The composition of milk from different mammals in g/100 g milk [12].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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\r\n\tHomeostasis is the condition of optimal functioning of the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range). Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity. Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life.
\r\n\tHomeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change when already in the optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable to be regulated: a receptor, a control center, and an effector. The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal. Receptors include thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. Control centers include the respiratory center and the renin-angiotensin system. An effector is a target acted on to bring about the change back to the normal state. At the cellular level, receptors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up-regulation or down-regulation and act in negative feedback mechanisms. An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver.
\r\n\tSome centers, such as the renin-angiotensin system, control more than one variable. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control center. The control center sets the maintenance range—the acceptable upper and lower limits—for the particular variable, such as temperature. The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland. When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is provided to the receptor that stops the need for further signaling.
\r\n\tThe cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), located at the presynaptic neuron, is a receptor that can stop stressful neurotransmitter release to the postsynaptic neuron; it is activated by endocannabinoids (ECs) such as anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) via a retrograde signaling process in which these compounds are synthesized by and released from postsynaptic neurons, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to bind to the CB1 receptor for modulation of neurotransmitter release to obtain homeostasis.
\r\n\tThe polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) and are synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate significant effects in the fine-tuning adjustment of body homeostasis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to discuss further various aspects of homeostasis, information that we hope to be useful to scientists, clinicians, and the wider public alike.
The animal milk is already a highly consumed and appreciated by the human being for many centuries. Its consumption may exist from 8000 BC to 10,000 BC through the aurochs, ancestors of the actual cows, were domesticated and its milk used for consumption [1].
Milk is a highly valued and important food for the human diet. Since birth, this food can provide nutrients capable of transmitting not only energy but also bioactive components and immune cells that are responsible for anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious, and probiotic actions [2].
Since milk is a food that contains almost all the nutrients necessary for the maintenance of our body, it is still widely consumed, even in adulthood. Nowadays, use the term “milk” for the secreted fluid of the cow, and the secreted fluid of other animals is called “animal name + milk”, for example, sheep’s milk, goat milk and buffalo milk [3].
Milk consumption is very important, especially in underdeveloped countries, as it is an important source of energy, protein and fat, being one of the most important foods for consumption in malnourished children [4].
For several reasons, more consumers choose alternatives to plant-based milk. The most common reasons are allergies to milk protein, lactose intolerance or lifestyle choices, such as vegetarianism [5].
Because of this, currently an increase in research and development of plant-based milks and their derivatives, such as yogurts, ice cream and fermented beverages, has been carried out in order to bring more consumption options for individuals who cannot or do not wish to consume animal milk. Thus, the objective of this chapter is providing some information on types of milk substitutes and their functionality in food formulations and in human health.
As a natural food, milk has a rapid multiplication of different microbial groups. Therefore, both raw milk and dairy products, with the exception of some cheeses, must go through a thermal process, such as pasteurization, thermization or ultra-high temperature (UHT) so that pathogenic microorganisms are eliminated and so the milk is safe for consumption [6].
The UHT process for milk is a technique that uses a heat treatment with temperature between 135 and 150°C with pause times between 1 and 10 s. There are two types of heating for this processing: direct and indirect heating. In direct heating, the milk itself encounters a saturated steam. In indirect heating, an external heating medium will indirectly heat milk by conduction and convection through a barrier that acts as a heat exchanger. The indirect heating is the most used by industries [7].
As for milk pasteurization, the milk is heated to a specific temperature, keeping the milk at this temperature for a specific length and successively a rapid cooling step with a temperature below 7°C. The temperature and length of the pasteurization process will depend on which microbial or chemical effects are desirable. When submitting milk to the pasteurization process, one must think that the higher the temperature and the longer the process, the drastic decrease in the number of microorganisms will be possible, but there will also be a damage to the nutritional constituents of milk [8].
As for the thermization technique, a temperature of 63°C is used for 15 s, being milder than pasteurization; this process is used only to improve the quality of the milk, since there is no effective elimination of pathogenic microorganisms that may be present in the milk [8].
From whole milk, several by-products, such as cream, buttermilk, skimmed milk, and derived by-products, such as caseins and whey protein can be produced by the dairy industry. The processing of both whole milk and these by-products can be seen in Figure 1 [9].
Processing of whole milk and its by-products [
Milk is a complex biological fluid that contains fat, proteins, vitamins, minerals, enzymes and sugar in its composition. Mammalian animals show similarities regarding the nutritional composition of their milks however, the influence of genetic factors, nutritional factors and environmental conditions can alter the composition of milk, even in animals of the same species. Table 1 presents a general composition of the milk of different mammals [11].
