live offspring. In humans, transplantation of fresh (non-cryopreserved) intact ovaries has also been performed successfully. Ovarian autotransplantation in the upper arm was performed before pelvic irradiation (Leporrier 1987, Hilders et al., 2004). Over a period of 16 years, the ovary remained functional (Leporrier et al., 2002). A first full-term pregnancy was obtained using orthotopic fresh whole ovary transplantation between identical twin sisters (Silber et al., 2008b).
Cryopreservation of an intact human ovary with its vascular pedicle has been described previously (Martinez-Madrid et al., 2004, 2007; Bedaiwy et al., 2006). These authors showed that perfusion of the ovary with cryoprotectants led to a certain degree of protection from cryodamage. The subsequent autotransplantation of frozen and thawed human ovaries, however, has thus far not been performed. Major obstacle in this respect is the much larger volume of human ovaries compared to murine and ovine ovaries (Gerritse et al., 2008). This larger volumes hampers the sufficient diffusion of cryoprotectant into the tissue (Donnez et al., 2006b). In addition, the freezing kinetics in a bulky organ are bound to be completely different from those in a small volume organ (Pegg, 2005). Finally, all components of the organ, including the vascular pedicle, the inner vasculature, the stromal tissue and of course the follicles, should be verifiably protected before retransplantation to human subjects can be even considered. This requires the development of biologically relevant assays that are able to quantify cryodamage in a reliable fashion. Understandably, efforts have focused mainly on the survival of the follicles within the intact cryopreserved ovary. This has been done by conventional histology (Bedaiwy et al., 2003, Arav et al., 2005\n\t\t\t\tCourbiere et al., 2005, 2006; Martinez-Madrid et al., 2004; Imhof et al., 2006; Baudot 2007), immunohistochemistry (Arav et al., 2005; Bedaiwy et al., 2006), determining the frequency of apoptosis (Bedaiwy et al., 2003, 2006; Martinez-Madrid et al., 2007), using survival/viability/proliferation assays (Bedaiwy et al., 2003, 2006; Martinez-Madrid et al., 2004, Arav et al., 2005, Courbiere et al., 2005, 2006; Imhof et al., 2004; Baudot et al., 2007, Onions et al., 2008), transmission electron microscopy (Martinez-Madrid et al., 2007) and estradiol assays (Huang et al., 2008; Isachenko et al., 2007; Gerritse et al., 2010). These studies have produced relevant information on the prevention of cryodamage in follicles, but have largely left out the main component of the ovary, namely the stromal cell compartment that constitutes over 95% of the ovarian mass. An additional reason to focus also on survival of stromal cells is the observation that these cells are vital for optimal follicular development (McLaughlin and McIver, 2009). Finally, the metabolically active stromal cells have been described to be more sensitive to cryodamage than the quiescent primordial oocytes (Kim et al., 2004). These observations emphasize the need for a cryopreservation protocol that not only efficiently preserves the follicles/oocytes, but the stromal cell compartment as well.
We therefore decided to develop an assay that is capable of quantifying the basal metabolism of the bulk of the tissue as a measure of cryodamage. For this purpose we measured the uptake of glucose and the release of lacate by cultured ovarian tissue fragments. We used bovine ovaries as a model system, as they are comparable to human ovaries with respect to size, monthly cycle, and number of follicles that mature per cycle (Gerritse et al., 2008). In this model system we were able to test different cryopreservation protocols. Our results show that both immersion of the bovine ovary in cryoprotectant, combined with perfusing it for a prolonged period of time, resulted in a nearly complete protection of the ovarian metabolism. This procedure did not affect the endothelium of the vascular pedicle and the inner vasculature (Gerritse et al., submitted). We plan to xenotransplant optimally cryopreserved bovine ovaries into immune deficient rats, in order to test the ability of the follicles to develop in vivo and produce mature oocytes.
6. Safety aspects of ovarian tissue autotransplantation
A major point of concern when autotransplanting ovarian tissue to cured cancer patients, is the possibility that (metastasized) tumor cells are present in the ovarian graft and are reintroduced to the patient (Shaw et al., 1996). Thus far a limited number of patients has received an autransplantation, and up to now no relapses have been reported. It should be noted, however, that most patients receiving an autotransplantation suffered from early stage cancer when their tissue was harvested. In addition, the follow up period after the transplantation has been relatively short. As a consequence, the experience with this matter is only limited, and retransplantation of the malignancy can never be ruled out completely. Shaw et al. (1996) actually showed that lymphoma could be transmitted via cryopreserved ovarian tissue in a mouse model. The physician therefore has the responsibility to counsel the patient comprehensively on the risk of malignant cells being present in the ovarian tissue, and the possible consequences after autotransplantation. Two different approaches can be used to draft an advice.First, one can extrapolate on statistical data describing the frequency with which a certain tumor in a certain stage will metastasize to the ovary. For a number of solid tumor types, ovarian metastases have been described for advanced stages but not for early stage tumors (Rosendahl et al., 2011). These include Hodgkin’s disease (Khan et al., 1986), renal cell carcinoma (Insabato et al., 2003) and breast cancer (Horvath et al., 1977). It should be noted, however, that systematically collected data are missing for most tumor types, giving only a limited idea of the risk of tumor dissemination to the ovary. In contrast to solid tumors, diffuse malignancies such as leukemia are likely to be present in all blood-filled organs, including the ovary. Therefore, patients suffering from these kind of diseases should probably be excluded from using (cryopreserved) ovarian tissue as a means for fertility preservation. The second, and probably preferable, option, is to tailor a patient specific approach, i.e. analyzing (part of) the tissue that is to be autotransplanted in the future for the presence of (residual) disease. In an ideal situation, sensitive and specific tests would be available for the detection of each tumor type in a tissue. Techniques that have been used to asses the presence of malignant cells in ovarian tissue include conventional histology (Azem et al., 2010; Donnez et al., 2011), immunohistochemistry (Rosendahl et al., 2011), PCR amplification of tumor specific RNA/DNA (Rosendahl et al., 2010), and xenotransplantation of ovarian tissue fragments to immune deficient mice (Dolmans et al., 2010). In real life, however, these approaches encounter several obstacles. Histology is relatively non-sensitive as individual tumor cells can be missed, and usually only a limited number of sections is analyzed. Whereas immunohistochemistry is generally more sensitive than histology, it requires specific tumor cell markers that are not available for most type of cancers. While PCR in itself is a very sensitive technique, the ratio between the few malignant cells that are potentially present in the graft and the large number of normal ovarian cells impairs the reliability and sensitivity of this test. PCR results that indicate the presence of residual tumor cells are therefore mostly qualitative and not quantitative. Furthermore, PCR detects only the presence of relatively short stretches of specific RNA/DNA sequences and not viable cells. Xenotransplantation experiments may provide biologically relevant information, but are expensive and cumbersome and probablyl not routinely applicable. Apart from these practical issues, positive tests results raise some more questions. First, we do not know when a positive signal becomes biologically significant,. i.e. predictive of relapse after transplantation. Examples of this notion are a positive PCR signal that may be derived from a number of deceased cells and may therefore not be of clinical relevance. We currently we do not know exactly how many malignant cells are required for reintroduction of the tumor. In animal models as few as 200 lymphoblasts were sufficient to introduce leukemia (Hou et al., 2007), but the same may not apply to the human situation. Next, the ovarian tissue fragment that is being analyzed for residual disease, is evidently no longer available for transplantation. The outcome of the analysis will therefore not necessarily be applicable to the cortical fragments that are actually transplanted. The importance of this notion was substantiated by the finding that malignant cell DNA was found in an ovarian cortex fragment by PCR analysis, whereas the adjacent cortex fragment from the same ovary was found to be PCR-negative (Rosendahl, 2010). Finally, the autotransplantation of small volume cortex fragments is much less likely to reintroduce the malignancy then the autotransplantation of an intact ovary.
