Standard concentrations of auxins and cytokinins to induce
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Ltd., Atsugi, Japan, Researcher/Senior Researcher, Researches on Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Quantum Information, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nApril, 2012 – March 2014: University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Senior Researcher, Researches on Quantum Information Processing Devices. \nApril, 2014 – now: Southwest Institute of Technical Physics, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nJune, 2015 – now: University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Nanoscaled Semiconductors and Quantum Information Processing Devices.\n \nAchievements\nSystematically studied the property of porous silicon materials and verified their mechanism; found green and ultraviolet luminescence, and clarified the multiple luminescence mechanisms of nanocrystalline-silicon embedded in SiO2, which is valuable to silicon-based optoelectronic integration; realized enhanced hole mobility in amorphous silicon, verified the existence of deep trap states in amorphous selenium, providing ways to improve amorphous optoelectronic materials. \nDiscovered lateral coupling between self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) and their tuning effect to 2D electron gas; illustrated and deeply explained the metal-insulator transition in 2D ordered QD arrays, all of which are worth in optoelectronic application of semiconductor QDs. \nDeveloped Sb-free technique to double the InAs/GaAs QD density and suppress the atomic interdiffusion, helped producing 1.3 um QD lasers, which won Japanese national prizes and had been merchandized; developed 1.06 um quantum-well lasers, which have been used to produce pure-green lasers robust against high temperature. \nFound a way to access buried QDs by scanning tunneling microscope; achieved a way to prepare diluted QDs by post-annealing and clarified its mechanisms; invented a technique to control the size and site of QDs by atomic-force microscopy lithography, and an apparatus to detect single electron spin states by optically-detected magnetic resonance; designed a few types of micropillar cavities applicable to realize 1.55 um highly-efficient, even coherent (strongly coupled) InAs/InP QD single photon sources; produced fiber-integrated photon-entangled sources, all of which are very useful to the applications of QDs in quantum information processing. \nDeveloped focal-plane single-photon avalanche detectors, providing central devices for 3D laser detecting and ranging system; explored antimonide middle- and long-wavelength infrared detectors and the surface plasmon enhancement effect in such detectors; advanced the acetone-sensing function of Eu-doped SnO2 nano-belt; found Nickle Phosphide serving as a good catalyst in hydrogen-producing. 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Kalamdhad and Byeong-Kyu Lee",authors:[{id:"10720",title:"Prof.",name:"Byeong-Kyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Byeong-Kyu Lee",slug:"byeong-kyu-lee"},{id:"183487",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiwan",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Jiwan Singh",slug:"jiwan-singh"},{id:"187273",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajay S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kalamdhad",fullName:"Ajay S. 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During the last three decades, plant cell, tissue, and organ culture have developed rapidly and become a major biotechnology tool in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and industry. Many problems in conventional breeding techniques were solved via tissue culture techniques.
In nature, there are a variety forms of plants either seed plants for example, trees, herbs, grasses, or flowering plants for example, fruit-bearing trees. Plants exhibit the basic morphological for example, root, stem and leaves. However, they are vary with differences in cells and tissues, and their topography.
In tissue culture, the term ‘culture’ refers to the fragments of plants that are grown in nutrient media. There are several types of cultures, which are cell culture, tissue culture, organ culture, explant culture, and protoplast culture. Explant is the excised fragment of plants that is transferred into nutrient media. There are many types of explants, it can be roots, stems, leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers. The role of explant is to initiate culture in a nutrient media, provided that they must be able to de-differentiate into totipotent cells.
The term ‘Tissue Culture’ or micropropagation is the technique to propagate plants under sterile conditions, often to produce clones of a plant. The cultured of explant on a solid medium produces mass of protoplasmic cells which later be induced to become a complete plant. However, in organ culture, for example, excised roots, the cultured explant (plant material) maintains its morphology identity, more or less, similar with the same physiology as in vitro of the parent plants. Plant organs are referred to part of plants that possess vascular tissues such as root, shoot, and leaves. Embryo is an independent structure and does not have vascular supply, thus, embryo is not supposed to be the plant organ.