Species | Water | Proteins | Fat | Lactose | Ash |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cow | 87.2 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 4.9 | 0.72 |
Sheep | 82.7 | 5.5 | 6.4 | 4.7 | 0.92 |
Goat | 86.5 | 3.6 | 4.0 | 5.1 | 0.82 |
Camel | 87.7 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 4.7 | 0.71 |
The composition of milk from different mammals in g/100 g milk [12].
Milk plays a fundamental role in human nutrition and health, which is why the intake of this food is so important to be consumed by both children and adults. The milk consumed by humans comes mainly from the dairy cattle, but in some parts of the world, there is the consumption of milk from other animal species, for example, buffalo, goats, sheep, and camels. Cow’s milk protein consists of approximately 80% casein (w/w) and 20% of whey protein (w/w) [13].
In animal milk, exist four main caseins that are naturally present: αs1, αs2, B e k, with casein k being the most relevant due to its importance in the stability of the micelle and in the processing of various dairy derivatives [12].
As for whey protein, the main proteins are β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, serum albumin, immunoglobulins (IgG1, IgG2, IgA and IgM) and lactoferrin. This class of proteins is classified as high biological value since it presents essential amino acids and branched chain amino acids (not synthesized by our organism). With this has received a lot of attention for the food development industry, mainly in sports nutrition, since that these amino acids are important for tissue growth and repair [14].
Bovine milk fat has more than 400 fatty acids with different chemical compositions. Its composition consists of triacylglycerol, diacylglycerol, free fatty acids, and cholesterol [15].
The composition of milk fat will in fact depend on external factors to which dairy cattle are subjected, such as factors related to food (feed offered to cattle) or rumen microbial activity. In addition, other factors such as stage of lactation and mastitis can also influence the final composition of milk fat [16].
Milk fat is the natural source that most presents short-chain fatty acids (C4:0 – C8:0) and also contains a high amount of medium chain fatty acids (C10:0 – C14:0) which causes that this food is almost exclusive to certain bioactive fatty acids considered beneficial to human health. An example of this is butyric acid (C4:0) and conjugated linoleic acid that are not found in significant amounts in other foods in our diet [17, 18].
Regarding carbohydrate, lactose is the main present in the composition of milk. This compound if formed by the union of a D-galactose molecule with a D-glucose molecule. Thus, lactose can be hydrolyzed through an enzymatic action by β-galactosidase that will transform it into its constituent monosaccharides, i.e., galactose and glucose. This action is of great importance for the food industry, since lactose, despite being a sugar, does not have a sweet taste, but its constituents have such a sweet taste, in addition to being more soluble than lactose [12, 19].
In addition, when lactic acid bacteria meet with lactose, they hydrolyze it into lactic acid, thus making milk a favorable medium for fermentation, since the pH of the milk falls and coagulates, and it may then be possible to produce dairy products, like cheese and yogurts. However, this requires controlled fermentation, as unwanted fermentation obviously results in the deterioration of milk [20].
Although lactose has many advantages for the food industry, this component of milk is also responsible for making it impossible for many people around the world to consume milk, since they have a lactose intolerance. The pathophysiological aspects or lifestyles that remove the consumption of milk by the population will be found in more detail in the next topic.
Although milk is a good food source of compounds because it is associated with the supply of several essential nutrients to our diet, there are several concerns that must be taken into account for the consumption of this food, both in terms of different health problems and lifestyles that a person can manifest.
One of the adverse effects on human health is allergy to cow’s milk protein, which occurs due to an adverse immune response to the cow’s milk dietary antigen. The allergic process starts with casein, which makes up about 80% of milk proteins. When these proteins are digested, they are converted into opioid compounds called β-casomorphines that binds to the A1 allele of β-casein, thus causing allergy to the human body, especially in children and newborns, since your body does not yet recognize some proteins of cow’s milk [21].
Another adverse cause that can be affected by the consumption of animal milk is lactose intolerance. This condition occurs when a person is unable to digest and absorb lactose from the diet. This is because there is a decline in lactase expression after weaning, commonly called “lactase non-persistence” [22].
Among the symptoms that identify lactose intolerance are gastrointestinal symptoms that can be presented with mild to moderate signs of indigestion, flatulence, nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps after consumption of milk and dairy products [23].
Another factor that excludes animal milk from the diet, but that is not associated with any disease but with lifestyle is the case of vegans. The basic principle of vegetarianism is not consuming any type of red meat, chicken, or fish, but it may or may not include products of animal origin, such as eggs, milk and their derivates. Although it is often not very clear, veganism not only supports the exclusion of animal foods from its diet due to the animal’s suffering, but also as a way of supporting the inclusion of plant foods produced by local producers that will present less environmental impact [5, 24].