7. Concluding remarks
The last decade has seen the development of a number of options for fertility preservation for cancer patients. All the options that are currently available have their own specific indications and contraindications. The choice for the appropriate option will be a shared decision of both the patient and her physician, requiring a careful evaluation and counseling. Increasing the awareness of physicians to address the issue of fertility preservation before starting gonadotoxic therapy should be an integral part of medical education.
Current research, including intact ovary cryopreservation, may lead to several exciting new options for fertility preservation. It should be noted that this option is not intended to replace the current possibilities, but will rather have its own specific patient population that may benefit most from this procedure. The obvious risk of intact ovary autotransplantation is reintroduction of the malignancy. Evidently, more research into the development of valid and biologically relevant tumor detection methods in ovarian tissue, as well as in the prevalence of ovarian metastases in cancer patients with different types of primary tumors, is urgently needed.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Kika Foundation and Stichting Pink Ribbon for their financial support. MSD/N.V. Organon is acknowledged for providing an unconditional grant.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/26744.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/26744.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/26744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/26744",totalDownloads:1728,totalViews:185,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:23,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 16th 2010",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 27th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/26744",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/26744",book:{id:"1310",slug:"topics-in-cancer-survivorship"},signatures:"R. Gerritse, L. Bastings, C.C.M. Beerendonk, J.R. Westphal, D.D.M. Braat and R. Peek",authors:[{id:"60485",title:"Dr.",name:"Renne",middleName:null,surname:"Gerritse",fullName:"Renne Gerritse",slug:"renne-gerritse",email:"r.gerritse@obgyn.umcn.nl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"60534",title:"Dr.",name:"Catharina",middleName:null,surname:"Beerendonk",fullName:"Catharina Beerendonk",slug:"catharina-beerendonk",email:"c.beerendonk@obgyn.umcn.nl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"60535",title:"MSc",name:"Lobke",middleName:null,surname:"Bastings",fullName:"Lobke Bastings",slug:"lobke-bastings",email:"l.bastings@obgyn.umcn.nl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"60536",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Westphal",fullName:"Johan Westphal",slug:"johan-westphal",email:"j.westphal@obgyn.umcn.nl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"60537",title:"Prof.",name:"Didi",middleName:null,surname:"Braat",fullName:"Didi Braat",slug:"didi-braat",email:"d.braat@obgyn.umcn.nl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"60538",title:"Dr",name:"Ron",middleName:null,surname:"Peek",fullName:"Ron Peek",slug:"ron-peek",email:"r.peek@obgyn.umcn.nl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Ovaries, oocytes and female reproduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Effects of radio- and chemotherapy on female fertility ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Chemotherapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Radiotherapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Effects on pregnancy and health of newborns",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Current options for fertility preservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Ovarian transposition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Vitrification of oocytes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3. Cryopreservation of embryos",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.3.1. Case report A: Emergency IVF in a patient with breast cancer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4. Cryopreservation of ovarian cortical tissue strips",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.4.1. Case report B: Ovarian tissue cryopreservation in a patient with Hodgkin’s lymphoma",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Future options for fertility preservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Safety aspects of ovarian tissue autotransplantation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AndersenC.RosendahlM.ByskowA.LoftA.OttosenC.DueholmM.SchmidtK.AndersenA.ErnstE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tTwo successful pregnancies following autotransplantation of frozen/thawed ovarian tissue. Hum. Reprod. 23\n\t\t\t\t\t22662272 .'},{id:"B2",body:'AravA.Reve,lA.NathanY.BorA.GacituaH.YavinS.GavishZ.UriM.ElamiA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tOocyte recovery, embryo development and ovarian function after cryopreservation and transplantation of whole sheep ovary. Hum. Reprod.\n\t\t\t\t\t20\n\t\t\t\t\t35549\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'AubardY.PiverP.CognieY.FermeauxV..PoulinN.DriancourtM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tOrthotopic and heterotopic autografts of frozen-thawed ovarian cortex in sheep.\n\t\t\t\t\tHuman. 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Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre,Department Obstetrics and Gynaecology Nijmegen, Netherlands
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\n
1. Introduction
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As early as the 1970s, Maxwell revealed that electromagnetic waves can carry momentum in his famous electromagnetic field theory. When electromagnetic waves are applied to objects, they will transmit momentum. Therefore, electromagnetic waves can exert force on objects, and then the concept of electromagnetic force is proposed [1]. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, Einstein proposed the concept of photonic quantum, which believes that light is composed of a group of photons with both mass and momentum. When light is irradiated on the surface of the object, it can cause changes in the photon momentum to produce radiation pressure on the object due to the scattering and absorption of light. Subsequently, Lebedev, Nichol, and Hull first demonstrated the existence of radiation pressure experimentally. The experiment used arc lamps and torsion scales to observe the effect of light in the macroscopic physical world. However, the light produced by the arc lamp is very weak and difficult to practically apply. Until 1960, the invention of the laser provided a high-intensity optical source for studying optical force, which greatly promoted the application of optical manipulation. Arthur Ashkin, a scientist at Bell Experiments in the United States, first used the radiation pressure generated by the laser beam to push tiny particles in the liquid environment [2] and then used two opposing laser beams to capture microparticles and even atoms. However, the experimental setup used in the dual-beam capture method is too complex and can only limit microparticles in a two-dimensional plane. Scientists hope to use a single laser to achieve three-dimensional trapping of microparticles. To this end, in 1986, Ashkin et al. used a high-numerical-aperture objective to focus a single laser to trap microparticles and named the technology “single beam gradient force trap” [3]. A year later, Ashkin et al. continued to improve this technology and achieved optical trapping and manipulation of tiny bacteria and viruses. They officially named the technology “optical tweezers” [3]. Compared with traditional macro-mechanical tweezers, the optical tweezers have the advantages of noncontact and no damage and can perform high-precision manipulation of microscopic particles. Therefore, since the birth of the optical tweezer technology, it has played an important role in the fields of biomedicine and physical chemistry.
