1. Introduction
A Shack-Hartmann sensor is one of the most important and popular wavefront sensors used in an adaptive optics system to measure the aberrations caused by either atmospheric turbulence, laser transmission, or the living eye [1-7]. Its design was based on an aperture array that was developed in 1900 by Johannes Franz Hartmann as a means to trace individual rays of light through the optical system of a large telescope, thereby testing the quality of the image.[8] In the late 1960s Roland Shack and Platt modified the Hartmann screen by replacing the apertures in an opaque screen by an array of lenslets [9-10]. The terminology as proposed by Shack and Platt was “Hartmann-screen”. The fundamental principle seems to be documented even before Huygens by the Jesuit philosopher, Christopher Scheiner [11].
The schematic of a Shack-Hartman wavefront sensor is shown in Figure 1. It consists of an array of lenses (called lenslets, see Figure 1) of the same focal length. Each is focused onto a photon sensor (typically a CCD array or quad-cell). The local tilt of the wavefront across each lens can then be calculated from the position of the focal spot on the sensor. Any phase aberration can be approximated to a set of discrete tilts. By sampling an array of lenslets, all of these tilts can be measured and the whole wavefront can be approximated. Since only tilts are measured, the Shack-Hartmann can not measure the discontinuous steps of wavefront.
Tyler and Fried have obtained the theory expression, which evaluates the angular position error when a quadrant detector is used in the SHWFS [12]. The formula they obtained, based on circular aperture diffraction, is shown in Eq. (1)
where
Hardy has described formulas that can be used to evaluate the angular position error [13], under the conditions that the photon shot noise of signal is dominant. Although his formulas discussed the size of the diffraction-limited spot on the discrete detector arrays, it is reliable only under the approximation condition that
Cao
In this chapter, the wavefront error of a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor was analyzed in detail based on the research results of angular position error and wavefront error [16-17]. and the formula used to evaluate the wavefront error was derived, it concerns with the signal to noise ratio, number of photons and reconstruction matrix also.
2. The angular position error caused by random noise
The wavefront to be measured is segmented into many subwavefronts by lenslet arrays, and the light spots at the focal plane of the subapertures are detected by the CCD. Particularly, the analysis is based on the notion that the wavefront is essentially flat over each subaperture and
The formulas which evaluate the centroid error associated with the signal’s photon shot noise and the readout noise of the detector, respectively, have been derived by Cao
where η is the positive constant. η is 0.353 when the diffraction aperture is square and 0.431 when the diffraction aperture is circular.
Based on Eq. (3), the centroid position in the
where
Based on the error transition principles, the rms error of centroid measurement induced by random noise in the
where
If there were no heterogeneous light and readout noise in the detection area, the signal’s photon shot noise should be the unique noise resource which affects centroid measurement. Based on Eq. (4) and Eq. (6), when the discrete sampling error of the detector is ignored, the rms error of angular position in the
When the photon shot noise of the signal is small compared with the readout noise and the heterogeneous light noise, the heterogeneous light noise and the readout noise become the primary noise, which affects centroid calculation. When the heterogeneous light noise can be considered as a uniform noise, like the readout noise of the detector, it exists in each pixel and it has the same fluctuation characteristics among the pixels in the detection area. So, the noise in one pixel (including the heterogeneous light noise and the readout noise of the CCD) can be summed and described by
where
The intensity distribution of the signal’s light spot at the focal plane of the subaperture can be calculated by circular or square aperture diffraction approximations. On the other hand, the Gauss distribution can also be used to approximately describe the intensity distribution of the light spot. The analytic expressions of
where
When the direct current part of the noise (including the heterogeneous light noise and the readout noise of the CCD) is subtracted, it can be considered as white noise, and
where
Substituting Eq. (13) and Eq. (9) into Eq. (8), with the assumed condition that there are no correlations among the photon shot noise of the signal, the heterogeneous light noise, and the readout noise of CCD, then the total rms error of angular position in the
Eq. (15) is the desired result which can be used to precisely describe the angular position error of a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor caused by random noise, and therefore, the centroid algorithm is used to calculate the spot position of the incoming light. Generally, when the ideal detector with very small readout noise is used and there is no background light noise (
3. Wavefront measurement error caused by centroid position random error
In this chapter, Zernike modes are used as the basis for wavefront reconstruction. The wavefront measurement error can be written as [13, 19]
where
Based on the principles of the Zernike modal wavefront reconstruction algorithm [20], the Zernike-coefficients vector of a wavefront can be obtained:
where E is the modal reconstruction matrix and H is the wavefront slope vector.
Therefore, the variance of the modal Zernike coefficients that describe the wavefront measurement error can be written as:
where Q is the total number of subapertures,
In order to simplify analysis, we assume that there are no correlations among the different slope vectors in the corresponding subapertures and the intensity of the signals are uniform and isotropic among the different subapertures Subsequently, the following expression can be obtained:
where
where
where D is the diameter of the aperture and λ is the measuring wavelength.
Then, the root mean square value of wavefront measurement error caused by centroid position random error is obtained:
Eq. (23) is the desired expression used to evaluate the wavefront measurement error associated with the centroid position random error.
4. Wavefront measurement error analysis based on Zernike modal reconstruction
In a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor, the angular position can be calculated from the centroid position in each subaperture and is proportional to the centroid position. The relationship between centroid and angular position can be described by
In Eq. (15), the angular position error caused by random noise was obtained. In Eq. (23), the wavefront error caused by random centroid error was obtained. Therefore, the total wavefront measurement error can be described by Eq. (25):
In this formula, we can determine the wavefront measurement error concerned with SNR (see the definition in Eq. (1)), aperture of lenslets (see the definition in Eq. (6)), counts of effective signal, and the reconstruction matrix parameters (see the definition in Eq. (19)).
5. Conclusions
In this chapter, the exact formula (Eq. (25)), which evaluates the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor’s measurement error associated with the signal to noise ratio of effective signal, was derived in detail. This study was performed based on a modal wavefront reconstruction with Zernike polynomials, and provided an exact and universal formula to describe the wavefront measurement error of a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor with discrete detector arrays. It is critical to an adaptive optics system when the Shack-Hartmann sensor is used as the wavefront sensor, and it provides a reference when designing a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor and calculating its reconstruction matrix.
Acknowledgments
We would like to give our thanks to Shanqiu Chen, Li Shao, Daoai Dong, and Xuejun Zhang for their great discussion and assistance. We will also give our special thanks to Kevin M. Ivers for his great help in writing this chapter.
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