Therefore, such conditions point to the need for not only animal milk but also its derivatives to obtain an alternative that is as healthy, so that people who cannot consume this food are also able to digest nutrients necessary for a good diet, in addition to presenting other food alternatives that allow you to diversify eating routines.
Currently, there are several researches for replacing milk using plant-based milk. This type of milk-like is a water-soluble extract based from vegetables, legumes, cereals, pseudocereals and nuts [25].
Vegetable milk processing can have several types of vegetable milk-like processing that will depend on the raw material from which this vegetable milk-like will be extracted. However, there are processing steps that are common to most vegetable milks, such as pre-treatment of raw material, extraction of milk, incorporation of additives, suspension, stabilization and adequate storage to improve shelf life of the product, as can be seen in Figure 2 [26].
Basic flow diagram to produce probiotic vegetable milk [
As it is still a studied product, there is still no concrete definition and classification in the literature of these plant-based milks. However, a general classification of these milk alternatives is divided into 5 subcategories, which are: cereal based, legume based, nut based, seed based and pseudocereal based [27].
In addition to providing lactose substitution, plant-based milks are also capable of providing health benefits to the general population and not only to those who should restrict lactose from the diet. This occurs because of the raw materials used in the production of these plant-based milks, since they have compounds that bring health benefits due to nutrients and micronutrients present in the composition of these foods that allow such beneficial actions to the human body.
Legumes are an important category in the divisions of vegetable milk, and chickpeas (
In chickpeas, polysaccharide (starch) is the largest component followed by fibers, contains monosaccharides (ribose, glucose, galactose, and fructose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose), oligosaccharides (stachyose, ciceritol, raffinose, and verbascose) [29].
The fiber content of chickpeas in chickpeas is 18–22 g for every 100 g of raw material, with 4–8 g of soluble fibers and 10–18 g of insoluble fibers that are major players in cholesterol control total and LDL [30].
When chickpeas are cooked, they undergo ultrastructural changes that influence their nutritional, physical, and functional properties with significant decreases in antinutritional components and significant increases in dietary fibers and protein digestibility [31].
Chickpeas are a source of carbohydrates and proteins and can be used to develop products with greater added nutritional value, also, phytosterols present in the lipid fraction of chickpeas have antioxidant properties even at high temperatures [30, 32].
Soy (
Soy contains up to 35–45% protein and 20% fat and acts as an important source of protein, especially in people who follow a vegetarian diet. Due to its nutritional content, soy milk is used as a cow substitute for more than four decades. It also appears that the total number of calories available is comparable to a balanced nutritional profile [33].
Isoflavones appear to be the functionally active component responsible for the beneficial effects of soy. Isoflavones are well known for their protective effect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis. Genistein is the most abundant isoflavone in soy and is considered the most biologically active [27].
Soy germination is known to be beneficial in reducing antinutrients as a trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid, flatulent, etc. Soy milk prepared by the traditional method presents some problems, many works and researches are trying to improve the quality by eliminating the strange taste and beans, inhibiting anti-nutritional factors, reducing the phytic acid content, improving the production of soy milk. All efforts generally address one or two of the associated problems and use heat-intensive methods to reduce antinutrients, thereby reducing the overall nutritional quality of soy milk. Germination, which is a natural non-thermal and non-chemical process, results in better quality processed products and soy germination would be an alternative to facilitate the development of products such as soy milk, which are usually prepared by heat treatment and moist protein-causing denaturation [34].
The pea (
Pea protein is a rich source of starch, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and easy to digest. Therefore, it can be used successfully as a substitute for animal protein in dairy products. Total pea proteins are divided into two main groups of albumin and globulins. However, pea’s main storage proteins are often called legumin, vicilin, and convicilin, which make up the globulin fraction, which does not denature at different temperatures [36].
Lupine (
With a high protein content of 25–40% can be used in milk-like products and substitutes, there is a growing interest in the production of lupine, due to its potential as a protein source, or for pharmaceutical purposes due to the high alkaline content, such as a natural component. Lupine milk-like plays a key role in meeting demand as an alternative to cow or human milk [37, 38].
Plant-based milks elaborated from seeds contain proteins that, like bovine milk proteins, tend to clot when they are acidified, heated, or enzymatically treated. Herewith, this type of vegetable milk-like is also capable of forming many products called “dairy products”, such as creams, yogurts, ice cream and cheeses [39].