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1.1 Traditional optical tweezers
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1.1.1 Basic principles
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The core component of the traditional optical tweezers is a highly focused beam, as shown in \nFigure 1a\n [4]. When the incident laser (usually a near-infrared laser with a wavelength of 1064 nm) is focused by a high-numerical-aperture objective lens, the microparticles in the liquid environment will be exposed to optical force near the focus. This force is derived from the momentum transfer effect between light and particles. Specifically, the optical forces are divided into two components: one component along the direction of the optical gradient, called the optical gradient force, which is caused by the microparticles being in a nonuniform optical field, and the optical gradient force, which drives the particles to the area where the optical intensity is greatest; another component along the direction of optical propagation, called optical scattering force, is caused by the scattering and absorption of particles, and the optical scattering force causes the microparticles to move along the direction of optical propagation. By modulating the focused beam, the magnitude of two forces can be varied to achieve different functions such as capture, acceleration, and rotation of the microparticles. For traditional optical tweezers to construct a stable trap, it is necessary to focus the incident laser with a high-numerical-aperture (generally NA = 1.0~1.4) objective lens. The resulting optical gradient force is greater than the optical scattering force, so the microparticles or the cells can be stably trapped in the focus of light [5].
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Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of the traditional optical tweezers. (a) A single microparticle is trapped to the focused spot of a laser beam by gradient force and scattering force to [4]. (b) A simple harmonic oscillator model for the optical trapping of the microparticle.
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The model in which the object is trapped by the optical tweezers can be equivalent to a simple oscillator, as shown in \nFigure 1b\n. The magnitude of the object’s received optical force (F) is proportional to the object’s distance from the focus (d), which is
\n
\n\n\n\nF\n=\n−\nkd\n\n\n\nE1
\n
where the constant k represents the spring constant of the spring oscillator and the strength of the trap. Therefore, when we know the motion of an object in a trap, the magnitude of the optical force can be calculated by Formula 1. However, in the more general case, we want to quantitatively analyze the optical force when the unknown object motions and then other optical theories are needed. The theoretical analysis of optical tweezers needs to be determined according to the size of the object, specifically divided into three cases: first, when the radius (R) of the particle is much larger than the wavelength (λ) of the incident light, then a simple geometric optical method can be used to analyze the force of the object; second, if the size of the particle is much smaller than the wavelength of the incident light, the particle can be equivalent to the dipole in the electric field, and a dipole approximation model is needed; and third, if the size of the particles is close to the wavelength of the light, the situation becomes complicated, and the Maxwell equation is needed to solve the problem.
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We first analyze the Rayleigh nanoparticle (R <<λ). At this time, the nanoparticle can be regarded as a dipole in a nonuniform electromagnetic field, and the optical gradient force (\nF\n\n\ngrad\n) of the dipole in the electromagnetic field can be expressed as
where α is the polarizability of the dipole, \nE\n is the electric field, parentheses indicate the time average, and \n|E\n\n\n\n2\n\n\n\n|\n is proportional to the intensity of the electromagnetic field. It can be seen from Formula 2 that the direction of the optical gradient force \nF\n\n\ngrad\n is along the direction of the optical intensity gradient. Thus, for a highly concentrated beam, the particles are drawn to the focus of the spot. Here, the polarizability α is a crucial parameter that directly determines the intensity of the interaction of light with object. For spherical nanoparticles, α can be expressed as [6]
where k = 2πn/λ is the scalar of the incident light wave vector, ε is the dielectric constant of the particle, ε0\n is the dielectric constant of the vacuum, α\n0 is the quasi-static polarizability of the nanoparticle, and α\n0 can be given by the Clausius-Mossotti relation [6]:
The radiation pressure (\nF\n\n\nrad\n) is produced by the scattering and absorption of light by the surface of the particles, which can be expressed as [7]
where n is the refractive index of the surrounding environment, c is the speed of light in the vacuum, and 〈P〉 is the time-averaged Poynting vector, which can be expressed as
The σ in Formula 6 reflects the characteristics of the nanoparticle, which indicates the extinction cross section of the nanoparticle, including the scattering cross section (σ\nscat) and the absorption cross section (σ\nabs), and σ is determined by the following formula [8]:
where \n\n\nα\n\n′\n′\n\n\n\n is the imaginary part of the particle polarizability α, which represents the absorption of light by the particles. For transparent media particles, this term is approximately equal to zero and can be ignored. It can be seen from Formula 5 that the direction of the optical scattering force coincides with the direction of the glass booth vector, that is, the direction in which the optical scattering force propagates along the light. When \nF\n\n\ngrad >\nF\n\n\nrad\n, the trapping of particles can be achieved.
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The dipole approximation model is only applicable to spherical nanoparticles. When the shape of the captured object is irregular or the size is the same magnitude as the wavelength, it needs to be solved from the most basic Maxwell equations using simulation software. This method is based on the Maxwell stress tensor integral of the surface S of the object, as defined below:
where \n\nE\n\n\n and \n\nH\n\n are the electric field vector and the magnetic flux vector in the electromagnetic field, \n\n\nE\n∗\n\n\n and \n\n\nH\n∗\n\n\n are complex conjugates, \nI\n is an isotropic tensor, and ε and μ represent the dielectric constant and magnetic permeability, respectively. After calculating the optical force, the torque of the object can also be calculated by the following formula:
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\n\n\n\nT\n=\n∫\nr\np\n×\nd\nF\np\n,\n\n\n\nE10
\n
where \n\nd\nF\np\n\n represents the unit force at the point of action p and \n\nr\np\n\n is the position vector from the center of the object to the point of action p.
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1.1.2 Applications of the optical tweezers
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Professor Ashkin, the pioneer of optical tweezers, predicted that optical tweezers as the manipulation technology of tiny particles will be widely used in the research of molecular biology, cell biology, and mesoscopic physics, especially to promote the development of many interdisciplinary subjects [9]. As an example, we will introduce some of the applications of the optical tweezers in the following aspects:
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1.1.2.1 Capture, separation, and assembly of microparticles and cells
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The invention of optical tweezers was used to capture and manipulate tiny particles such as polystyrene microspheres, biological cells, viruses, and bacteria [12]. By capturing these tiny particles, the Brownian motion of particles can be overcome and fixed in the field of the microscope for the researcher to observe and detect. When the particles are stably captured, they can be moved to a specific position and arranged in a regular pattern, which is applied to the ordered assembly of particles and cell arrays (as shown in \nFigure 2a\n), giving it a specific function. Further, by measuring the mechanical properties of particles and cell array, the interaction between the particles or cells can be studied. In addition, since different types of particles and cells are affected by the magnitude and direction of optical force, separation and screening of particles and cells can be achieved. With the maturity of optical tweezer technology, the system of optical tweezers is gradually combined with Raman technology, fluorescence technology [13], confocal technology, and femtosecond laser technology and achieves real-time detection of captured targets, which will enrich the applications of optical tweezers in cell biology and colloidal physics.