Totipotency is the unique feature of plant cells where every single cells has biological potential to develop normal root, shoots and embryoids, which ultimately forming a plant. The term totipotency is defined as the capability of each living cell to carry out independent development to regenerate into a complete plant, provided with suitable conditions [1]. Many research has been done using tissue culture as a medium to study multicellular organism, because it is rather difficult when using the organism as biological units of study.
The oil palm clones are frequently generated via indirect somatic embryogenesis, in which the plantlets were produced from the growth of callus and differentiate into somatic embryos. The process is usually induced from seeds, hence, making seed propagation most common for oil palm somatic embryogenesis. However, seeds propagation often cause difficulties in terms of low germination of the seeds. Due to the hard woody and sturdy structure of oil palm, there is very few choices of explants that can be used to induce somatic embryogenesis. Apart from the seeds, immature leaves are another explant of oil palm that is often be opted.
Oil palm is one of recalcitrant plants, meaning that its explants are more difficult to be developed into plantlets as compared to other plant species. While somatic embryogenesis is well known for its low efficiencies in producing small number of plantlets, the other main setbacks of this method in oil palm breeding are the difficulties in initiating somatic embryogenesis out of embryo cell cultures as well as to fully convert those somatic embryos into whole plantlets. It was reported that immature leaves explants of oil palm has been able to generate callus up to 52%, while other explants such as zygotic embryos and immature inflorescence produced higher rate of callus induction [2]. Despite of these reported adequate efficiencies, the callus induction rate from an explants are highly dependent of its genotype. Many explants could only regain totipotency during the culture process at around 1–5% in order to initiate callus, thus, making somatic embryogenesis is very inefficient procedures [3]. The development of somatic embryogenesis into whole plantlets is also often problematic. This is due to the failure of shoot or root development or induction, whereby, results in low regeneration rate of oil palm clones [4, 5].
The combination of low efficiency of somatic embryogenesis induction, limited explants choices, and low regeneration rate into complete explants, making oil palm breeding via tissue culture is impossible without embryos proliferation process is carried out. However, by producing large number of embryos in one culture may produce risk of somaclonal variation. Another way to increase regeneration rate in oil palm culture is by using explant of prolific breed. Although the selection of this breed requires large screening process at molecular level to identify the best genotype, it could be developed as a tool that possibly provide long-term benefits [6, 7].
There are several methods to regenerate cultured plants, one of it can be through organogenesis, either through direct organogenesis or indirect organogenesis. Organogenesis is the development of individual plant organ such as shoots or roots from the cells in culture (can be callus (indirect) or plant tissue (direct)) by the process of differentiation. Organogenesis in plant tissue culture involves two stages: Dedifferentiation and redifferentiation. Dedifferentiation starts shortly after explant initiated rapid cell division and consequently forms a mass of undifferentiated cells (callus). Redifferentiation, also referred as budding, is the process where the callus starts to differentiate to form plant organ (organ primordia). This primordia organ is then develop into small meristems (which contains of large nuclei).
In direct organogenesis, the formation of plant organs such as shoot and root is straight from organized tissue (explant) without undergoes callus formation. Progenies that are produced through this technique have identical genetic content as parent. However, this technique is depending on several factors such as explant type, age of explant and size of explant. If meristem tissues is used as explant, the genetic content of the progeny (offspring) are identical as parent. Conversely, if embryos are used as explant, the genetic content between progeny and parent are not identical as embryo formed through fertilization of gamete cells (male and female gametes) and some plants have dormancy period.
In indirect organogenesis, callus is produced first from explant. Callus is disorganized group of cells, rapid dividing, and undifferentiated into specialized tissues such as shoots and roots. Callus can be induced from callus culture, explant (tissues) or cell suspension culture of that callus. Subsequently, organ formation is induced from the callus where shoots and roots are stimulated by plant growth hormones. However, the disadvantage is the changes or variation in the genetic content of somatic cells of the progeny (somaclonal variation) due to repetitive subcultures. Direct organogenesis can be opted to avoid somaclonal variation. Direct organogenesis is often used to plants that are difficult to propagate and do not have abundance of meristem tissues. Therefore, these plants are propagated by using leaves, stems, and root tips as explants.
The rule of thumbs in organogenesis technique are the proportion of growth hormones combinations in the culture medium used to stimulate the respective organs. In direct organogenesis, high ratio of auxin to cytokinin will produce roots while high ratio cytokinin to auxin will induce shoots. In indirect organogenesis, balance or same ratio of auxin and cytokinin (1:1) will produce callus.
