List of SAR systems.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9271",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovation in Global Green Technologies 2020",title:"Innovation in Global Green Technologies 2020",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the last fifty years, the Earth has experienced rapid changes in climate, increasingly severe droughts, rising seawater levels, seawater acidification, increased depletion of groundwater reserves, and global rise of temperature. Green technologies for recycling waste, particularly electronic waste, which is increasing at an alarming rate, may be a potential solution to environmental pollution. Divided into three sections, this book presents comprehensive information on green technologies. Section 1 presents innovations in green electronic technologies, Section 2 discusses recycling and waste management, and Section 3 discusses innovation and economics in global green technologies.",isbn:"978-1-83880-050-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-049-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-876-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83271",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"innovation-in-global-green-technologies-2020",numberOfPages:192,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2b283802db94fab806ba5ffc1d48bb5b",bookSignature:"Albert Sabban",publishedDate:"June 3rd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9271.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7520,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:26,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 14th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 1st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16889/images/system/16889.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Albert Sabban holds a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Colorado at Boulder, USA (1991), and an MBA from the Faculty of Management, Haifa University, Israel (2005). He also holds a BSc and MSc, Magna Cum Laude, from the Electrical and Computer Engineering Faculty at Tel Aviv University, Israel. He is a senior lecturer and researcher in electrical and computer engineering at several colleges. From 1976 to 2008 he worked at RAFAEL as a senior researcher, group leader, and project leader. From 2007 to 2021 he worked as an RF specialist project leader at Hitech companies and a senior lecturer and researcher at various colleges. From 2014 to 2017 he acted as vice president of the colleges lecturer organization in Israel. In 2014 Dr. Sabban received the best lecturer award from Ort Braude college where he was the leader of the communication group. He has published more than 200 research papers and holds several patents in the United States. He has written and edited nine books on compact wearable systems and green technologies. He has also written books on electromagnetics and wideband microwave technologies, as well as eight chapters on wearable printed systems and green technologies.",institutionString:"ORT Braude College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"ORT Braude College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"784",title:"Environmental Technology",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-environmental-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"71975",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Global Green Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92263",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-global-green-technologies",totalDownloads:712,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Albert Sabban",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71975",authors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",surname:"Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban"}],corrections:null},{id:"69634",title:"Wideband Passive and Active Wearable Energy Harvesting Systems for Medical and IOT Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89699",slug:"wideband-passive-and-active-wearable-energy-harvesting-systems-for-medical-and-iot-applications",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Demand for green energy is in continuous growth in the last years. Compact efficient antennas are crucial for energy harvesting portable systems. Small antennas have low efficiency. The efficiency of communication and energy harvesting systems may be improved by using efficient passive and active antennas. The system dynamic range may be improved by connecting amplifiers to the small antenna feed line. Novel passive and active portable harvesting systems are presented in this chapter. Printed patch, notch and Slot antennas are compact and have low volume. The active antennas may be employed in energy harvesting wearable systems. The antennas and the harvesting system components may be assembled on the same printed board. The printed notch and slot antennas bandwidth are from 40 to 100% for VSWR better than 3:1. The slot antenna gain is around 3 dBi with efficiency higher than 85%. The antennas’ electrical parameters were computed in free space and near the human body. The active notch antenna gain is around 23 ± 3dB for frequencies ranging from 200 to 900 MHz. The active notch antenna gain is 13 ± 3 dB for frequencies ranging from 1 to 3 GHz. The active notch and slot antenna noise figure is 0.5 ± 0.3dB for frequencies ranging from 200 MHz to 3 GHz.",signatures:"Albert Sabban",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69634",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69634",authors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",surname:"Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban"}],corrections:null},{id:"72016",title:"Optimum Efficiency Analysis of Ecofriendly WDM-POF Optical Coupler",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90510",slug:"optimum-efficiency-analysis-of-ecofriendly-wdm-pof-optical-coupler",totalDownloads:808,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter was presented to promote the development of Wavelength Division Multiplexing, WDM networking system based on Polymer Optical Fiber (POF). 1 × 3 POF coupler has been fully utilized to couple the WDM optical signals. An optimum efficiency analysis and mathematical modeling has been conducted to produce an effective device to be integrated into WDM-POF system. But despite its high speed data transmission feature, optical fiber technology remains an expensive option in optical network, although the installation costs associated with fiber through the transmission network can be minimized through the fabrication of 1 × 3 POF coupler. The objective of this chapter is identifying the differences in factors affecting the output power of the POF 1 × 3 coupling. It is then able to develop an efficient WDM-POF network system with high output power at a minimal cost. Several measurements using a power meter record performance and analysis device losses and power outputs. The demultiplexer efficiency is approximately 70%. Demultiplexer fabrication is easy with color and epoxy filters, although for some parts it requires careful attention. The output shows that Ecofriendly WDM-POF Optical Coupler can be used as one of the low-cost media for home networking and automotive applications.",signatures:"Hadi Guna, Mohammad Syuhaimi Ab-Rahman, Norhana Arsad, Roslan Shukor and Sahbudin Shaari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72016",authors:[{id:"68525",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",surname:"Guna",slug:"hadi-guna",fullName:"Hadi Guna"},{id:"200955",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Syuhaimi",surname:"Ab-Rahman",slug:"mohammad-syuhaimi-ab-rahman",fullName:"Mohammad Syuhaimi