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Figure 2.
Several application examples of traditional optical tweezers. (a) Order and assemble microparticles and cells. (b) Study the interaction of nucleic acid molecules using micron media balls as handles [10]. (c) Rotating the microspheres using a vortex beam [11]. (d) Stretching human red blood cells using a micron media ball as a handle.
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1.1.2.2 Study of optical tweezers and single molecules
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The optical technology has a high mechanical resolution (10−12–10−15 N), which is sufficient for the study of individual biomacromolecules. For example, the basic laws of life movement are explained by measuring the physical forces such as the tiny force of biological single molecule and the motion step size. Optical tweezer technology has become an indispensable tool for quantitatively studying life processes and transforming life activities. Since the diameter of biomolecules is generally between 1 and 10 nanometers, the optical tweezer system cannot directly observe and manipulate. In order to see a single molecule, it is necessary to combine fluorescence imaging technology; in order to manipulate a single molecule, it is necessary to connect the molecule to the microsphere and indirectly manipulate and measure by using the small microsphere as the “handle” of the manipulation. For example, the two ends of the DNA molecular chain are, respectively, connected to two microspheres, and the microspheres are manipulated by a double-beam tweezers to stretch the DNA molecular chain and measure its elastic properties (as shown in \nFigure 2b\n) [10]. By rotating the two microspheres in the opposite direction, the binding force of the DNA molecular chain can be calculated. Using similar methods, researchers can also study the properties of various biomacromolecules: RNA transcription, kinesin movement, the role of polymerases, etc. These are the basic processes of life activities. Its high-precision measurement can reveal the basic laws of life activities and lay the foundation for the research and application of biomedicine.
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1.1.2.3 Optical rotator
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The optical rotator is a branch of the optical tweezers that not only captures the microparticles but also allows the angular rotation of the microparticles as shown in \nFigure 2c\n [11]. This technique is based on the moment applied by the angular momentum of the light to the object. In order to achieve the rotation of the particles, the optical rotator requires a special beam of angular momentum, such as a Laguerre-Gauss beam [14]. Rotating particles or cells are used in many fields, such as rotating a tiny mechanical motor in a liquid environment to control the movement of local water flow. In addition, by rotating living cells, it can be imaged at various angles, which is beneficial to observe the full three-dimensional appearance of cells.
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1.1.2.4 Optical stretchers
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Stretching cells can study the elasticity of cell membranes, and the elasticity of cell membranes is closely related to many cellular diseases and can be used to reflect the activity of cells and even the health of the human body. There are many optical stretching methods based on optical tweezers, such as direct stretching of double-beam tweezers, stretching by microsphere handle, time-division multiplexed stretching, and so on. The method based on the microsphere handle-stretching method is more commonly used because of the high measurement precision. The method is shown in \nFigure 2d\n: two microspheres are adhered to the cell surface by chemical coupling, and then the microspheres are controlled to move in opposite directions by the tweezers. At this time, the cell membrane is stretched by shearing force. By recording the shape variables of the cells and measuring the force of stretching the microspheres, physical parameters such as the elastic modulus of the cell membrane can be calculated.
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1.2 Holographic optical tweezers
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1.2.1 Basic principles
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Traditional optical tweezers based on single beam can only capture and manipulate one or a few particles at a time. However, researchers want to improve the efficiency of capture, such as controlling multiple particles at the same time. Based on this goal, scientists invented holographic optical tweezers. The core component of holographic optical tweezers is a hologram element: an interference pattern formed by recording the object light and reference light through the film. The wave front can be adjusted by holographic elements to construct a light field with a specific function. The holographic optical tweezers were firstly invented in 1998 by Professor Grier of the University of Chicago and his collaborators [15]. They used a holographic element (diffraction grating) to split the collimated single laser beam into multiple independent beams, and then an array of grating is formed by focusing the lens to capture a large number of microparticles. The earliest holographic elements were prepared by coherent-optical interferometry, but the holographic elements obtained by this method have low diffraction efficiency and poor versatility, and thus this method has not been widely used. In order to improve diffraction efficiency and applicability, conventional holographic elements are often composed of spatial light modulators. The spatial light modulators include liquid crystal spatial light modulators, acousto-optic modulators, and digital microlens arrays. The spatial light modulator is controlled by a computer, and each focused beam can be individually controlled by changing the hologram element so that the formed trap well can be dynamically changed. Such holographic optical tweezers not only capture a plurality of microparticles at the same time but also control the movement of each microparticle to be arranged in different shapes, thereby achieving ordered assembly of the microparticles.
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1.2.2 Applications of the holographic optical tweezers
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As an emerging optical technology, holographic optical tweezers can trap and manipulate a large number of particles, showing great application prospects in the fields of particle assembly and construction of three-dimensional cell microstructure (\nFigure 3\n). For example, Glen R. Kirkham et al. of the United Kingdom used holographic optical tweezers to assemble one-, two-, and three-dimensional embryonic stem cell array structures (as shown in \nFigure 4\n) to provide a new means to study the directed differentiation of stem cells [16]. Moreover, Jesacher and his colleagues from Austria regulated the amplitude and phase of the incident light field through a liquid crystal spatial light modulator, which not only realized trapping potential wells of special shapes such as line, cross, circle, and rectangle but also controlled the microparticle movement along a specific path. In addition, holographic optical tweezer technology can also produce beams with special modes, such as Bessel beams, Laguerre-Gauss beams, and Airy beams [18]. These special-mode beams have peculiar phase distribution and propagation characteristics and can generate trapped potential wells with special functions, such as rotating particles with a Laguerre-Gauss beam, which can be used to construct micro- and nano-motors and study the transfer of orbital angular momentum; Airy beam or Bessel beam can be used to transport particles for sorting different types of particles and cells.
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Figure 3.
Bright-field optical micrographs and confocal fluorescence micrographs of one-, two-, and three-dimensional microarray structures of embryonic stem cells assembled by holographic optical tweezers [16].
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Figure 4.