The most common types of vegetable milk-like produced from the seed is sesame milk. Sesame (
However, in sesame only a small amount of these components is present in their free form, the remainder being linked to glucose in the form of mono/di/tri-glucoside lignan, thus not exercising its antioxidant activity. However, when fermenting sesame milk-like with a lactic acid β-glucosidase, the glycoside bonds are broken resulting in a compound called aglycone, which increases the product’s antioxidant activity [41].
Because of this, initially, only sesame milk-like may not be considered an advantageous vegetable milk-like when compared to other plant-based milks, but in application of yogurts and fermented beverages, this food can have great nutritional advantages.
Another type of seed that can be used to elaborated vegetable milk is pumpkin seed (
This seed is an important nutritional source, as it contains lipids (30.66%), protein (33.48%) and carbohydrate (28.68%). Still, its extract proved to be effective against diabetes and hypercholesterolemia due to the components present in its composition [43].
Flaxseed is a food rich in all essential fatty acids, especially omega-3 that is responsible for increased immunity and brain function. In addition, it has amino acids that are responsible for maintaining proper cellular function through the synthesis of protein. As a result, flaxseed has gained presence in research for the development of vegetable milks-like since its use improves the nutritional quality of the final product [44].
Another subcategory of plant-based milks is those obtained from pseudocereals, such as Quinoa
Despite its great nutritional advantages, quinoa is still not a widely used food for developing new types of food products, as it has a high cost when compared to other types of food available, especially in the case of the development of plant-based milks-like [46].
Cereals are another subcategory that can develop a vegetable milk-like. Although there are countless cereals present around the word, the most common types of vegetable milk-like obtained from cereals are rice and oats.
Oat (
Among the components present in oats, β-glucan is the most important since this component has a prebiotic function in the gastrointestinal tract supporting the growth of microorganisms beneficial to our body; In addition, β-glucan moderates the glycemic response of the oat starch portion. In addition, this cereal contains several bioactive phytochemical, such as, for example, phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids and phytosterols, in addition to the avenanthramides and steroidal saponins, which are found exclusively in this food [48, 49].
Although rice is low in protein, it is still a food to be taken into account for the production of plant-based milks, due to its underutilization and high nutrient profile. A natural fermentation with lactic acid bacteria there is a break in the antinutritional factors that cause an increase in the content of calcium, iron and magnesium, causing the beneficial bacteria in our gastrointestinal tract to collaborate in digestion and in the immunity of other internal organs [50].
Therefore, the use of isolated rice milk-like may not appear to be of any benefit, but when subjected to a fermentation process, which occurs in the production of many dairy products, this vegetable milk-like can have positive advantages for the final product.
Another subcategory that can be found to produce vegetable milk are nuts. Almond (
Almonds are rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), which are considered useful for weight loss and control. There is also much convincing evidence that MUFA helps to reduce the content of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) in the blood. Almonds are also an essential source of various nutrients, including protein, fiber, vitamin E, manganese, and antioxidants, and are therefore reflected in almond milk-like. Its consumption has beneficial effects on human health, and it is especially related to the blood lipid profile and the risk of cardiovascular diseases [33].
Coconut (
Coconut milk-like is used as a milk substitute (cow’s milk) in dairy products such as cheese, yoghurt, chocolate, and frozen dessert. In this way, coconut milk is considered one of the most suitable substitutes for milk. Therefore, milk and coconut milk can serve as substitutes for each other, depending on the purpose of the substitution [51].
Young coconut milk contains carbohydrates (mainly sucrose and some starch), lipids, and minerals, such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium. Coconut protein is rich in lysine, methionine, and tryptophan. Coconut water extracted from young coconuts has a pleasant taste and balance of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium since many plant extracts are mixed with the water of the coconut itself for yield and stability [52].
A summary of health benefits provided by the different raw materials used in the production of vegetable milk-like is presented in Table 2.
Milk alternative | Subcategory | Health benefits | Author, year |
---|---|---|---|
Oat Milk | Cereal | It has an anti-carcinogenic component and reduces LDL cholesterol levels; Rich in fibers, antioxidants and polyphenols. | Paul; Kumar; Sharma, 2019 [50] |
Soy Milk | Legume | Source of essential fatty acids, considered good for cardiovascular health; Therapeutic properties and protective roles against several age-related diseases. | Nawaz, et al., 2020 [53] |
Almond Milk | Nuts | Rich in monounsaturated fatty acids, which help in weight management and can lower LDL cholesterol | Vanga, et al., 2020 [54] |
Quinoa Milk | Pseudocereal | Contains all essential amino acids and high quality fatty acids; Contains minerals and amino acids that help in memory and reducing anxiety in stressful situations. | Bianchi, et al., 2014 [55] |
Examples of raw materials in vegetable milks-like and their health benefits.