Ab-Rahman"},{id:"289588",title:"Dr.",name:"Norhana",surname:"Arsad",slug:"norhana-arsad",fullName:"Norhana Arsad"},{id:"321634",title:"Dr.",name:"Roslan",surname:"Shukor",slug:"roslan-shukor",fullName:"Roslan Shukor"},{id:"321635",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",surname:"Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari"}],corrections:null},{id:"69778",title:"Study on Designing and Manufacturing a Radio-Frequency Generator Used in Drying Technology and Efficiency of a Radio Frequency-Assisted Heat Pump Dryer in Drying of Ganoderma lucidum",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88825",slug:"study-on-designing-and-manufacturing-a-radio-frequency-generator-used-in-drying-technology-and-effic",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A radio-frequency (RF) generator applied in drying technology was designed and manufactured for drying Ganoderma lucidum. The drying experiments were conducted by drying method of RF-assisted heat pump in order to inspect the operating parameters of the RF generator and investigate the effects of the input drying parameters on drying rate in the RF-assisted heat pump drying of Ganoderma lucidum. The results have shown that the RF generator achieved the required operating parameters as design such as RF power of 3 kW and operating frequency of 27 MHz. In RF-assisted heat pump drying, increase in RF power and drying air temperature increases the drying rate. Meanwhile, drying air velocity does not significantly affect the drying rate. At RF power of 1.95 kW, the drying time reduces by 9, 17, and 33% in comparison with RF power of 1.3, 0.65, and 0 kW (heat pump drying). At drying air temperature of 50°C, the drying time reduces by 10% and 21% in comparison with drying air temperature of 40 and 45°C. Besides, increasing RF power retains the higher content of polysaccharide in Ganoderma lucidum, and the Ganoderma lucidum samples retain the color better after drying.",signatures:"Nguyen Hay, Le Anh Duc and Pham Van Kien",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69778",authors:[{id:"303276",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pham",surname:"Van Kien",slug:"pham-van-kien",fullName:"Pham Van Kien"},{id:"303277",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Le",surname:"Anh Duc",slug:"le-anh-duc",fullName:"Le Anh Duc"},{id:"308298",title:"Prof.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Hay",slug:"nguyen-hay",fullName:"Nguyen Hay"}],corrections:null},{id:"70214",title:"Auxiliary Strategies for Water Management in Industries: Minimization of Water Use and Possibility of Recycling and/or Reuse of Effluent",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90281",slug:"auxiliary-strategies-for-water-management-in-industries-minimization-of-water-use-and-possibility-of",totalDownloads:529,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water management in industry by minimizing water consumption and effluent generation, reusing and/or recycling as a possibility the economy and conservation of water, energy and economic resources. The characterization of the final effluent allows evaluating how much the treatment is adequate to meet the requirements of the regulations of different countries for recycling and/or reuse and evaluated the possibility of reuse, as well as the choice of effluent treatment methods. In this case, technical, environmental and economic criteria, with a view to complying with industrial reuse regulations, should be evaluated, and a multicriteria analysis (MCA) can be adopted to classify the treatment systems applied in different reuse scenarios, made possible by the combination of multiple processes, with the use of tertiary treatment techniques. It should be noted that the potential for recycling and/or reuse of effluents generated in industry increases when effluents are separated into groups (principle of segregation of effluent streams). As a way of promoting a more sustainable model, the use of reuse systems is promising to reduce consumption, as well as reducing operating costs when treating effluents.",signatures:"Fábio Henrique de Melo Ribeiro, Yeda dos Santos Silva and Liliana Pena Naval",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70214",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70214",authors:[{id:"233130",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",surname:"Naval",slug:"liliana-naval",fullName:"Liliana Naval"},{id:"309475",title:"Dr.",name:"Fábio",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"fabio-ribeiro",fullName:"Fábio Ribeiro"},{id:"309476",title:"MSc.",name:"Yeda",surname:"Silva",slug:"yeda-silva",fullName:"Yeda Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"70521",title:"The Thermal Waste Treatment Plant in Kraków, Poland: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90254",slug:"the-thermal-waste-treatment-plant-in-krak-w-poland-a-case-study",totalDownloads:846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The thermal waste treatment plant (TWTP) in Kraków (eco-incinerator) was created as a response to the energy and ecological needs of Kraków as part of the project “Municipal Waste Management Program in Krakow.” The TWTP is able to process 220,000 tons of municipal waste during the year. Estimated values of the 65,000 MWh of electricity and 280,000 MWh of heat are produced as a result of the waste combustion. The energy obtained by way of the thermal transformation process is largely organic and renewable. The TWTP is equipped with a state-of-the-art exhaust purification system that meets strict emission standards for air. The emission standards will meet the requirements the Ordinance of the Minister of the Environment of November 4, 2014 on emission standards for certain types of installations, sources of fuel combustion and devices for incineration or co-incineration of waste (Journal of Laws of 2014, item 1546, including further amendments). The cleaning process takes place in the exhaust aftertreatment process and is based on the following steps: (i) denitrification of exhaust gases, (ii) flue gas cleaning by means of a semi-dry method and (iii) dust extraction. As the project’s general contractor was POSCO E&C from South Korea.",signatures:"Dariusz Sala and Bogusław Bieda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70521",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70521",authors:[{id:"115411",title:"Dr.",name:"Boguslaw",surname:"Bieda",slug:"boguslaw-bieda",fullName:"Boguslaw Bieda"},{id:"258743",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Sala",slug:"dariusz-sala",fullName:"Dariusz Sala"}],corrections:null},{id:"69841",title:"Management of Coal Fly Ash in Remediation Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88984",slug:"management-of-coal-fly-ash-in-remediation-process",totalDownloads:613,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The present research relates to class of adsorbents obtained by systematic biopolymer modification of cenospheres transfigured from coal fly ash (CFA): an immense waste by-product of coal based thermal power plant, method of preparation thereof and their use in wastewater treatment contaminated by tanneries, distilleries, cosmetics, textiles, plastics, pulp and paper industries, paints, electroplating and food processing industries effluents. Removal percentage of disperse dyes had better correlated with Langmuir isotherm, tested among Freundlich, Temkin and Redlich-Peterson isotherm which indicated saturated monolayer attachment of dye molecules onto the surface of adsorbent with maximum capacity 500.4 and 500.0 mg/g for Disperse Orange 25 (DO) and Disperse Blue 79:1 (DB) dyes, respectively. The uptake rate of dye molecules followed pseudo-second order kinetics in all cases. Recovery of dye molecules was completed best in three cycles with acetic acid for CFA and cenospheres, with Di-chloromethane for CNAC and in four cycles with non-polar solvent (chloroform) for zeolite and CNCH nanocomposite. The used adsorbents could easily be dumped into landfill with in concrete pit liming, or can also be used in brick making to minimize the environmental risk.",signatures:"Markandeya, S.P. Shukla and Devendra Mohan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69841",authors:[{id:"223774",title:"Dr.",name:"Markandeya",surname:null,slug:"markandeya",fullName:"Markandeya null"},{id:"304501",title:"Prof.",name:"Devendra",surname:"Mohan",slug:"devendra-mohan",fullName:"Devendra Mohan"},{id:"304502",title:"Dr.",name:"S.P.",surname:"Shukla",slug:"s.p.