The basic principle of the fiber-based optical tweezers. (a) Schematic diagram of the optical gradient force (Fg) and scattering force (Fs) applied to the microparticles by the fiber-based optical tweezers. (b) Simulation of electric field intensity distribution of the fiber-based optical tweezers. (c) A chain of yeast cells was trapped by the fiber-based optical tweezers [17].
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1.3 Fiber-based optical tweezers
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1.3.1 Basic principles
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Due to the low integration of conventional optical tweezer systems, it is difficult to manipulate particles located in a narrow position, such as particles inside a microfluidic channel or red blood cells in a blood vessel. The newly developed fiber-based optical tweezers are promising candidates because of its compact structure and flexible operation, which can overcome the problems of traditional optical tweezers [19]. Fiber-based optical tweezers use the output light from the end face of the fiber to achieve particle capture and manipulation, as shown in \nFigure 5a\n. When the laser beam passes into the fiber, it converges through the end of fiber and form a highly focused beam. The microparticles located near the tip of the fiber will be captured by the longitudinal gradient force onto the optical axis of the fiber and then captured by the lateral gradient force at the focus of the emitted light or move along the optical axis under the action of optical scattering force. For fiber-based optical tweezers, the distribution of the exiting light field depends on the shape of the fiber tip, which is a highly focused beam, to create a three-dimensional trapping potential. Currently, the tip of the fiber-based optical tweezers is generally designed as a parabolic, spherical, or conical structure. Different shapes of fiber tip can be prepared by physical polishing, heating stretching, chemical etching, and femtosecond laser processing. By changing the physical parameters of the preparation method, such as temperature, speed, time, etc., the shape and size of the fiber tip can be controlled to achieve different functions. \nFigure 5b\n shows the output light field distribution of a typical tapered fiber. It can be seen that the light is concentrated at the front end of fiber so that the cells can be trapped on the axis of the front end of the fiber and arranged into an ordered structure, as shown in \nFigure 5c\n [17].
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Figure 5.
This schematic shows a versatile fiber-based optical tweezers: number 1 indicates the capture, transport, and sorting of cells, number 2 indicates the optical stretching and deformation of cells, and numbers 3 indicates the optical rotation of cells.
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1.3.2 Application of fiber-based optical tweezers
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Since the fiber-based optical tweezers have the advantages of simple fabrication, flexible operation, compact structure, and easy integration, it has applications in many fields. For example, Xin et al. used a flame heating and melting taper to prepare a fiber-based optical tweezers with a tapered tip, which enables the capture of submicron-sized polystyrene particles and E. coli cells [20, 21]. Xu et al. realized the rotation of single silver nanowires using two tapered fibers, which provide a controlled and optical method for assembling plasmonic nanostructures [22]. Fiber-based optical tweezers will be developed in the direction of high integration and multifunctionality to adapt to lab-on-a-chip and in vivo requirements. In the future, the fiber-based optical tweezers may integrate multiple functions on a single-fiber probe, as shown in \nFigure 6\n, such as simultaneously capturing, transporting, sorting, stretching, deforming, and rotating various cells and pathogens in the microfluidics or living blood.
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Figure 6.
Slot waveguide optical tweezers. (a) Schematic diagram of the optical gradient force and scattering force of nanoparticles in the slot waveguide. (b) A simulation result of the light intensity distribution of the slot waveguide in an aqueous environment. (c) An electron scanning micrograph of a waveguide having a slit of 100 nm. (d) The slot waveguide captures a large number of polystyrene particles of 75 nm in diameter in the water flow [23].
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1.4 Nano-optical tweezers
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1.4.1 Planar waveguide optical tweezers
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When the light is transmitted in the waveguide, an evanescent wave is generated on the surface of the waveguide due to the total reflection. The evanescent wave is limited to a near-field range of 100 nanometers from the surface of the waveguide. When a nanoparticle enters the evanescent wave, the gradient of the light intensity changes greatly in the direction perpendicular to the waveguide, so the nanoparticles will be trapped on the surface of the waveguide by a strong optical gradient force. In the direction of light propagation, the evanescent wave can be considered to be uniformly distributed. Therefore, there is no optical gravity force in this direction. Only the optical scattering force exists. The nanoparticles move along the direction of light propagation due to the optical scattering force. Therefore, planar waveguide optical tweezers are often used for the transport of nanoparticles. Moreover, since the optical waveguide device is easily integrated into the microfluidic chip, the planar waveguide optical tweezers play an important role in the field of microfluidics. Current planar waveguide optical tweezers can be classified into three types: rectangular waveguide optical tweezers, slot waveguide optical tweezers, and nanofiber waveguide optical tweezers.
\n
The manipulation of microparticles by a rectangular waveguide optical tweezers was first implemented by Kawata et al. [5]. They use rectangular waveguides to perform noncontact optical transport of different sizes of microparticles. This method can deliver cells or drugs over long distances. After this groundbreaking work, more and more researchers have entered this field and designed rectangular waveguides with different structures for transporting metal particles, media particles, microbial cells, etc. [5].
\n
Since the evanescent wave of the rectangular waveguide has limited light confinement, it is challenging for the rectangular waveguide to capture particles and biomolecules below 100 nm. To solve this limitation, the researchers developed slot waveguide nanotweezers [23]. The slot waveguide is an air slit having a width of nanometers by photolithography or electron beam etching. The large refractive index contrast between low refractive index slot and high refractive index waveguide material makes the light energy highly confined in the slot region, which produces a strong optical gradient force and scattering force on the nanoparticles entering the slot. Using this property, Yang et al. achieved capture and transport of polystyrene particles and DNA molecules with sizes below 100 nanometers (as shown in \nFigure 7\n) [23].
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Figure 7.
Photonic crystal optical tweezers. (a) Schematic representation of a single-dimensional photonic crystal resonator capturing a single nanoparticle [24]. (b) Schematic representation of a two-dimensional photonic crystal resonator capturing a single E. coli [25].
\n
A common problem with rectangular waveguide optical tweezers and slot waveguide optical tweezers is that they must be fixed on the substrate, making it difficult to operate. The emerging nanofiber waveguide optical tweezers can solve this problem. Li et al. used fibers with a diameter of 500–700 nm to achieve stable trap, bidirectional transport, optical separation, and controlled release of nanoparticles and micro-pathogens in microfluidics [26, 27]. The nanofiber waveguide optical tweezers have the advantages of low cost, production, and large control range and have important research value and application prospects in cell transportation, drug delivery, and particle collection.