Currently, there are not many researches focused on the use of plant-based milks in the production of dairy products such as fermented beverages, ice cream, yoghurt and cheese, for example. Despite this, the work that has been carried out in this area produces results that help not only to improve previous research but also to conduct new research and new products at the market.
Recently, a fermented beverage produced from lentil grains fermented with
Adding the nutritional value of the legumes, and their generated vegetable extract, it can lead to the production of ice cream, with soy extract and soybean protein, with functional properties, that also impose specific structural characteristics of product. With the obtained results it is possible to conclude that the use of soy for the preparation of gelato shows differentiating characteristics in terms of protein content, solubility and viscosity of the final product, which is also well accepted by consumers [57].
An alternative to soy milk-like was made by the production of fresh and fermented chickpeas, producing plant-based beverages. The fresh chickpeas presents a good result in the nutritional and organoleptic quality of the product, being a potential substitute for soy in plant-based beverages, although further research is necessary to minimize the syneresis of the elaborated product [58].
Texture properties are related to sensory acceptance by consumers. Vegetable yogurts based on oats is possible, nevertheless the perception of the plant-based yoghurt in the mouth has greater variation compared to traditional yoghurt, due to its textural properties, such as thickness and creaminess inferior to the product elaborated with animal milk. Therefore, to be acceptable by consumers, it is recommended that its final texture properties be considered during the product development phase [59].
Another oat base to produce a fermented product like the traditional yoghurt can be used, leading to acceptable appearance and taste. However, is necessary to evaluate the physical and nutritional quality of products [60].
Ice creams fermented with
Cow’s milk can be replaced by soy and coconut milk-like, and various combinations with cow’s milk for producing ice creams. The addition of vegetable milk-like increases the pH and decreased the melting rate, varying the viscosity and particle size [62].
In the development of technological products based on vegetable milk-like, the production of desserts with chocolate based on yams and rice, a difference on textural properties can be found. In comparison with products produced with animal milk such as
Curd can be developed by substituting cow’s milk for different plant extracts such as oats, rice, and almonds, adding
Yoghurt is an excellent probiotic source and because of that, when using a plant-based milk substitute for yoghurt production, it is interesting to consider whether such beverages are capable of maintain the minimum required of the population that are responsible for maintaining the probiotic characteristics of this type of product, as it was analyzed in a developed work, in which yogurts were produced using a vegetable beverages made from soy, rice and coconut. With the results achieved, it was possible to conclude that not only fermented beverages, but also non-fermented ones are able to supply and transport lactic acid bacteria and also other microorganisms, even without the fermentation process and subjecting the products to storage under refrigeration. Thus indicating that a yoghurt produced from a plant-based beverage is also capable of promoting desirable characteristics for consumers for this type of product, thus promoting a wider range of plant-based dairy derivatives also for consumers who are unfit to consume dairy derivatives from animal sources [65].
The effect of syneresis on yoghurt is very important for evaluating the final product. Because of this, it is very important to evaluate this property of a yoghurt elaborated with plant extract. Therefore, a work evaluated the effect of storing a yoghurt elaborated from a plant extract on the syneresis of yoghurt and concluded that this property increased as the storage time passed and that the syneresis is inversely related to the pH of the product, thus being in agreement with other related works [66].
As noted, soy is the most used food and cited in research to replace milk and the use of plant extracts. A work conducted a functional and physical analysis of a product fermented using soy extract, fermented with a probiotic culture of kefir, and with added soy fiber and the results concluded that the product elaborated with the addition of fiber was firmer and with a lower syneresis value when compared to the product elaborated without the added fiber. With this, the product can be considered as an alternative to the existing products on the market, since, in addition to presenting such advantages even at the end of the storage analysis period, it presented an adequate probiotic culture count to be considered as a functional product [67].
Currently, a greater demand for symbiotic products, that is, those in which there is a combination of probiotic and prebiotic means has been offered to consumers in order to benefit human health. Therefore, several studies have developed products with symbiotic characteristics also for consumers who are unable to consume animal milk, and therefore, they use plant extracts to produce such analogs.
A work developed a symbiotic oat-based beverage, produced with a probiotic culture (
Although animal milk is a very important food for the human diet due to its supply of essential nutrients, which in some cases are not found in other foods, the use of vegetable milk-like is a viable alternative to offer consumers who cannot or do not choose to consume animal milk.
Therefore, plant-based milk substitutes have gained market share, as they are beneficial to health due to the raw materials that are used in their production. However, in the development field, much research must still be carried out for the formulation its products, since there is still not much works mainly in the elaboration of vegetable milk based dairy derivatives, improving the offer and the consumption options for the population.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering 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