-shukla",fullName:"S.P. Shukla"}],corrections:null},{id:"70404",title:"Circular Economy: The Strategies to Global Business Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88617",slug:"circular-economy-the-strategies-to-global-business-economics",totalDownloads:705,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Economics needs to change from being a linear theory into being circular because of the need to be more scientific due to the use of both quantitative and qualitative, which reflects science in theory and practice. The application of circular economics to businesses, both in existing and new entrepreneurship, provides a construct way to address, change and reverse climate problems.",signatures:"Woodrow W. Clark II and Danilo Bonato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70404",authors:[{id:"307958",title:"Dr.",name:"Woodrow",surname:"Clark",slug:"woodrow-clark",fullName:"Woodrow Clark"},{id:"321637",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Bonato",slug:"danilo-bonato",fullName:"Danilo Bonato"}],corrections:null},{id:"69632",title:"Green Technology Innovations Development in China: Trend and Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89599",slug:"green-technology-innovations-development-in-china-trend-and-application",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to explore what subjects have been addressed in green technology innovation (GTI) in China and initiate a journey for the next generation of sustainable-oriented research. Thus, the work examined the literatures enlisted in the database of China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) on the topics of GTI from 1994 to 2019. Some critical discussion and conclusion are sighted as follows: (1) the research of GTI in China is getting mature compared to the energy-innovation related topics and the researches 10 years ago. It is becoming a dominated research subject. (2) The qualitative publications dominates the researches, the empirical researches are in a shortage. (3) The research subjects are multi-perspective and multi-disciplinary, covering environment science, management, energy and fuels, economics and social behavior. New vibrancy of advanced theoretical and methodological research is particularly needed. (4) The trend of green technology research appears an interdisciplinary research with the themes related to environmental subject, science technology, business economics, engineering and energy & fuels. (5) Different policy implementations have different effects due to the cost structure and maturity of renewable energy. (6) GTI cannot be isolated from the policy or regulation regime, and is becoming a new underpin of current sustainable development in China.",signatures:"Xiaodong Lai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69632",authors:[{id:"243488",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Xiaodong",surname:"Lai",slug:"xiaodong-lai",fullName:"Xiaodong Lai"}],corrections:null},{id:"68969",title:"Politics of Renewable Energy in Africa: Nature, Prospects, and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89019",slug:"politics-of-renewable-energy-in-africa-nature-prospects-and-challenges",totalDownloads:985,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Energy transition discussions have centered on the technical, economic, and policy aspects of energy transitions. Despite this, the political dynamics have received less attention. It is suggested that since energy policy change threaten incumbent industries and impose substantial costs, enacting and sustaining policies require considerable political support. Even though it is widely acknowledged that barriers to energy transition are primarily political than technical, there is a lack of cohesive literature on the politics that drive, constrain, and shape renewable energy regulation or policy. This gap motivates this study. Adopting a desk research methodology and arguing from the lens of Kingdon’s multiple streams framework, the study found among others that the streams of problem, politics and policy shows enough prospects to be coupled for Africa to make a serious consideration on its renewable energy capacity. 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The timely and frequent determination of indicators of crop development and productivity, including phenological stage and biophysical parameters such as leaf (or plant) area index and above-ground biomass, is critical for supporting land management decision making in near-real-time. Synthetic aperture radars (SARs) are active systems that provide their own source of energy to illuminate ground targets in the microwave domain. Because the Earth’s atmosphere is largely transparent to microwaves, SAR sensors can be operated day or night and under almost at all weather conditions to acquire high-resolution earth observation data. Given that many regions of the world experience frequent cloud cover, SAR has become an essential remote sensing tool for the operational monitoring of agricultural production systems around the world.
Radar backscattering is highly sensitive to the structural (roughness, orientation, and spatial distribution of scattering components) and the dielectric properties of targets. The backscattering intensity is also strongly related to the transmitted microwave frequency, incident angle and the transmitted and received polarizations. Several microwave scattering models have been developed to relate backscattering to target properties and radar acquisition parameters. Examples of theoretical microwave models include the Integral Equation Model (IEM) and the MIMICS (Michigan Microwave Canopy Scattering) model [1, 2, 3]. Semi-empirical models maintain some theoretical basis but use empirical data to simplify the mathematical relationships between scattering and target properties as well as sensor parameters. Examples of this approach to modeling include the Water Cloud Model (WCM) used to characterize SAR response from vegetation and soil [4], as well as the Oh [5] and Dubois [6] models that relate soil properties to radar backscattering. Two simplified scenarios, based on which radar backscattering models have been developed, are shown in Figure 1. The first simplifies vegetation canopy as a layer of scattering elements uniformly distributed above the soil surface, and radar backscattering from the soil is modeled by a two-way attenuation through the canopy (left). The second takes into consideration of canopy geometric structure, and models three backscattering components, surface scattering from plant or soil, double-bounce scattering from plant and soil (plant-soil and soil-plant), and multiple scattering by the plant-soil mix (volume scattering) (right).
Simplified scenarios for modeling radar backscattering from vegetation canopy. Left: vegetation as a water cloud, and backscattering is modeled by a two-way attenuation through a canopy with a path length H/cos(ϴ). Right: vegetation as a 3-D scattering medium inducing three scattering mechanisms, surface scattering, double-bounce, and volume scattering.