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1.4.2 Photonic crystal optical tweezers
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Optical tweezers based on rectangular waveguides, slot waveguides, and nanofiber waveguides can only move particles along the waveguide surface but cannot be used to stably trap nanoparticles. In order to stably capture the nanoparticles, a photonic crystal optical tweezers were developed. The photonic crystal optical tweezers are based on one- or two-dimensional photonic crystal resonator structures (as shown in \nFigure 8\n) [24, 25]. When the laser that satisfies the wavelength matching condition is coupled into the photonic crystal resonator, static interference will occur in the cavity. With the resonance effect, the intensity of the light is greatly enhanced, and the size of the light spot is strongly suppressed, thereby enhancing the optical force of nanoparticles. Based on this principle, Erickson and Mandal et al. achieved stable capture and controlled release of nano-objects such as polystyrene particles, semiconductor quantum dots, and serum protein molecules in a liquid environment [30]. In addition, this method can also be used to study the angular rotation of silver nanowires or carbon nanotubes [31].
\n
Figure 8.
Plasmon optical tweezers. (a) Schematic diagram of a metal film having nanopores. (b) Schematic diagram of magnified metal nanopore capture nanoparticles. (c) SEM image of the metal nano-antenna structure and motion trajectory after the nanoparticles are captured. (d) Schematic representation of metal nano-antenna structures [28]. (e) SEM image of a metal nano-bowtie structure. (f) Schematic diagram of metal bow nanostructure [29].
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1.4.3 Plasmon optical tweezers
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Plasmon is a near-field electromagnetic wave formed by the resonance of free electrons on a metal surface and incident photons. Under such resonance conditions, the energy of the electromagnetic field will be converted into the collective vibrational energy of the free electrons on the metal surface, thereby forming a special electromagnetic field: the light is confined to the sub-wavelength of the metal surface and greatly enhanced. The effect is called the plasmon effect. Since the plasmon effect localizes the light in the near-field range of the nanometer order, it is widely used in the fields of fluorescence signal enhancement, near-field super-resolution imaging, high-density optical storage, integrated optical circuits, etc. [32]. In recent years, the plasmon effect has also been applied in the field of optical trapping and manipulation. The plasmon effect is divided into two types: surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), both of which can be used to enhance optical force. Researchers used a prismatic total internal reflection to couple incident light into a metal micro-disk on the substrate, which will increase the optical force of the particle by two orders of magnitude and realize the capture of the microparticle. However, the SPR-based optical tweezers can only enhance the optical force of the particle in a two-dimensional plane. Therefore, researchers have proposed an LSPR-based nano-optical tweezers to enhance the optical force of the nanoparticle in three dimensions, including metal nanopores (\nFigure 8a\n,\nb\n), metal nano-antennas (\nFigure 8c\n,\nd\n) [28], metal nano-bows (\nFigure 8e\n,\nf\n) [29], and metal nano-double holes [33]. By using these nano-optical tweezers to achieve trapping of various nanoparticles, such as polystyrene particles, protein molecules, gold particles, micro-pathogenic bacteria, and so on.
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2. Conclusions
\n
The noncontact and noninvasive optical trapping and manipulation of microparticles, cells, and biomolecules in liquid environments has broad application prospect in the fields of biomedicine and nanomaterial science [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. Traditional optical tweezers and holographic optical tweezers play an important role in the study of microscale optical manipulation. However, in the rapid development of nanoscience, traditional optical tweezers and holographic optical tweezers are difficult to adapt integration and nano-precision requirements due to the large volume and diffraction limitations. The developed nano-optical manipulation techniques, such as planar waveguides, plasmon optical tweezers, and photonic crystal resonators, can overcome the problem of difficult integration and diffraction limitations of conventional optical tweezers and holographic optical tweezers, which hold great promise in biophotonic and biomedical applications.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 11774135, 11874183, and 61827822).
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
\n',keywords:"optical tweezers, optical force, optical manipulation, biophotonics, biotechnology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66782.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66782.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66782",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66782",totalDownloads:1203,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 25th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 28th 2019",datePublished:"May 6th 2020",dateFinished:"April 18th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Three-dimensional optical manipulation of microparticles, cells, and biomolecules in a noncontact and noninvasive manner is crucial for biophotonic, nanophotonic, and biomedical fields. Optical tweezers, as a standard optical manipulation technique, have some limitations in precise manipulation of micro-objects in microfluidics and in vivo because of their bulky lens system and limited penetration depth. Moreover, when applied for trapping nanoscale objects, especially with sizes smaller than 100 nm, the strength of optical tweezers becomes significantly weak due to the diffraction limit of light. The emerging near-field methods, such as plasmon tweezers and photonic crystal resonators, have enabled surpassing of the diffraction limit. However, these methods msay lead to local heating effects that will damage the biological specimens and reduce the trapping stability. Furthermore, the available near-field techniques rely on complex nanostructures fixed on substrates, which are usually used for 2D manipulation. The optical tweezers are of great potential for the applications including nanostructure assembly, cancer cell sorting, targeted drug delivery, single-molecule studies, and biosensing.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66782",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66782",signatures:"Zhiyong Gong and Yuchao Li",book:{id:"7714",type:"book",title:"Emerging Micro",subtitle:"and Nanotechnologies",fullTitle:"Emerging Micro - and Nanotechnologies",slug:"emerging-micro-and-nanotechnologies",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",bookSignature:"Ruby Srivastava",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7714.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-598-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-597-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-100-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"185788",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruby",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",slug:"ruby-srivastava",fullName:"Ruby Srivastava"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"295828",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yuchao",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yuchao Li",slug:"yuchao-li",email:"liyuchao@jnu.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"298889",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhiyong",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",fullName:"Zhiyong Gong",slug:"zhiyong-gong",email:"375967138@qq.