Organogenesis starts with induction process caused by the plant hormones in the medium, substances carried over from the explants and endogenous hormones produced by the explants. Organogenesis was first induced by Skoog in 1944 on the formation of root and inhibition of shoot after the addition of auxin. It was then proposed that the regulation of organogenesis is depending on the balance between auxin and cytokinin. The research team then later discovered that high ratio of auxin to cytokinin stimulated the root formation in tobacco callus, but a low ratio of auxin to cytokinin led to shoot formation (Table 1).
Auxin (mg/l) | Cytokinin (mg/l) | Organogenesis |
---|---|---|
0.0 | 0.2 | No growth |
0.03 | 1.0 | Shoots |
3.0 | 0.02 | Roots |
3.0 | 0.2 | Callus |
Standard concentrations of auxins and cytokinins to induce
Other than organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis is another major regeneration technique in plant tissue culture. Embryo production is an important feature of the flowering plants. The process of embryo formation is called embryogenesis which starts from a single embryogenic cell and subsequently develops into either a zygote or undifferentiated callus cells. Embryo that develops from zygotes is called as zygotic embryos. Meanwhile, embryo that develops from somatic cells is called as somatic embryos where it is artificially induced in cultured plant tissues.
Somatic embryogenesis was first induced in cell suspension culture and callus culture of carrot. Other plants like
Somatic embryos can be produced through direct or indirect somatic embryogenesis. In direct somatic embryogenesis, the embryo is induced directly from cells or tissues without the formation of intervening callus. However, this technique is rare and uncommon compared to indirect somatic embryogenesis. In indirect somatic embryogenesis, callus if first formed from explant. Somatic embryos can be then induced from the callus or cell suspension culture of that callus. The embryoids are initiated from superficial callus aggregates where the cells contain large vacuole, dense cytoplasm, large starch granules and nucleus.
Two types of medium with different compositions are required to induce somatic embryoids. First medium contains auxin to initiate embryogenic cells. Second medium is lacked or reduced of auxin, is needed to support the development of the embryogenic cells into embryoids and plantlets. Similar to zygotic embryos, the embryogenic cells pass through 3 different stages i.e. globular, heart shaped, and torpedo shaped, to form embryoids. The embryoids can be separated from the non-embryoids callus cells by using glassbeads or filter paper.
The importance of somatic embryogenesis in agriculture, horticulture, and plant conservation is the zygotic and nucellar embryogenic can be obtained separately from the polyembrogenic plants such as citrus. Since somatic embryo has no food reserves, they can be preserved as encapsulated seeds (surrounded with nutrients). This makes international exchange of germplasm possible. This artificial seeds provide an advantage for embryos of big and heavy fruits like coconut which can be preserved in a test tube for months and then cultured on medium. In addition, some plants that are crossed interspecific or intergeneric are failed to develop at maturity stage, therefore, before the embryos undergo maturity, they can be taken and cultured on artificial medium and grown into whole plants. As somatic embryogenesis produces many somatic embryos in cell culture, this technique is regarded as the ideal mass propagation system. The somatic embryo is a bipolar system which can develop directly into complete plant, hence, there is no need for separate rooting and shooting induction steps. Plants that derived from somatic embryo may be free of viral and pathogens. Therefore, it is another option in disease-free plants generation (Table 2).
Zygotic embryo | Somatic embryo |
---|---|
Fertilized egg or zygote | Somatic cells |
Contain seed coat | No seed coat |
Produce seed | Produce embryo only |
Plantlets are healthy | Plantlets are weaker |
Not indentical to mother plant | Identical to mother plant |
Propagation rate is low | Propagation rate is high |
Comparison between zygotic and somatic embryo.
Somaclonal variation produces phenotypic variation in the somaclones either through genetic variation or epigenetic. In oil palm tissue culture where it is propagated through somatic embryogenesis, this technique is often lead to somaclonal variation [3]. Somaclonal variation refers to genetic variability generated during tissue culture and can be detected as genetic or phenotypic traits. Several features to identify somaclonal variation in somaclones are by examining the number and structure of chromosomes. Somaclones with altered chromosomes are usually exhibit changes in leaf shape and color, growth rate and sexual fertility. It is a heritable mutations and persist in next generations even after plantation into the field.