Radar backscattering models have been used for estimation of crop parameters such as Leaf Area Index (LAI), canopy water content, and biomass [7, 8, 9, 10], and soil parameters such as soil moisture and surface roughness [11, 12], using SAR data acquired at different incident angles, frequencies, and/or polarizations. Fully polarimetric (or quad-pol) SAR systems measure the complete complex scattering from a target. Microwaves are transmitted and received in two orthogonal polarizations and the phase is preserved during processing. With the complete scattering matrix, quad-pol data can be analyzed to provide polarimetric features and the signal can be decomposed using coherent (e.g., Pauli and Cameron) or incoherent (e.g., Freeman-Durden and Cloude-Pottier) techniques [13, 14]. Variables derived through polarimetric decomposition can be used both in classification [15, 16] and parameter estimation, such as crop phenology or soil moisture [17, 18]. Time-series SAR data have also been used for the detection of crop seeding and harvest using change detection approaches [19, 20, 21].
A few satellite SAR constellations have been launched during the past few years, and more small satellite SAR constellations will be continuously developed in near future. The increasing availability of a large amount of SAR data, in companion with big data analytics, provides an unprecedented opportunity for effective and operational monitoring of agricultural ecosystems. However, the effective use of SAR data requires a full understanding of how the information it provides relates to agricultural targets. The objectives of this article are to summarize the path of SAR system development and to review the information sources of SAR data, the applications in agricultural ecosystem monitoring with a focus on crop classification, crop parameter estimation, and change detection using dense time-series data.
Early studies in radar remote sensing applications in agriculture relied extensively on ground-based microwave scatterometers [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. The portability of scatterometers allows them to be rapidly deployed to agricultural test sites to collect temporally dense data at different frequencies, polarizations, and incidence angles. Experiments using scatterometers have been critical for developing an understanding of how microwaves interact with soils and crops, and the development and testing of microwave models [28]. However, despite the important contributions of such research, scatterometer data are geographically limited to smaller test plots.
The deployment of SAR on aircraft and satellite platforms provides data at field and sub-field scales over much broader geographic extents. Airborne SAR campaigns, such as the NASA/JPL AIRSAR and UAVSAR, Canadian Convair-580 C/X SAR, and German DLR E-SAR/F-SAR, have served as theoretical testbeds to develop applications pre-launch of space-based SARs. Space-based SAR observations from the Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) missions, in particular the SIR-C/X SAR missions in 1994, provided imaging opportunities from a space platform and delivered data in different frequencies and polarizations.
Systematic acquisitions from SAR satellites began with the launch of ESA’s ERS-1 satellite in 1991. Several other space agencies followed, launching SAR satellites operating at different frequencies, and with different capacities to select imaging modes at a variety of spatial resolutions, swath widths, polarization, and incident angles (Table 1). RADARSAT-2, for example, supports the acquisition of data at single, dual, or quad polarization, at different spatial resolutions, and various incident angles. However, while the capability of each of these space-based systems was extensive, they demanded large and heavy payloads. For example, the mass of the Canadian C-band RADARSAT-1 and -2 satellites, and the ESA Sentinel-1A and 1B satellites each exceeded two tons at launch. More recently, technological developments that include standard electronic components and semiconductor materials (GaN) [29, 30] make it possible to produce compact SAR sensors in a shorter amount of time, and at a relatively low cost. These advancements have led to commercial investments in microsatellite constellations of space-borne SARs. For instance, PredaSAR plans to launch a constellation of 48 satellites equipped with a large swath C-band or a high-power X-band sensor. The Japanese QPS Institute is developing an X-band constellation that will eventually comprise 36 micro-satellites. These SAR sensors are typically small (<500 kg), but are more limited in the diversity of imaging modes, typically operating in only single or dual polarizations.
Platform | Country/organization | SAR system | Frequency | Mode | Active years | Note |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Airborne | Canada | Convair-580 | X, C | Polarimetric | 1986–present | |
USA/NASA | AirSAR | C, L, P | Polarimetric | 1988–2004 | ||
USA/NASA | UAVSAR | Ka, L, P | Polarimetric | 2007–present | ||
German/DLR | E-SAR/F-SAR | X, C, S, L, P | Polarimetric | 1988–present | ||
USA.JPL | SIR-C/X | C, X | Polarimetric | 1994 | ||
Large satellites | ESA | ERS-1/2 | C | VV | 1991–2011 | |
ESA | ASAR | C | Various | 2002–2012 | ||
Japan/NASDA | JERS-1/2 | L | HH | 1992–1998 | ||
Canada | RADARSAT-1 | C | HH | 1995–2013 | ||
Canada | RADARSAT-2 | C | Various | 2007–present | ||
Canada | RCM | C | Various | 2019–present | 3 satellites | |
German | TerraSAR-X | X | Single or dual | 2007 | ||
Argentina | SAOCOM | L | Polarimetric | 2018–present | 2 satellites | |
ESA | Sentinel-1 | X | Single or dual | 2014–present | 4 | |
Italy | COSMO-SkyMed | X | Various | 2007–2010 | COSMO: 4 | |
2019–present | CSG: 2 | |||||
Japan/JAXA | ALOS-PALSAR | L | Various | 2006–present | 4 | |
USA/India | NISAR | L, S | Polarimetric | 2023–present | ||
Micro-satellites | Finland | ICEYE-X | X | VV | 2018–present | 18 |
Japan/Synspective | StriX | X | VV | 2020–present | 30 | |
Japan/QPS | QPS-SAR | X | Circular | 2019–present | 36 | |
USA | Capella | X | HH | 2018–present | 36 | |
USA | PredarSAR | C, X | — | 48 | ||
USA | Umbra-SAR | X | — | 2021–present | 12 |
List of SAR systems.
For reference, a non-exclusive list of SAR systems that are of interest to agricultural applications is given in Table 1. Over the past 15 years or so, the general trend of governments and space agencies has been to focus on larger wide-swath SARs whose data are free and open (or partially open) to the public. In comparison, the commercial SAR satellite ecosystems have focused on constellations of smaller satellites providing, for a fee, access to data at finer spatial and temporal resolutions. Data from such constellations may provide the near-continuous monitoring of land surfaces.
Crop growth dynamics are characterized by structural or moisture changes, which can be captured by time-series SAR data for the detection and mapping of phenological development stages [17, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Because different crops have different growth dynamics, time-series SAR is also useful for crop classification [35, 36, 37, 38]. Time-series optical and SAR data have been used to derive phenological metrics for phenology-based crop classification [35, 39, 40]. Using a dense stack of Sentinel-1 SAR data, Bargiel [35] proposed a crop classification scheme using phenological sequence patterns (PSP), which outperformed the Random Forest and the Maximum Likelihood classifiers for cereal crops. Phenology-based classifiers can be more generic than conventional classifiers, and may be more resilient to differences in management practices and growth conditions because they take crop-specific growth dynamics into consideration [35, 39].
Important target information is also revealed by different SAR polarizations. Polarizations that interact more strongly with plant volume will likely be more useful for crop parameter estimation and for discriminating different crops. For example, VV performs well in characterizing vertical vegetation structure, and VH is sensitive to multiple scattering events in the canopy [41], and thus their use in combination provides better classification capabilities in most cases. HH polarization is found to be inferior in many cases for these specific applications [28, 42]; however, it is more sensitive to the structural variation of rice, and thus useful for mapping this crop [43].
SAR backscatter intensity and other polarimetric parameters can be derived from fully polarimetric SAR using coherent or incoherent target decomposition methods, as summarized in Cloude and Pottier [13], Touzi et al. [14], and Lee and Pottier [44]. Simple or canonical targets—such as dipoles, diplanes, or cylinders—show higher coherence than distributed targets—such as rough soil surfaces or vegetation—where random scattering occurs. Criteria to determine coherent and incoherent targets are provided by Touzi and Charbonneau [45], using the maximum symmetric component derived from the Cameron decomposition. Coherent target decomposition is applied to express the complex scattering matrix as linear combinations of a set of simpler and independent bases, each representing certain physical scattering mechanisms. Examples include the Pauli decomposition, the Krogager decomposition, and the Cameron decomposition. Incoherent decomposition methods are used when a pixel contains distributed targets, and express the second-order statistics of coherency or covariance matrices with a combination of simpler components. Examples include the Freeman-Durden, Huynen, and Cloude-Pottier decompositions. For satellite SAR sensors, the power and pulse repetition required to operate a fully polarimetric system limits swath widths, and thus hybrid architectures, such as compact polarimetric systems, have been proposed [46]. Compact polarimetry offers a partial solution by transmitting a single circularly polarized wave and receiving two orthogonal waves coherently [46, 47, 48]. Methods for compact polarimetric data decomposition have also been developed and summarized in Charbonneau et al. [47], Cloude et al. [49], and Ponnurangam and Rao [50].
The distribution and orientation of plant components and their sizes relative to SAR wavelengths vary over the growing season and from crop to crop. Microwave scattering occurs when the SAR wavelength is similar to or smaller than the size of canopy components. SAR frequency also influences the penetration depth of microwave radiation into crop canopies. Lower frequencies (e.g., L-band) penetrate deeper into the canopy than higher frequencies (e.g., C-/X-band). The optimal depth of penetration, and the matching of wavelength to the size of plant components, vary from crop to crop and throughout the crop development cycle. As a result, the selection of a single best frequency for SAR is challenging. Higher frequency SAR is better for classifying low biomass canopies, while lower frequency SAR is more useful for identifying high biomass vegetation [42]. The integration of data at different frequencies brings enriched information for crop classification and has thus been widely recommended [42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. However, implementing a multi-frequency approach is challenging due to limitations in the availability of data from sensors at different frequencies, especially for operational applications. Temporal signatures created by different frequencies have also been exploited for crop area mapping using dense time series of SAR data. Kraatz et al. [58] used the temporal coefficient of variation of the VH polarization from both Sentinel-1 C-Band and PALSAR L-band data, and an optimal threshold, to discriminate crops from non-crops in western Canada. A higher mapping accuracy was achieved using C-band data (84%) than L-band data (74%), though performance varied among different cover types. Here, L-band performed poorly for soybean and some non-crop types (urban, grassland, and pasture), while C-band was relatively poor for corn, urban, and pasture. A time series of data from both frequencies would likely have improved these accuracies.
The variation of radar backscattering with incident angle is another important consideration for mapping agricultural landscapes with SAR. This is reflected in vegetation backscattering models, such as the MIMICS model [3] and the Karam-Fung model [59]. These models, developed for forest and adapted for crops [43, 60], require incident angle as an explicit parameter. For example, Prevot et al. [61] showed that using a simple parametrization of the angular effect of soil roughness in the Water Cloud Model [4], the vegetation water content can be estimated satisfactorily from C- and X-band SAR data acquired at two different incident angles, for example, 20° and 40°. Various studies have demonstrated the impacts of incident angle on land cover classification. Poirier et al. [62] studied the impacts of incident angle on classification performance by acquiring C-band data near-coincident at two different angles (30° and 53°) with the Convair-580 airborne system. Results showed that SAR data collected at the larger incident angle interacted more with the upper canopy, delivering an improved classification. Kothapalli Venkata et al. [63] conducted a study to assess the separation of corn from other land cover types (wheat, fallow, water, and urban) using multi-incident angles (28°, 42°, and 52°) C-band hybrid polarimetric data acquired over 3 days by RISAT. The study showed that corn can be discriminated from other crop types using volume and double-bounce scattering at both 28° and 42°, and using odd bounce and volume scattering combinations at 52°. Xu et al. [64] acquired RADARSAT-2 data at three different incident angles and showed that multi-angle SAR improved the classification accuracy of some land cover types (though it should be noted that the images were acquired at different times during 1 month, confounding the effects of the time of acquisition and change in incident angle). In summary, SAR data acquired at different incident angles contribute to target information extraction.
The classification of land covers and crop types is one of the earliest applications of SAR in agriculture. In the broadest sense, crop classification from SAR involves the implementation of automated techniques to sort image data into one of a finite number of crop classes based on their backscatter characteristics. Crop classification is an important agricultural application because it can be used to derive the area seeded to individual crops, and to predict or forecast food production if crop growth conditions are incorporated. Obtaining this information requires detailed, routine, and frequent mapping of croplands with sufficiently high accuracy. SAR has been shown to be particularly useful for the operational monitoring of crop dynamics in agricultural ecosystems.
A broad array of approaches for classifying satellite images have been developed in the past few decades. Until recently, the Maximum Likelihood (ML) classifier was the most widely used method for the supervised classification of remote sensing data [65, 66, 67], mostly due to its simplicity in implementation. While this approach has been widely applied in different studies for satellite image classification of agricultural regions [68, 69, 70, 71], limitations associated with the ML approach mean that alternative supervised classification techniques are more preferable. Of these new methods, artificial neural networks (ANN) [72, 73, 74, 75], support vector machines (SVM) [76, 77, 78, 79], Decision Trees (DT) and ensembles of classification trees such as Random Forest (RF) [80, 81, 82, 83, 84] have all shown great promise.
A detailed comparison of classification methods is beyond the scope of this article, and indeed, would only provide limited insight into the best classification approaches for SAR-based crop type mapping. This is because the success of crop classification procedures is as much—if not more—dependent on the quality of the ground (in situ) observations used for training and validating the classification, than the actual algorithm chosen to do the classification. Instead, we direct readers to a comprehensive synthesis of this body of work provided by Khatami et al. [85], who conducted a statistical meta-analysis of research on land-cover classification. This study was conducted to provide coherent guidance on the relative performance of different classification processes for generating land cover products and showed that the highest mapping accuracies were provided by implementations of SVMs, ANNs, and RF. While it is important to note that these results are not necessarily predictive of the relative performance of any specific classifier in any specific application (due to the unique features of that application), they do provide an insight into how each classification algorithm may perform under various circumstances [85].
In addition to the general classifiers presented above, two other classification schemes have been developed specifically for SAR data. These are classifications based on the Cloude-Pottier decomposition and classification based on the complex Wishart distribution. The Cloude-Pottier decomposition [15] produces three parameters—entropy (H), anisotropy (A), and the alpha angle (α). Entropy is a metric of the degree of randomness of scattering from within the resolution cell, anisotropy is an indicator of the presence of secondary or tertiary scattering mechanisms, and the alpha angle represents the dominant scattering mechanism. A classification scheme was developed to divide the H-α space into eight possible scattering zones, from which land cover classifications can be performed. The advantage of this classification scheme is the improved understanding of SAR signal scattering mechanisms where there is less
SAR data are typically multi-look processed for speckle noise reduction. The covariance matrix of the multi-look processed SAR data follows a multivariate complex Wishart distribution. With this condition, Lee et al. [91] proposed a classification scheme using Bayes maximum likelihood or minimum distance (MD) classifier. In practice, each class is characterized by an elementary covariance matrix derived from training samples, and each pixel is classified according to the Bayes likelihood with the elementary covariance matrices under a given
The coordination of Earth Observations (EO) data for agricultural monitoring necessitates the articulation of spatially explicit EO data requirements, including where [92], when [93], how frequently [94], over which spectral range, and at what spatial resolution these data are needed [95]. Because cropping systems are often diverse and complex, and the types of crops grown and the timing of their growth vary from region to region, the best choice of sensors to be used, the optimal number of images required, and the timing of image acquisitions are usually geographically specific. Where SAR has been used in operational national-scale crop mapping programs, it has usually been integrated with optical remote sensing data. Both optical and SAR provide unique and valuable information relating to plant growth and type, primarily due to their different wavelengths. Optical imagery acquired in the near-infrared and shortwave-infrared is sensitive to canopy biochemistry such as composition and concentration of pigments, water content, biomass, and leaf internal structure, while SAR imagery is sensitive to plant structure. SAR observations are also critical for filling gaps in the optical image record brought about by the presence of clouds during key growth stages.
The integration of optical and SAR data can be as simple as combining data from different sources into raster stacks for classification, sometimes applying mathematical transformations to fuse and enhance features or reduce data dimensionality [96, 97, 98, 99]. In some cases, SAR data are not used directly in the classification process but are first transformed into higher-level data products. This has included the derivation of phenological metrics from SAR time series (e.g., Torbick et al. [100] and the use of SAR-based texture [101].
One of the most well-known applications of SAR in national-scale crop mapping comes from Canada. Since 2010, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada—Canada’s Ministry of Agriculture—has integrated C-band SAR (RADARSAT, Sentinel-1) with optical data streams (Landsat-5, -7 and -8, SPOT, DMC, RapidEye, and Resourcesat-1) to generate its Annual Space-Based Crop Inventory for Canada [102]. Figure 2 shows the mapping result for 2020, which covers the agricultural land and includes all crops and a few other land cover types.
National scale crop type mapping in Canada, 2020. The map is produced by Agriculture, Geomatics and Earth Observation Division, Science & Technology Branch, Agriculture, and Agri-Food Canada.
Results from research and operations suggest that optical and SAR satellite data are both required to best characterize the key crop growing (phenological) stages required for high-accuracy crop mapping at a national scale [39, 56, 80, 103, 104, 105, 106]. The addition of dual-pol SAR has been shown to increase accuracies over the use of optical data alone by as much as 16% [42, 104]. Nonetheless, the decision to use optical and/or SAR is usually determined by the trade-off among a number of factors, including—(a) the heterogeneous and dynamic intrinsic nature of the agro-ecosystem being studied; (b) the geographical extent to be mapped; (c) the minimum mapping unit required to resolve individual fields and other meaningful ecological units (e.g., wetlands, woodlots, etc.); (d) differences in crop cycles; (e) differences in cropping practices and calendars within the same class; (f) the spectral similarity with other land cover classes; (g) the engineering constraints of the remote sensing systems (i.e., swath size; spatial, temporal, spectral and radiometric resolutions; cloud coverage for optical systems), and (h) data availability (i.e., open, fee-based).
Microwave scattering, represented by both intensity and phase characteristics, changes with variations in the structure of crop canopies and canopy water content. Canopy structure and water content vary as crops develop and are thus indicative of crop development and productivity. Figure 3 shows seasonal variation of radar backscattering intensity of annual crops over a growing season in an agricultural region in northern Ontario, Canada, using dual-polarization C-band SAR data acquired by Sentinel-1 in 2019. Both VV and VH polarizations of annual crops show obvious seasonal variation patterns characteristic to crop development cycle, whereas that of forest targets (the two dotted lines) remain at a relatively stable and higher level throughout the season. This clearly shows a positive correlation between radar backscattering intensity and crop live biomass, based on which different crop parameters can be estimated from SAR data.
Seasonal profiles of radar backscattering intensity for annual crops in northern Ontario, Canada, using C-band SAR data acquired by Sentinel-1 in 2019. The two dotted lines represent two forest patches.
The potential of SAR for supporting crop growth monitoring through the quantitative estimation of crop parameters—such as Leaf (or Plant) Area Index (LAI or PAI), plant height and density, fresh and dry biomass, and plant water content—depends on SAR sensor characteristics (frequency, polarization, and incident angle), crop type, and growth stage [107, 108].
The characteristics of a SAR determine the depth to which a pulse of microwave energy can penetrate a plant canopy and, in turn, influence the ability to determine canopy conditions from SAR observations. Because of this, the optimal choice of SAR frequency will vary over time, depending on canopy type and growth stage, and thus the use of multiple SAR frequencies for crop mapping, where available, is recommended. SAR scattering is also polarization-dependent [44, 109, 110]. Overall, the best polarization for crop characterization has been the linear cross polarization (either HV or VH) [110, 111]. This is mainly due to re-polarization that occurs during multiple scattering within targets with complex structures, such as crop canopies consisting of randomly oriented and distributed stems and leaves [112]. Using RADARSAT-2 SAR data, Liao et al. [113] studied the sensitivity of C-band SAR polarimetric parameters for the estimation of crop height and fractional vegetation cover. They found that cross polarization or combinations of dual polarizations (HH-VV or HV-VV) were strongly correlated with crop height and fractional cover of broadleaf crops, such as corn, with degraded performance toward the later growing stages. For narrow-leaf crops, such as wheat, the sensitivity of SAR parameters to crop height and cover fraction was relatively low or inconsistent. Wali et al. [114] assessed Sentinel-1 C-band SAR VV and VH backscatter for estimating biophysical parameters of rice, including plant height, green vegetation cover, LAI, and total dry biomass. The results of this study showed that both VH and VV were strongly and linearly correlated with biophysical parameters until backscatter saturated during the mid-reproductive stage (60 days after transplanting), and the beginning of the reproductive stage for VV (though VH showed stronger correlations in most cases). Chauhan et al. [115] were able to obtain better estimates of vegetation parameters by accounting for soil backscatter effects. Other studies include those by Xie et al. [110], who demonstrated the capability of RADARSAT-2 polarimetric SAR variables for crop height estimation, and Hosseini et al. [116], who used WCM and SVM to estimate LAI using RADARSAT-2 SAR intensity collected over multiple international sites (Argentina, Canada, Germany, India, Poland, Ukraine, and the U.S).
Polarimetric SAR allows the complete scattering characteristics of crop canopies to be determined, and parameters derived from these complex data can improve estimates of crop conditions. Many recent examples of this come from studies over agricultural regions in Canada. Using C-band RADARSAT-2 polarimetric data, Wiseman et al. [117] extracted and evaluated 21 polarimetric parameters to estimate dry biomass for canola, corn, soybean, and spring wheat crops. This study found that most SAR parameters were significantly correlated with dry biomass accumulation, while several proved to be good indicators of changes in crop structure and phenology. For instance, four SAR responses (linear HV and circular LR backscatter, volume scattering, and pedestal height) increased during canola ripening. However, as canola flowered, the importance of these parameters declined. Homayouni et al. [118] used the ratio of volume-to-surface scattering derived from C-band RADARSAT-2 polarimetric data to monitor the growth of canola, corn, spring wheat, and soybeans fields in western Canada. They found that this ratio was strongly correlated with optical vegetation indices (e.g., the normalized difference vegetation index NDVI, and the Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index SAVI). Using time-series RADARSAT-2 polarimetric data, and RapidEye optical imagery, Jiao et al. [119] applied a semi-empirical Canopy Structure Dynamics Model, Growing Degree Days, and SAR parameters calibrated to optical NDVI to derive daily estimates of canola crop condition over an entire growing season. Correlations (R values) of 0.63–0.84 were reported when SAR parameters were related to optical NDVI, with results varying among three growing seasons.
A growing literature focusing on SAR-based vegetation indices demonstrates the potential of such techniques. Kim and van Zyl [120] proposed a radar vegetation index (RVI) based on the SAR backscatter intensities at VV, HH, and VH polarizations, which has since been simplified to accommodate data obtained from dual-polarized systems [121, 122]. Using Sentinel-1 observations, Periasamy [123] proposed a Dual Polarization SAR Vegetation index (DPSVI) by exploiting the data distribution of VV and VH backscatter coefficients in two-dimensional space. Such radar indices show strong potential for the better discrimination of bare soil from vegetation, as well as for crop structural parameter estimation. Other SAR-based vegetation indices include the SAR simple difference (SSD) index, applied to estimate rice yield in China, and based on the difference in Sentinel-1 VH backscatter between the end of the rice tillering stage and the end of grain filling stage [124]. Results of the study showed a strong exponential relationship between the SSDVH and rice yield.
Other applications of SAR for crop parameter estimation and growth condition monitoring include its use in radiative models. Attema and Ulaby [4] developed a Water Cloud Model (WCM) to simulate SAR backscatter from the crop-soil system as an incoherent sum of contributions from plants and background soil after a two-way attenuation by canopies. Through time, the model has been modified to reflect different approaches to the interaction and parameterization of soil and vegetation contributions. For example, various studies have used LAI, canopy water content, and biomass to characterize the vegetation component in the WCM [7, 8, 10, 116].
In the context of this article, the objective of change detection using remote sensing data is to identify and characterize changes in agricultural land cover and/or use (e.g., conversions from one crop class to another) or changes in condition within a land cover and/or use (e.g., modifications within a crop class) over a specified period of time. These changes can be described as—(a) binary change/non-change (e.g., harvest); (b) from-to trajectories (e.g., forest to cropland conversion); (c) causes of change (e.g., fire, flooding); and (d) continuous variable change (e.g., reduced productivity within a class due to insect infestation or drought) [125]. Understanding the types of change sought is critical for selecting suitable remote sensing data sources, determining processing methods, and developing and implementing robust and effective change detection algorithms.
For agricultural resource management, it is important to detect intra-annual landscape changes, such as changes in crop phenology [17, 20, 33], field operations [19, 21], and field conditions [126, 127]. This type of monitoring requires dense remote sensing time series that usually cannot be fulfilled using optical data alone due to the presence of the cloud. As a result, spatially and temporally comprehensive and consistent coverages from operational wide-swath SAR satellites will continue to be a critical source of free and open SAR data for national-scale change detection. As new SAR missions are launched and existing missions expand, multi-frequency SAR is expected to play an increasingly important role in monitoring and measuring change on agricultural landscapes. The application of SAR for within-season change detection will require well-calibrated data from multiple satellites within a constellation, if satellites from different constellations are used together.
Change detection using SAR backscatter—as opposed to its indirect detection from SAR-derived value-added products such as crop type maps or modeled biophysical parameters—belong to one of two broad types. These are Incoherent Change Detection (ICD) and Coherent Change Detection (CCD) [128]. ICD methods identify changes in mean backscatter intensity without considering SAR phase information. Here, the difference can be calculated as a ratio, a log ratio (LR), a mean ratio (MR), the normalized compression distance [129], or using pointwise approaches based on graph theory [130], convolutional neural networks [131], or the generalized likelihood ratio test (GLRT) [132]. In comparison, CCD methods identify change based on the complex conjugate correlation coefficient of the two images, thus taking into consideration of both backscatter intensity and phase. If dense stacks of time-series SAR images are available, changes can be inferred from these methods. For example, Shang et al. [21] used CCD to detect crop seeding and harvest using time-series Sentinel-1 SAR. The study integrated time-series coherence and VH backscatter intensity to detect changes at the beginning and at the end of a growing season, with the assumption that coherence is comparatively higher before crops emerge and after crop harvest. Figure 4 shows the example for mapping crop seeding dates, and details of the approach are given in Shang et al. [21].
Estimation of crop seeding dates through change detection using C-band SAR data acquired by Sentinel-1. Left: detection of annual crop fields using a simple threshold of seasonal variation amplitude of VH; right: mapping of crop seeding dates.
Timely and continuous observations from satellite systems are critical for providing the data and information required by decision-makers to manage agricultural lands. High-quality satellite observations can be obtained from SAR sensors; however, they must be collected at a spatial resolution that allows sufficient detail to be resolved, and at times, during the growing season, that coincides with the key growth stages of crops being assessed. The most accurate detailed national crop mapping generally occurs when moderate-resolution spectrally rich time series are acquired that contain no gaps.
Because of its near all-weather capacity, SAR technology has been shown to be particularly useful in agricultural monitoring, especially in regions with frequent cloud cover. The agricultural applications summarized in this article cover examples of information extraction for crops. Despite the gains made over the past 15 years in methods for crop monitoring from SAR, some challenges remain. A major challenge is the separation of backscattering signals from soils and crops, where it is difficult to differentiate the geometrical and dielectric properties of these two targets. While theoretical and semi-empirical models have been developed to simulate backscattering signals, model inversion for solving surface parameters with high accuracy remains a challenge. Much attention has been focused on the integration of SAR and optical remote sensing for improving target parameter retrieval accuracies. With temporally dense imaging capabilities of current and future satellite SAR systems, changes in agricultural land should be more accurately detected. Methods for change detection based on SAR and optical time series show large future potential.
Future opportunities for the use of SAR in agricultural monitoring will come from the adoption of new and improved satellite missions that, in combination or isolation, will allow a better characterization of crop-specific growth cycles at the field level. Of particular interest is the integration of SAR imagery acquired at multiple frequencies, especially if these multi-frequency data sets are collected in wide swaths, with consistent coverages, and under open data policies. However, this will not be without a challenge. The ability of national mapping agencies to incorporate this information in a timely and efficient manner will require significant investment in information technology infrastructure to facilitate the processing of significantly greater volumes of data.
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Odontogenic infections and emergencies are a significant part of an oral and maxillofacial surgeon’s daily practice. On a daily basis, an oral surgeon needs to be prepared to deal with any infection-related emergencies ranging from a toothache, localized vestibular abscess to deep head and neck abscesses. Management of these odontogenic infections could propose a challenge due to complex microbiology of the odontogenic infection and the potential for advancement to a life-threatening emergency. It is crucial that the oral and maxillofacial surgeon has knowledge of anatomic boundaries and fascial spaces to be able to make an accurate diagnosis and perform prompt surgical management. For the patient, odontogenic infections may carry high incidence of morbidity and mortality if not treated promptly. Management of patient with an odontogenic infection is a multifaceted approach involving (1) an examination and assessment of the patient, (2) identifying the source of the infection, (3) anatomic considerations, (4) surgical intervention, (5) administration of the appropriate antimicrobial therapy, and (6) referral to an appropriate provider if indicated. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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