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Traditional optical tweezers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Basic principles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2 Applications of the optical tweezers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_4",title:"1.1.2.1 Capture, separation, and assembly of microparticles and cells",level:"4"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"1.1.2.2 Study of optical tweezers and single molecules",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"1.1.2.3 Optical rotator",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"1.1.2.4 Optical stretchers",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"1.2 Holographic optical tweezers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"1.2.1 Basic principles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"1.2.2 Applications of the holographic optical tweezers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"1.3 Fiber-based optical tweezers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"1.3.1 Basic principles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"1.3.2 Application of fiber-based optical tweezers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"1.4 Nano-optical tweezers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"1.4.1 Planar waveguide optical tweezers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"1.4.2 Photonic crystal optical tweezers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"1.4.3 Plasmon optical tweezers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"2. 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Nano Letters. 2012;12:6400-6407. DOI: 10.1021/nl303747n\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nBarnes WL, Dereux A, Ebbesen TW. Surface plasmon subwavelength optics. Nature. 2003;424:824-830. DOI: 10.1038/nature01937\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nKotnala A, Gordon R. Quantification of high-efficiency trapping of nanoparticles in a double nanohole optical tweezer. Nano Letters. 2014;14:853-856. DOI: 10.1021/nl404233z\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nDholakia K, Reece P. Optical micromanipulation takes hold. Nano Today. 2006;1:18-27. DOI: 10.1016/S1748-0132(06)70019-6\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nNeuman KC, Block SM. Optical trapping. The Review of Scientific Instruments. 2004;75:2787-2809. DOI: 10.1063/1.1785844\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nLeibfried D, Blatt R, Monroe C, Wineland D. Quantum dynamics of single trapped ions. Reviews of Modern Physics. 2003;75:281-324. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.75.281\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nMedintz IL, Uyeda HT, Goldman ER, Mattoussi H. Quantum dot bioconjugates for imaging, labelling and sensing. Nature Materials. 2005;4:435-446. DOI: 10.1038/nmat1390\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nSaha K, Agasti SS, Kim C, Li X, Rotello VM. Gold nanoparticles in chemical and biological sensing. Chemical Reviews. 2012;112:2739-2779. DOI: 10.1021/cr2001178\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nLei J, Ju H. Signal amplification using functional nanomaterials for biosensing. Chemical Society Reviews. 2012;41:2122-2134. DOI: 10.1039/c1cs15274b\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nZhang Y, Liu Z, Yang J, Yuan L. A non-contact single optical fiber multi-optical tweezers probe: Design and fabrication. Optics Communication. 2012;285:4068-4071. DOI: 10.1016/j.optcom.2012.06.025\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nLiberale C, Minzioni P, Bragheri F, De Angelis F, Di Fabrizio E, Cristiani I. Miniaturized all-fibre probe for three-dimensional optical trapping and manipulation. Nature Photonics. 2007;1:723-727. DOI: 10.1038/nphoton.2007.230\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nPang Y, Gordon R. Optical trapping of a single protein. Nano Letters. 2011;12:402-406. DOI: 10.1021/nl203719v\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nShoji T, Tsuboi Y. Plasmonic optical tweezers toward molecular manipulation: Tailoring plasmonic nanostructure, light source, and resonant trapping. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2014;5:2957-2967. DOI: 10.1021/jz501231h\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nYu XC et al. Single nanoparticle detection and sizing using a nanofiber pair in an aqueous environment. Advanced Materials. 2014;26:7462-7467. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201402085\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nNdukaife JC, Kildishev AV, Nnanna AGA, Shalaev VM, Wereley ST, Boltasseva A. Long-range and rapid transport of individual nano-objects by a hybrid electrothermoplasmonic nanotweezer. Nature Nanotechnology. 2016;11:53-59. DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2015.248\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nDholakia K, Reece P, Gu M. Optical micromanipulation. Chemical Society Reviews. 2008;37:42-55. DOI: 10.1039/B512471A\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nJuan ML, Righini M, Quidant R. Plasmon nano-optical tweezers. Nature Photonics. 2011;5:349-356. 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Lakshmanadoss"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3391",title:"Hot Topics in Echocardiography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0bc94ac2f06ba387c10de6f488fab7b2",slug:"hot-topics-in-echocardiography",bookSignature:"Angelo Squeri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3391.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"93275",title:"Dr.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Squeri",slug:"angelo-squeri",fullName:"Angelo Squeri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3381",title:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"94fcc7e15b58dfaa5203044c08c05927",slug:"recent-advances-in-infective-endocarditis",bookSignature:"Steven W. 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Fleming and Gordon M. Harrington",authors:[{id:"47432",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard M.",middleName:null,surname:"Fleming",slug:"richard-m.-fleming",fullName:"Richard M. Fleming"},{id:"112635",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordon M.",middleName:null,surname:"Harrington",slug:"gordon-m.-harrington",fullName:"Gordon M. Harrington"}]},{id:"52656",doi:"10.5772/64781",title:"Assessment of Right Ventricle by Echocardiogram",slug:"assessment-of-right-ventricle-by-echocardiogram",totalDownloads:2250,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Assessment of right ventricular (RV) function is important to ascertain clinical outcome in patients with symptoms of right ventricular failure manifested as lower extremity swelling and abdominal congestion. RV function is not routinely assessed and reported in clinical practice. Unlike the bullet‐shaped left ventricle (LV), RV has a complex geometry with a triangular shape. RV is further divided into the inlet, trabecular apex, and infundibulum or conus. RV evaluation involves quantifying afterload and preload, assessing the mechanism and severity of tricuspid regurgitation (TR), and quantitative evaluation of RV performance. For quantification of RV size and function, we can use intravenous contrast for endocardial tracing of RV border to measure RV dimensions, tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), fractional area change (FAC), Doppler index of myocardial performance (Tei index or myocardial performance index), pulsed wave or color Doppler tissue imaging systolic velocity [s'], or strain imaging. For qualitative evaluation of RV, the RV size is compared to the LV size in parasternal, short axis, and subcostal projections.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Gunjan Choudhary, Arushi A. Malik, Dwight Stapleton and Pratap\nC. Reddy",authors:[{id:"183647",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunjan",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",slug:"gunjan-choudhary",fullName:"Gunjan Choudhary"},{id:"192261",title:"Dr.",name:"Arushi A",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"arushi-a-malik",fullName:"Arushi A Malik"},{id:"192262",title:"Dr.",name:"Dwight",middleName:null,surname:"Stapleton",slug:"dwight-stapleton",fullName:"Dwight Stapleton"},{id:"192263",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap C",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"pratap-c-reddy",fullName:"Pratap C Reddy"}]},{id:"43925",doi:"10.5772/56118",title:"History of Antimicrobial Prophylaxis Protocols for Infective Endocarditis Secondary to Dental Procedures",slug:"history-of-antimicrobial-prophylaxis-protocols-for-infective-endocarditis-secondary-to-dental-proced",totalDownloads:2120,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3381",slug:"recent-advances-in-infective-endocarditis",title:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis"},signatures:"Inmaculada Tomás and Maximiliano Álvarez-Fernández",authors:[{id:"70085",title:"Dr.",name:"Inmaculada",middleName:null,surname:"Tomás-Carmona",slug:"inmaculada-tomas-carmona",fullName:"Inmaculada Tomás-Carmona"},{id:"149434",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximiliano",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Fernández",slug:"maximiliano-alvarez-fernandez",fullName:"Maximiliano Álvarez-Fernández"}]},{id:"16134",doi:"10.5772/24458",title:"Tissue Doppler in Ischemic Heart Disease",slug:"tissue-doppler-in-ischemic-heart-disease",totalDownloads:3286,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"344",slug:"establishing-better-standards-of-care-in-doppler-echocardiography-computed-tomography-and-nuclear-cardiology",title:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology",fullTitle:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology"},signatures:"Ola Gjesdal and Thor Edvardsen",authors:[{id:"40027",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor",middleName:null,surname:"Edvardsen",slug:"thor-edvardsen",fullName:"Thor Edvardsen"},{id:"58106",title:"Dr.",name:"Ola",middleName:null,surname:"Gjesdal",slug:"ola-gjesdal",fullName:"Ola Gjesdal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51931",title:"Speckle-Tracking Imaging, Principles and Clinical Applications: A Review for Clinical Cardiologists",slug:"speckle-tracking-imaging-principles-and-clinical-applications-a-review-for-clinical-cardiologists",totalDownloads:4570,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Evaluation of myocardial mechanics, although complex, has now entered the clinical arena, thanks to the introduction of bedside imaging techniques, such as speckle-tracking echocardiography.