Somaclonal variation can be developed in tissue culture through genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. In genetic mechanism, variations are presence in somatic cells of explant which may be caused by DNA changes and mutations. In epigenetic mechanism, somaclonal variation is generated during tissue culture and results in temporary phenotypic changes. Somaclonal variation can also occurs due to physiological effect such as exposure to plant growth hormones and the culture conditions.
There are various methods to select somaclonal variants.
Analysis of morphological traits.
Qualitative: Plant height, maturity date, flowering date, and leaf size
Quantitative: Number of flowers, leaves, and seeds.
Cytological studies
Feulgen staining can be used to stain nuclei of the somaclones to measure DNA contents by using cytophotometer. Number of chromosomes can also be measured using the same technique on meristematic tissues such as root tip and shoot tip.
Gel electrophoresis
This technique can be used to detect variation among somaclones in terms of the concentration of protein, pigments and amino acids through the observation of amplification pattern.
Disease resistance trait
Pathogen or toxin that is responsible for the disease resistance can be used to select disease resistance clones.
Herbicide resistance trait
Plantlets that are grown on culture medium containing the particular herbicide possess the herbicide resistance trait.
Stress tolerance trait
Detection for stress tolerance trait has been done on tobacco cell lines for high salt tolerance, and drought tolerance in tomato.
Somaclonal variations help in crop improvement. In India, a somaclonal variant
Allow the generation of genetic variations
Increased and improved production of secondary metabolites
Enable the generation of plants resistant to toxins, pesticides, herbicides and plants that tolerant to stress (unfavorable condition) such as drought and high salt concentration.
Suitable for breeding of tree species
The main setback that has made this breeding technique difficult to carry out is the difficulties to obtain a uniform clones as this feature is important in mass propagation of the plants especially in horticulture and forestry industries. In order to select uniform clones, extensive and extended field trials may be required. The genetic variations in somaclonal variant plants are also unstable, thus, the desired traits have tendency to disappear in the next generation. There is also risk where the clones may exhibit undesirable traits.
Explant is a sterile excised fragment of plants from which cultures are initiated. Generally, all types of plant cells or tissues can be used as an explant, however, it is preferable to use young and immature tissues that is rapidly dividing (at early stage of development) as an explant such as shoot tip, root tip, and young leaves. There are several factors need to be considered during explant selection process:
Explant age – Physiologically, younger tissues are more responsive to the medium in order to induce cell division. Younger tissues are also more suitable as explant because the tissues surface are softer and that helps to ease sterilization process whereby, helps in preventing contamination.
Explant size - The smaller the explant is the better to minimize possibilities of contamination from bacteria, fungus, and viruses. However, small sized explant has lower survival rate in the medium as compared to larger explant due to the lack of reserve nutrient available to sustain the culture.
Season – The season of the year may have effects on explants survival rate in the medium and contaminations. For example, shoots or leaves that are taken during the Spring season are more responsive compared to other seasons. In Malaysia, which is a tropical country, this factor may not need to be considered.
Plant quality – It is more suitable to select explant from plants that are healthy rather than plants that are under stress conditions such as water-stress or nutritional stress or plants that exhibit disease symptoms.
Apart from the above factors to select the best explant, another thing that is need to consider in selecting an explant is the goal of the experiment. The choice of explant tissues is depending on what type of response desired from the cell culture. For example, if the aim is to carry out clonal propagation, explant of shoot or root tip is suitable to achieve it. For callus induction, fragment of cotyledon, hypocotyl, stem, leaf, and embryo can be used as explant. For protoplast fusion, leaf tissue from aseptically germinated seeds are preferable.
Plant tissue culture technique permits the growing plants in test tube or closed container in vitro under controlled environment. This technique is devoted to solve two problems: 1) To keep the plant cells free from microbes. 2) To grow the desired plants by providing suitable nutrient medium and other environmental conditions. Several advantages of plant tissue culture techniques are as following:
Uniform growth – As tissue culture plants (clones) possess the same genetic content, the progenies undergo the same growth pattern.
True to type – Tissue culture plants are grown asexually from somatic cells of mother plant (explant). Therefore, the progenies possess the same genetic content as the explant.
Increase availability of plants – Some plants are difficult to grow. Tissue culture provides the solution to multiply plants in large scales and in uniform growth. Industries that uses plants as raw materials such as in pharmaceutical or medicinal products require large quantity of plants, which can be produced by using tissue culture.
Continuous supply of plants – Some diseases are fluctuate depending on changing of seasons, climate and crop diseases. Therefore, there is a need for continuous supplies of the medicinal plants for production of drugs, that can not be synthesized synthetically. Novel plant – Tissue culture facilitates in developing novel plants with desired traits that are generated through gene transformation.
Disease free and desired propagule – Plants can be grown in disease free environment in large scale, and the desired propagule such as buds and stems can be transported to other places without any damage.
Biosynthetic pathways – Tissue culture can be used for detecting the production of secondary metabolites using labeled precursor in the medium. For example, the production of anthocyanin in apple callus culture.
Immobilization – Tissue culture technique can be used for plant preservation. Through the production of artificial seeds, it allows the immobilization (entrapment) of tissue whereby minimize transportation handling and cost.
Continuous production of medicinal drugs – Some medicinal plants are may be seasonal, and are difficult to obtain due to climate change, etc. Tissue culture acts as a tool to allow the production of the natural compounds independent of soil, climate change and seasons.
Seedless propagation – Some plant seeds are difficult to germinate, tissue culture enables plant propagation without the need of seeds.
Despite of various advantages of plant tissue culture, this technique has some limitations.
High level of expertise are required – Tissue culture technique require excellent level of handling skills as a small error can lead to damage of products or plants. Companies or institutions need to invest on staff training and that makes it costly, as it requires a long-term capital investment.
Expensive – Other than high cost in expertise, tissue culture is also require high cost in chemicals which must contains in high purity.
Low production of secondary metabolites – Amount of secondary metabolites that are harvested from tissue culture plants are often negligible. Therefore, it requires large scale production of plants in order to increase yield.
Instability – Despite having an advantage of producing clones that are identical to the explant, there are times where genetic variation occurs among clones lines which cause changes on phenotype and genotype of the clones. This is called as somaclonal variation.
Prone to contamination – Aseptic technique are need to maintained throughout the
In shoot culture, apical meristem (located at shoot apex and root apex) is cultured, and this culture is also known as meristem culture due to large size of the explant (5–10 mm). Shoot culture is widely applied in horticulture, agriculture and forestry. Murashige, from Morel research team (1960), has significantly established the technique for micropropagation and its further biotechnological application. Due to the small size of explant to be propagated and it occurs
In order to minimize the failure of transplantation, it is necessary to develop acclimatization capability in plantlets before transfer them into soil. Acclimatization is the process where an organism adapts to changes in its environment such as change in temperature, humidity, photoperiod, and pH, to allow it to survive in a range of environmental conditions. This can be done by:
Induction to develop some normal and functional leaves
Induction of functional roots
Exposing the
The following procedures are standard practice for transplantation:
Plantlet is removed from test tube and washed under running tap water.
Soil mixture is prepared with ratio 3:2:1 of soil, peat soil, and fine soil.
Polybags and small planting pots (8 cm x 8 cm) are prepared.
Cocoa peat soil is filled into the base of polibags or planting pots.
The soil mixture is then added into the polybags and planting pots.
Roots of plantlets are dipped into IBA rooting powder.
The plantlets are planted into the soil mixture until the root area is covered.
The plantlets are watered and then covered with transparent plastic, with holes on the surface to allow gas exchange.
The plantlets are placed under up to 60% shading area, and strictly monitored in nursery for 2–3 months.
The plantlets are watered using mist sprayer and the plastic cover is removed after 1 month of planting.
After 3 months, the plantlets are removed to bigger size of polybags or planting pots with the same soil mix composition.
The plantlets are continuously watered and monitored until 4 months old before it is transferred to the orchard.
After acclimatization, the plantlet is ready to be transferred to orchard in larger planting area. This step is called mass propagation.
After 3 months old of the plantlet, the shading is reduced to 20%.
The plantlet is fed with NPK fertilizer 20:20:20 (Nitrogen:Phosphorous:Kalium). The fertilizer is diluted beforehand with water, to reach the concentration between 150 ppm to 200 ppm.
After the plantlet reach 4 months old, it is then ready to be transferred to orchard.
The planting holes are digged beforehand. The depth is depending on the plantlet size, to cover all the root system into the soil.
Mixture of organic fertilizers per plantlet can be added into the planting hole such as chicken or cows manure (100 g), triple superphosphate (100 g), and lime fertilizer (calcium carbonate) (100 g).
Plantlet is removed from polybag and planted into the hole. The fertilizer mixture is added until the top of the soil and covers the area surrounds of plantlet.
Dried leaves or grasses is placed around the base of the plantlet in order to maintain humidity.
The plantlet is watered twice a day i.e. in early morning and late afternoon for 4 months.
This reviews discussed the application of tissue culture techniques as an alternative mean of asexual propagation of important plants. The advantages of tissue culture techniques allow the propagation of recalcitrant plants including oil palms, endangered plants species as well as seasonal dependent plants [8]. This technique required small amounts of plant tissues to propagate large scales of plant clones, thus, making it a convenient method for plant breeding. Plantlets regeneration from cultured plant cells and tissues has been achieved in many species of high economic value. Many of studies are aimed to carry out large scale propagation of important trees yielding fuel, timber, pulp, oils and fruits [9, 10, 11, 12]. Therefore, tissue culture techniques became an alternative for tree improvement.
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",metaTitle:"Conflicts of Interest Policy",metaDescription:"As an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/conflicts-of-interest-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
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\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
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\n\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
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\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
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\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"38850",doi:"10.5772/47790",title:"Clay Minerals from the Perspective of Oil and Gas Exploration",slug:"clay-minerals-from-the-perspective-of-oil-and-gas-exploration",totalDownloads:16086,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Shu Jiang",authors:[{id:"138867",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"shu-jiang",fullName:"Shu Jiang"}]},{id:"38859",doi:"10.5772/51237",title:"Vermiculite: Structural Properties and Examples of the Use",slug:"vermiculite-structural-properties-and-examples-of-the-use",totalDownloads:4785,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Marta Valášková and Gražyna Simha Martynková",authors:[{id:"128173",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Valaskova",slug:"marta-valaskova",fullName:"Marta Valaskova"}]},{id:"38858",doi:"10.5772/50172",title:"Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life",slug:"role-of-clay-minerals-in-chemical-evolution-and-the-origin-of-life",totalDownloads:4761,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Hideo Hashizume",authors:[{id:"142318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideo",middleName:null,surname:"Hashizume",slug:"hideo-hashizume",fullName:"Hideo Hashizume"}]},{id:"38857",doi:"10.5772/50211",title:"Fougerite a Natural Layered Double Hydroxide in Gley Soil: Habitus, Structure, and Some Properties",slug:"fougerite-a-layered-double-hydroxide-in-gley-soil-habitus-structure-and-some-properties",totalDownloads:2838,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Fabienne Trolard and Guilhem Bourrié",authors:[{id:"149841",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabienne",middleName:null,surname:"Trolard",slug:"fabienne-trolard",fullName:"Fabienne Trolard"},{id:"159630",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilhem",middleName:null,surname:"Bourrié",slug:"guilhem-bourrie",fullName:"Guilhem Bourrié"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60931",title:"The Importance of Clay in Geotechnical Engineering",slug:"the-importance-of-clay-in-geotechnical-engineering",totalDownloads:5208,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Clay is a very important material in geotechnical engineering, because it is often observed in geotechnical engineering practice. Generally, this soil type has numerous problems due to its low strength, high compressibility and high level of volumetric changes. Clay needs to be improved before it can be used in road construction, dams, slurry walls, airports and waste landfills. Improved gradation, a reduction in plasticity and swelling potential, as well as an increase in strength and workability, generally improve the stability of clay. Clay is a fine-grained soil, but not all fine-grained soils are clay. Clay minerals are very electrochemically active; thus, they affect soil microstructures. Due to these characteristics, many important soil problems related to clay have been observed in the past, the importance of which is understood. In this chapter, the properties of clay, as well as the use of clay in geotechnical engineering and geotechnical studies on clay, are examined.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Nazile Ural",authors:[{id:"227767",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nazile",middleName:null,surname:"Ural",slug:"nazile-ural",fullName:"Nazile Ural"}]},{id:"61845",title:"Montmorillonite: An Introduction to Properties and Utilization",slug:"montmorillonite-an-introduction-to-properties-and-utilization",totalDownloads:5458,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:76,abstract:"Clay mineral is an important material available in nature. With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"49271",title:"Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals in Cultural Heritage Study",slug:"ceramic-materials-based-on-clay-minerals-in-cultural-heritage-study",totalDownloads:3167,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The artifacts belonging to the ceramic heritage are mostly based on all clay types used by humans over the ages, because the sources of clays were easily available and people were interested to produce ceramics and pottery. This is the reason why the conservation of cultural heritage is of great concern. Ceramics (Greek κεράμιον Keramion) is a material obtained by shaping and firing clay. In the Romanian history, many ceramic pieces, of great diversity, have been discovered, and most of them are used in traditional households. Ceramic materials based on clay minerals in cultural heritage (ceramic heritage) involve techniques of characterization of raw materials and ceramic objects based on clays, discovered in different archaeological sites, leading to some results about the production technology, provenance, authentication, and historical appartenance on Romanian territory. The chemical composition of ancient ceramics and pigments decorating them, excavated from different Romanian archaeological sites, suggested a chemical composition of ceramic based on clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, and smectite), while the pigments belonging to them contained red pigments (hematite or ocher), manganese oxides (brown pigments), and magnetite or carbon of vegetable origin (black-pigmented layers).",book:{id:"5073",slug:"clays-clay-minerals-and-ceramic-materials-based-on-clay-minerals",title:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Rodica-Mariana Ion, Radu-Claudiu Fierăscu, Sofia Teodorescu, Irina\nFierăscu, Ioana-Raluca Bunghez, Daniela Ţurcanu-Caruţiu and\nMihaela-Lucia Ion",authors:[{id:"137269",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu Claudiu",middleName:null,surname:"Fierascu",slug:"radu-claudiu-fierascu",fullName:"Radu Claudiu Fierascu"},{id:"171504",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodica-Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",slug:"rodica-mariana-ion",fullName:"Rodica-Mariana Ion"},{id:"176479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Teodorescu",slug:"sofia-teodorescu",fullName:"Sofia Teodorescu"},{id:"176480",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Fierascu",slug:"irina-fierascu",fullName:"Irina Fierascu"},{id:"176481",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Bunghez",slug:"ioana-raluca-bunghez",fullName:"Ioana Raluca Bunghez"},{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"},{id:"176483",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela-Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",slug:"mihaela-lucia-ion",fullName:"Mihaela-Lucia Ion"}]},{id:"62742",title:"Development of Clay Nanoparticles Toward Bio and Medical Applications",slug:"development-of-clay-nanoparticles-toward-bio-and-medical-applications",totalDownloads:1897,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Clay nanoparticles are among the most applicable and cost-affordable materials, all of which have a variety of applications in case of medical science. In this chapter, key characteristics of the clay nanoparticles along with their major groups, structure, morphology, and physicochemical properties were evaluated. Thereafter, the applications of clay nanoparticles in the field of nanocomposite, polymeric matrices, and medicine were investigated, while specimen production procedures were also reviewed. The main focus of this chapter is to investigate the applications of clay nanoparticles in bio- and medical science. In fact, organically modified clay nanoparticles (organoclays) are an attractive class of hybrid organic–inorganic nanomaterials with potential applications in case of polymer nanocomposites, rheological properties modification, and drug delivery carrier.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Seyyed Alireza Hashemi, Sarvenaz Salahi,\nMojgan Hosseini, Ali Mohammad Amani and Aziz Babapoor",authors:[{id:"208535",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Seyyed Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Hashemi",slug:"seyyed-alireza-hashemi",fullName:"Seyyed Alireza Hashemi"},{id:"217960",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Mousavi",slug:"seyyed-mojtaba-mousavi",fullName:"Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi"},{id:"217961",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Amani",slug:"ali-mohammad-amani",fullName:"Ali Mohammad Amani"}]},{id:"38850",title:"Clay Minerals from the Perspective of Oil and Gas Exploration",slug:"clay-minerals-from-the-perspective-of-oil-and-gas-exploration",totalDownloads:16086,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - 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