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Iacopo Fabiani, Nicola Riccardo Pugliese, Veronica Santini, Lorenzo\nConte and Vitantonio Di Bello",authors:[{id:"184730",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitantonio",middleName:null,surname:"Di Bello",slug:"vitantonio-di-bello",fullName:"Vitantonio Di Bello"},{id:"184733",title:"Dr.",name:"Iacopo",middleName:null,surname:"Fabiani",slug:"iacopo-fabiani",fullName:"Iacopo Fabiani"},{id:"184734",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Pugliese",slug:"nicola-riccardo-pugliese",fullName:"Nicola Riccardo Pugliese"},{id:"184736",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Conte",slug:"lorenzo-conte",fullName:"Lorenzo Conte"},{id:"185432",title:"Dr.",name:"Santini",middleName:null,surname:"Veronica",slug:"santini-veronica",fullName:"Santini Veronica"}]},{id:"16137",title:"Doppler Contrast Echocardiography",slug:"doppler-contrast-echocardiography",totalDownloads:2902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"344",slug:"establishing-better-standards-of-care-in-doppler-echocardiography-computed-tomography-and-nuclear-cardiology",title:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology",fullTitle:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology"},signatures:"Vincent L. Sorrell and Sachin Kumar",authors:[{id:"62264",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent L.",middleName:null,surname:"Sorrell",slug:"vincent-l.-sorrell",fullName:"Vincent L. Sorrell"},{id:"62565",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachin-kumar",fullName:"Sachin Kumar"}]},{id:"52583",title:"Role of Echocardiography in the Critically Ill Patients",slug:"role-of-echocardiography-in-the-critically-ill-patients",totalDownloads:2379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Since its inception in 1950s, echocardiography has evolved significantly. Its role has expanded beyond cardiology into operating theaters, intensive care units, and emergency departments. It is an easy, inexpensive, noninvasive, and portable technique, which can be rapidly performed at bedside. It is devoid of complications and, for the most part, universally available. This review focuses on growing importance of echocardiography for critically ill patients in the intensive care and high dependency unit settings including indications, modalities, measurements, and therapeutic impact. Literature review of echocardiography use for the cardiovascular assessment of the critically ill patients was done and various indications are discussed including appropriate use scores. Methods being used include transthoracic and transesophageal echo with various modes. This does include assessment of volume status of the hemodynamically unstable patients, myocardial function, global left ventricular systolic function, regional wall motion abnormalities, cardiac output, cardiac tamponade, valvular function, left ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular function. Other diagnostic assessments include aortic dissection, thromboembolisms, pleural effusions, and septal defects. Echocardiography is now considered as an indispensable tool for diagnosis and management including hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients. It provides advantages including noninvasiveness and real-time anatomical and functional assessment of the cardiovascular system.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Manivannan Veerasamy",authors:[{id:"185477",title:"Dr.",name:"Manivannan",middleName:null,surname:"Veerasamy",slug:"manivannan-veerasamy",fullName:"Manivannan Veerasamy"}]},{id:"51873",title:"Noninvasive Measurement of Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography",slug:"noninvasive-measurement-of-pulmonary-capillary-wedge-pressure-by-speckle-tracking-echocardiography",totalDownloads:1596,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The severity of left-sided heart failure can be evaluated by pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) because PCWP reflects left ventricular (LV) filling pressure. Owing to developments in echocardiographic technology, speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) has allowed automatic construction of time-left atrial (LA) volume (LAV) curves. Thus, we developed a novel index based on a combination of LAV and LA function that would estimate PCWP using STE. The following regression equation described the relationship between PCWP that was obtained by right-heart catheterization and active LAEF/minimum LAV index (volume was indexed to body surface area: LAVI) in the patients with sinus rhythm: PCWP = 10.8–12.4 [log10 (active LAEF/minimum LAVI)] (r = −0.86, p <0.001) (measurements from the apical 4-chamber view). We defined this index [log10 (active LAEF/minimum LAVI)] as the kinetics-tracking index (KT index). The PCWP estimated by the KT index (ePCWP) had a strong correlation with PCWP obtained by right-heart catheterization (r = 0.92, p <0.001). The ePCWP measured by STE could be a useful parameter to improve clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Masanori Kawasaki",authors:[{id:"50603",title:"Dr.",name:"Masanori",middleName:null,surname:"Kawasaki",slug:"masanori-kawasaki",fullName:"Masanori Kawasaki"}]},{id:"51894",title:"Multimodality Echocardiographic Assessment of Patients Undergoing Atrial Fibrillation Ablation",slug:"multimodality-echocardiographic-assessment-of-patients-undergoing-atrial-fibrillation-ablation",totalDownloads:1975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Atrial fibrillation (AF) is most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice. The new treatment standard in paroxysmal and persistent AF is the catheter ablation. Echocardiography plays a key role in risk stratification and management of patients with AF and is critical in the assessment of candidates for AF ablation, providing both anatomic and hemodynamic information. Echocardiography is crucial for patient selection, preprocedural left atrial appendage thrombus excluding, intraprocedural guidance, and detection and monitoring for early and late ablation related complications. Transthoracic echocardiography allows rapid and comprehensive assessment of cardiac anatomical structure and function. Transoesophageal echocardiography also provides accurate information about the presence of a thrombus in the atria and thromboembolic risk, making safe the ablation procedure by immediately detection of the complications related procedure. Intracardiac echocardiography has emerged as a popular and useful tool in the everyday practice of interventional electrophysiology, being very useful only during the ablation procedure. This paper presents the role of echocardiography in all these steps concerning AF ablation procedure, and also (1) delineates the role of echocardiographic techniques in guiding the procedure, (2) discusses the critical echocardiographic aspects of this procedure, and (3) underlines the strengths and limitations of various echocardiographic modalities.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Mariana Floria and Maria Daniela Tanase",authors:[{id:"185089",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanase",middleName:null,surname:"Daniela Maria",slug:"tanase-daniela-maria",fullName:"Tanase Daniela Maria"},{id:"185115",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Floria",slug:"mariana-floria",fullName:"Mariana Floria"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"982",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi"