\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7478",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",subtitle:"Applications and Attributes",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book enlightens the type, chemical structure, and application of photo-catalysts. It covers the recent developments in photo-catalysts and their applications, particularly in photo-catalytic degradation of different organic pollutants, hydrogen production, etc. It provides a concise but complete coverage and overview of photocatalysts and their recent advances for a broad audience: beginners, graduate students, and specialists in both academic and industrial sectors.",isbn:"978-1-78985-476-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-475-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-058-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75848",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"26559479998a0a8d83546de0a220c87f",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan and Kalsoom Akhtar",publishedDate:"March 6th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7478.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13525,numberOfWosCitations:44,numberOfCrossrefCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:93,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:179,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 19th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245468/images/system/245468.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Sher Bahadar Khan received his Ph.D from HEJ, Karachi University, Pakistan. After completion of his Ph.D, he started his post-doctoral career in nanochemistry and nanotechnology and continued to work as a post-doctoral research fellow to February 2010 at Yonsei University, South Korea. In March 2010, he joined the Center for Advanced Materials and Nano-engineering, Department of Chemistry, Najran University as an Assistant Professor and continued his work to 31 August 2011. He joined the Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia as an Assistant Professor in September 2011. Currently he is Full Professor in the Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University and is doing research in nanochemistry and nanotechnology. He was honoured by receiving the top scientist award of KP Science & Technology in 2018. He was also honoured by the Deanship of Scientific Research awards at King Abdulaziz University for book, patent, and highly ranked scientific publication. He is the author of 320 research articles, twelve books, and six patents with almost 1000 ± 10 impact factor, 6665 citations, and 45 h-index.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"245469",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalsoom",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"kalsoom-akhtar",fullName:"Kalsoom Akhtar",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Kalsoom Akhtar received her Ph.D from the Chemistry Department, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea. Dr. K. Akhtar is an Assist. Professor in the Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University and is currently doing research in organic and nano-chemistry, which comprises photo-catalyst, organic synthesis, and metal oxide nanomaterials. She is the author of 2 books and 65 research papers.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"509",title:"Photochemistry",slug:"photochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80999",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3159,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63788",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63788",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"63016",title:"Selective Photodegradation Using Titanate Nanostructures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80311",slug:"selective-photodegradation-using-titanate-nanostructures",totalDownloads:990,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered as the most important ways of treating water from organic compounds. It would be very useful if the adsorption and photocatalytic properties are combined in the same catalyst used in the treatment. Titania is one of the best well-known photocatalysts. However, due to its poor selectivity, it is unfavorable for photocatalytic removal of highly toxic low-level organic pollutants in wastewater in the presence of other less toxic high-level pollutants. Recent trials to introduce selectivity for titania have been achieved via controlling the catalyst morphology or by modifying the catalyst surface. This chapter summarizes the control of selectivity of titanate nanostructures toward adsorption and/or photocatalytic degradation of toxic organic dyes. In the first part, the effect of morphologies of titanites on selective photocatalytic degradation of three food dyes (color yellow sunset, red allura, and red carmoisine) was discussed. In changing the morphology of titanite, each dye is being preferably adsorbed by one morphology and decomposing more rapidly. In the second part, the selective adsorption and/or photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye from mixed dye solution using sodium titanate (NaTNT), cobalt-doped titanate nanotubes (co-doped TNT), and the decorated one with gold nanoparticles has been discussed.",signatures:"Ayman Hassan Zaki and Waleed Mohamed Ali. El Rouby",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63016",authors:[{id:"242465",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",surname:"Zaki",slug:"ayman-zaki",fullName:"Ayman Zaki"},{id:"261211",title:"Dr.",name:"Waleed",surname:"El Rouby",slug:"waleed-el-rouby",fullName:"Waleed El Rouby"}],corrections:null},{id:"62303",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:3928,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:73,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62303",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62303",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64228",title:"Modified Metallic Oxides for Efficient Photocatalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80834",slug:"modified-metallic-oxides-for-efficient-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of the chapter is to present modified materials like alternatives for conventional photocatalyst such as titanium dioxide. Discussion about silver/graphene nanoparticles-modified zinc oxide for the degradation of pollutants like triclosan or bisphenol A, both considered as endocrine disruptors, which affect the hormonal development of humans, is presented. The best conditions to obtain the highest photodegradation degree are established. In addition, the bismuth oxychloride has gained attention during the last 5 years for photocatalysis. In accordance, the obtained results for phenol photodegradation, using such oxychloride, are also presented. In the chapter, the characterization of photocatalyst is reported along with the proposal for mechanisms of action for the modified ZnO photocatalyst and the bismuth oxychloride.",signatures:"Vladimir A. Escobar Barrios, Dalia Verónica Sánchez Rodríguez,\nNancy Ayerim Cervantes Rincón and Alma Berenice Jasso-Salcedo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64228",authors:[{id:"12711",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Alonso",surname:"Escobar Barrios",slug:"vladimir-alonso-escobar-barrios",fullName:"Vladimir Alonso Escobar Barrios"},{id:"252705",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",surname:"Cervantes-Rincón",slug:"nancy-cervantes-rincon",fullName:"Nancy Cervantes-Rincón"},{id:"252706",title:"Dr.",name:"Alma",surname:"Jasso-Salcedo",slug:"alma-jasso-salcedo",fullName:"Alma Jasso-Salcedo"},{id:"252707",title:"MSc.",name:"Dalia Verónica",surname:"Sánchez Rodríguez",slug:"dalia-veronica-sanchez-rodriguez",fullName:"Dalia Verónica Sánchez Rodríguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"63562",title:"Lanthanides Effects on TiO2 Photocatalysts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80906",slug:"lanthanides-effects-on-tio2-photocatalysts",totalDownloads:1077,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Semiconductors have been evaluated to heterogeneous photocatalysis degradation of recalcitrant contaminants in aqueous media due to the capacity of mineralizing these compounds under UV or visible light irradiation. However, this process has the inherent feature of photogenerated charges recombination and the high bandgap energy of the electronic structure of some semiconductors that can reduce the formation of reactive oxygen species, which are responsible for the compound degradation. In this context, structural modifications in semiconductors have been proposed to enhance the photocatalytic activity, such as doping processes with elements that are capable of generating superficial defects that capture the formed electrons, avoiding the recombination, or increasing the density of –OH groups or water molecules on the surface of the catalyst, which can enhance the formation of hydroxyl radicals. Therefore, this brief review is proposed to show the role of lanthanides in the TiO2 doping and the synthesis method applied, as well as the results discussed in the literature.",signatures:"Gustavo Lopes Colpani, Micheli Zanetti, Rubieli Carla Frezza\nZeferino, Luciano Luiz Silva, Josiane Maria Muneron de Mello,\nHumberto Gracher Riella, Natan Padoin, Márcio Antônio Fiori and\nCíntia Soares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63562",authors:[{id:"215607",title:"Dr.",name:"Josiane",surname:"Mello",slug:"josiane-mello",fullName:"Josiane Mello"},{id:"257258",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Colpani",slug:"gustavo-colpani",fullName:"Gustavo Colpani"},{id:"257927",title:"MSc.",name:"Micheli",surname:"Zanetti",slug:"micheli-zanetti",fullName:"Micheli Zanetti"},{id:"257928",title:"MSc.",name:"Rubieli Carla Frezza",surname:"Zeferino",slug:"rubieli-carla-frezza-zeferino",fullName:"Rubieli Carla Frezza Zeferino"},{id:"257929",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano Luiz",surname:"Silva",slug:"luciano-luiz-silva",fullName:"Luciano Luiz Silva"},{id:"268440",title:"Dr.",name:"Cíntia",surname:"Soares",slug:"cintia-soares",fullName:"Cíntia Soares"},{id:"268441",title:"Dr.",name:"Natan",surname:"Padoin",slug:"natan-padoin",fullName:"Natan Padoin"},{id:"268442",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",surname:"Gracher Riella",slug:"humberto-gracher-riella",fullName:"Humberto Gracher Riella"},{id:"268443",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcio",surname:"Fiori",slug:"marcio-fiori",fullName:"Márcio Fiori"}],corrections:null},{id:"63323",title:"Carbon-/Zeolite-Supported TiO2 for Sorption/Photocatalysis Applications in Water Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80803",slug:"carbon-zeolite-supported-tio2-for-sorption-photocatalysis-applications-in-water-treatment",totalDownloads:945,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The role of various carbon forms, i.e., activated carbon and carbon nanotubes/nanofibers as support for TiO2 in drinking water treatment, is discussed. Also, TiO2 supported onto zeolite that acts bifunctionally as a sorbent/photocatalyst for drinking water treatment is presented. The main contaminants of natural organic matter (NOM), arsenic species, and nitrogen compounds from drinking water sources by the type of groundwater and surface water can be removed/degraded by sorption/photocatalysis using TiO2 supported onto carbon and/or zeolite. TiO2 supported on powdered activated carbon (PAC-TiO2), granular activated carbon (GAC-TiO2), and zeolite (Z-TiO2), namely, supported TiO2, was synthesized through the sol-gel method, and TiO2 and multiwall carbon nanotubes/carbon nanofibers dispersed within epoxy matrix (CNT-TiO2-Epoxy, CNF-TiO2-Epoxy), namely, TiO2 composite, were obtained through the two-roll mill method. Kinetic study results through specific mathematic models allowed to elucidate some mechanistic aspects for sorption and photocatalysis for the application in drinking water. The intercalation of the carbon- and zeolite-supported TiO2 layers into a filtering system allows to develop a self-cleaning filtering system in drinking water.",signatures:"Florica Manea and Corina Orha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63323",authors:[{id:"249975",title:"Prof.",name:"Florica",surname:"Manea",slug:"florica-manea",fullName:"Florica Manea"},{id:"251672",title:"Dr.",name:"Corina",surname:"Orha",slug:"corina-orha",fullName:"Corina Orha"}],corrections:null},{id:"63802",title:"Evaluation of the Role of Hydroxyapatite in TiO2/ Hydroxyapatite Photocatalytic Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81092",slug:"evaluation-of-the-role-of-hydroxyapatite-in-tio2-hydroxyapatite-photocatalytic-materials",totalDownloads:1086,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The TiO2/hydroxyapatite (HAp) composite has attracted much attention as a photocatalyst for pollution treatment in water or air because this composite can improve the properties of pure TiO2 including a low efficiency, narrow light response range, low adsorption capacity for hydrophobic contaminants, and difficult recovery of TiO2 particles after using in Aquarius environment. To obtain the best composite containing the two components including TiO2 and HAp, the role of HAp in TiO2/hydroxyapatite photocatalytic material should be analyzed and evaluated. This chapter will significantly present a review of the role of HAp in the TiO2/hydroxyapatite composite including the adsorption ability of contaminations and the promoted impacts of HAp component.",signatures:"Linh Nguyen Thi Truc, Seungbum Hong and Kwangsoo No",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63802",authors:[{id:"240618",title:"Prof.",name:"Seungbum",surname:"Hong",slug:"seungbum-hong",fullName:"Seungbum Hong"},{id:"250784",title:"Dr.",name:"Linh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"linh-nguyen",fullName:"Linh Nguyen"},{id:"252169",title:"Prof.",name:"Kwangsoo",surname:"No",slug:"kwangsoo-no",fullName:"Kwangsoo No"}],corrections:null},{id:"63673",title:"Photoreduction Processes over TiO2 Photocatalyst",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80914",slug:"photoreduction-processes-over-tio2-photocatalyst",totalDownloads:1173,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the study of TiO2 photocatalyst for the photoreduction of several reducible chemicals. The photocatalytic reduction of several toxic metal ions, including Ag(I), Cu(II), Cr(VI), Hg(II), and U(VI) in the presence of TiO2, in order to decrease their toxicity, is described. Photodeposition of the noble metals, such as Ag(I), Au(III), Pt(IV), and Pd(II) for doping purposes by photocatalytic reduction over TiO2, is also addressed. Conversion of the greenhouse gas of CO2 into useful hydrocarbons and methanol by photocatalytic reduction using TiO2 photocatalyst is highlighted. Several operating parameters in photoreduction processes that are photocatalyst dose, time of the irradiation, pH of the solution, and the initial concentration of the substrates (the reducible chemicals) are also reviewed.",signatures:"Endang Tri Wahyuni and Nurul Hidayat Aprilita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63673",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63673",authors:[{id:"225211",title:"Prof.",name:"Endang Tri",surname:"Wahyuni",slug:"endang-tri-wahyuni",fullName:"Endang Tri Wahyuni"},{id:"267675",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurul Hidayat",surname:"Aprilita",slug:"nurul-hidayat-aprilita",fullName:"Nurul Hidayat Aprilita"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7358",title:"Cerium Oxide",subtitle:"Applications and Attributes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d1cd9a9ecf46270e344d15f94bc66ef",slug:"cerium-oxide-applications-and-attributes",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan and Kalsoom Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7358.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8724",title:"Gas Sensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc4be4b954b559709aaace45f70adcd0",slug:"gas-sensors",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan, Abdullah M. 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Hernández-Velázquez",authors:[{id:"68565",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",fullName:"Víctor Manuel Hernández",slug:"victor-manuel-hernandez"},{id:"76303",title:"Dr.",name:"Ludmila",middleName:"Elisa",surname:"Guzmán-Pantoja",fullName:"Ludmila Guzmán-Pantoja",slug:"ludmila-guzmandatildeandiexcln-pantoja"},{id:"76304",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:"Patricia",surname:"Lina-García",fullName:"Laura Lina-García",slug:"laura-lina-garcia"},{id:"76306",title:"BSc.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Bustos Zagal",fullName:"Graciela Bustos Zagal",slug:"graciela-bustos-zagal"}]},{id:"25784",title:"Standardization of Herbal Drugs Derivatives with Special Reference to Brazilian Regulations",slug:"standardization-of-herbal-drugs-derivatives-with-special-reference-to-brazilian-regulations",signatures:"Wagner Luiz Ramos Barbosa, Lucianna do Nascimento Pinto, Luiz Cláudio Silva Malheiros, Patricia Miriam Sayuri Sato Barros, Christian Barbosa de Freitas, Jose Otavio Carrera Silva Junior, Sandra Gallori and Franco Francesco Vincieri",authors:[{id:"38525",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Otavio Carrera",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Junior",fullName:"Jose Otavio Carrera Silva Junior",slug:"jose-otavio-carrera-silva-junior"},{id:"38833",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Wagner",middleName:"Luiz Ramos",surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Wagner Barbosa",slug:"wagner-barbosa"},{id:"65477",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucianna",middleName:null,surname:"Pinto",fullName:"Lucianna Pinto",slug:"lucianna-pinto"},{id:"119076",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Malheiros",fullName:"Luis Claudio Silva Malheiros",slug:"luis-claudio-silva-malheiros"},{id:"119077",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia Miriam",middleName:null,surname:"Sayiuri Sato Barros",fullName:"Patricia Miriam Sayiuri Sato Barros",slug:"patricia-miriam-sayiuri-sato-barros"},{id:"119080",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa De Freitas",fullName:"Christian Barbosa De Freitas",slug:"christian-barbosa-de-freitas"},{id:"119604",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Gallori",fullName:"Sandra Gallori",slug:"sandra-gallori"},{id:"119606",title:"Prof.",name:"Franco Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Vincieri",fullName:"Franco Francesco Vincieri",slug:"franco-francesco-vincieri"}]},{id:"25785",title:"The Phytochemical and In Vitro Pharmacological Testing of Maltese Medicinal Plants",slug:"the-phytochemical-and-in-vitro-pharmacological-testing-of-maltese-medicinal-plants",signatures:"Everaldo Attard and Pierpaolo Pacioni",authors:[{id:"81688",title:"Prof.",name:"Everaldo",middleName:"G.",surname:"Attard",fullName:"Everaldo Attard",slug:"everaldo-attard"},{id:"81699",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierpaolo",middleName:null,surname:"Pacioni",fullName:"Pierpaolo Pacioni",slug:"pierpaolo-pacioni"}]},{id:"25786",title:"Phytochemicals Components as Bioactive Foods",slug:"phytochemicals-components-as-bioactive-foods",signatures:"Aicha Olfa Cherif",authors:[{id:"66192",title:"Dr.",name:"Aicha Olfa",middleName:null,surname:"Cherif",fullName:"Aicha Olfa Cherif",slug:"aicha-olfa-cherif"}]},{id:"25787",title:"Diosgenin, a Steroid Saponin Constituent of Yams and Fenugreek: Emerging Evidence for Applications in Medicine",slug:"diosgenin-a-steroid-saponin-constituent-of-yams-and-fenugreek-emerging-evidence-for-applications-in-",signatures:"Jayadev Raju and Chinthalapally V. Rao",authors:[{id:"67603",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayadev",middleName:null,surname:"Raju",fullName:"Jayadev Raju",slug:"jayadev-raju"},{id:"74726",title:"Prof.",name:"Chinthalapally",middleName:"V.",surname:"Rao",fullName:"Chinthalapally Rao",slug:"chinthalapally-rao"}]},{id:"25788",title:"Polyphenols as Adaptogens – The Real Mechanism of the Antioxidant Effect?",slug:"polyphenols-as-adaptogens-the-real-mechanism-of-the-antioxidant-effect-",signatures:"David E. Stevenson",authors:[{id:"65554",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"David Stevenson",slug:"david-stevenson"}]},{id:"25789",title:"Erythrina, a Potential Source of Chemicals from the Neotropics",slug:"erythrina-a-potential-source-of-chemicals-from-the-neotropics",signatures:"R. Marcos Soto-Hernández, Rosario García-Mateos, Rubén San Miguel-Chávez, Geoffrey Kite, Mariano Martínez-Vázquez and Ana C. Ramos-Valdivia",authors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Soto-Hernández",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez"}]},{id:"25790",title:"Zanthoxylum Genus as Potential Source of Bioactive Compounds",slug:"zanthoxylum-genus-as-potential-source-of-bioactive-compounds",signatures:"L. Oscar Javier Patiño, R. Juliet Angélica Prieto and S. Luis Enrique Cuca",authors:[{id:"65330",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Patiño",fullName:"Oscar Patiño",slug:"oscar-patino"},{id:"76143",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Cuca Suárez",fullName:"Luis Enrique Cuca Suárez",slug:"luis-enrique-cuca-suarez"},{id:"76144",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",middleName:"Angélica",surname:"Prieto Rodríguez",fullName:"Juliet Prieto Rodríguez",slug:"juliet-prieto-rodriguez"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"901",title:"Transgenic Plants",subtitle:"Advances and Limitations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eaa4d0024fab56af74d9e3d0624bec11",slug:"transgenic-plants-advances-and-limitations",bookSignature:"Yelda Özden Çiftçi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/901.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95553",title:"Prof.",name:"Yelda",surname:"Ozden Çiftçi",slug:"yelda-ozden-ciftci",fullName:"Yelda Ozden Çiftçi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1489",title:"Plants and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"612a067a1255855ede4af6c7837d4353",slug:"plants-and-environment",bookSignature:"Hemanth KN. Vasanthaiah and Devaiah Kambiranda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65633",title:"Dr.",name:"Hemanth",surname:"Vasanthaiah",slug:"hemanth-vasanthaiah",fullName:"Hemanth Vasanthaiah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1956",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"Bioactivities and Impact on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bca0d717264e92e4863937bdcf16e06b",slug:"phytochemicals-bioactivities-and-impact-on-health",bookSignature:"Iraj Rasooli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1956.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61446",title:"Prof.",name:"Iraj",surname:"Rasooli",slug:"iraj-rasooli",fullName:"Iraj Rasooli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2032",title:"Applied Photosynthesis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eae1ef7b02301a595a17071b934bb94b",slug:"applied-photosynthesis",bookSignature:"Mohammad Mahdi Najafpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2032.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65280",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Najafpour",slug:"mohammad-najafpour",fullName:"Mohammad Najafpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2969",title:"Protected Area Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"70efb527b6cd48bf087444c27ac16d76",slug:"protected-area-management",bookSignature:"Barbara Sladonja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88464",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Sladonja",slug:"barbara-sladonja",fullName:"Barbara Sladonja"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1956",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"Bioactivities and Impact on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bca0d717264e92e4863937bdcf16e06b",slug:"phytochemicals-bioactivities-and-impact-on-health",bookSignature:"Iraj Rasooli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1956.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61446",title:"Prof.",name:"Iraj",surname:"Rasooli",slug:"iraj-rasooli",fullName:"Iraj Rasooli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72167",title:"Terpenoids as Important Bioactive Constituents of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91426",slug:"terpenoids-as-important-bioactive-constituents-of-essential-oils",body:'\nThe use of plant and plant-derived natural products for medicinal, religious, and cosmetic purposes has a history dating back to the emergence of humanity. Exploring natural plant products as an option to find new chemical entities as leads is one of the fastest growing areas of research. Medicinal plants are rich sources of bioactive phytochemicals and/or bionutrients, which have shown important role in preventing chronic diseases like cancers, diabetes, and coronary heart diseases [1]. It is well documented that plants produce these chemicals to protect themselves, but they also protect plants from diseases and damages and contribute to the plant’s color, aroma, and flavor [2]. The pharmaceutical properties of aromatic plants are partially attributed to essential oils (EOs), which can also be seen as an important group of plant secondary metabolites. Although the use of EOs has been primarily related to food flavorings, cosmetics, and perfumes due to their aroma, research demonstrates the high potential of the use of volatile monoterpene constituents to cure and prevent human diseases [3, 4]. During the recent years, plant EOs have come more into the focus of phytomedicine and aromatherapy; hence their widespread use has raised more interest to scientists in basic research, especially their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. In general, EOs consist of chemical mixtures involving from several tens to hundreds of different types of molecules, most of them being complex natural mixture of terpene and phenylpropanoids (benzene derivatives) which are responsible for their biological activities [5, 6]. At the first glance, terpenes and EOs can seem alike; both can come from plants and are aromatic; for many they are used for the same purpose. These similarities have led to a wide misconception that they are same, but this is not necessary the case [7].
\nA plethora of practical definitions of the term essential or volatile oils exist. Essential oils are concentrated aromatic hydrophobic oily volatile liquids characterized by a strong odor and produced by different plant materials such as flowers, peels, rhizomes, buds, seeds, leaves, twigs, bark, herbs or grass, wood, fruits, roots, and whole plant from one single botanic species [7, 8, 9]. However, EOs with a specific characteristic (including chemical properties and biological activities) are generally obtained from a single botanical source when the age of the plant, the climate, and the edaphic and harvest period are relatively identical [10]. They are called “essential oils” because they contain the “essence” of the plant material. A few are produced by animals and microorganisms [11]. Mosses, liverworts, seaweeds, and fungi have also been shown to contain EOs. EOs are limpid, rarely colored, and soluble in nonpolar or weakly polar organic solvents and of lower density (lighter) than water, with very few exceptions [12]. They are usually colorless particularly when fresh, but few may also be pale yellow (yellow mandarin), blue (
The quality and the quantity of EOs in plant material depends on the climate, the soil type, the age and vegetable cycle stage, the preparation method, chemotypes, as well as the plant organ [8]. An estimated 3000 EOs, from about 2000 plants, are of great value and are used in a very large variety of fields [15, 16]. All plants possess principally the ability to produce volatile compounds, quite often, however, only in traces. Those plants that can produce an EO of commercial interest are called essential oils plants [17]. EOs occur specially in higher plants (with about 17,500 known species) but are distributed in good amount in a limited number of families including Myrtaceae, Myristicaceae, Oleaceae, Rosaceae, Acoraceae, Cupressaceae, Lauraceae, Compositae, Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Umbelliferae, Apiaceae, Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, etc. [18, 19, 20, 21].
\nIn most cases, the biological function of EOs remains obscure. They are nowadays subject of intensive scientific research and also attract attention of diverse industries due to their potentials as active pharmacological compounds or natural preservatives [22]. Their ecological role is however well studied and described. The most known are plant interactions (allelopathic agents, germination inhibitors) and plant–animal interactions for protection against predators (insects, fungi, herbivores) and attraction of pollinating insect to their host [23]. Industries have always had special interest on the microbial safety of cosmetics, as microbial spoilage can lead to product degradation and cause a risk for customers’ health. EOs and drugs containing them are of great importance in pharmacy, perfumery (heal, perfume, incense, household cleaning products), food technology (favor for food, drinks, spices, preservative), agriculture (insecticide), and aromatherapy. Their importance is nowadays known and appreciated in plant chemotaxonomy [24, 25].
\nThe world production and consumption of EOs and perfumes are increasing very fast. Production technology of EOs is an essential element to improve their overall yield. They are obtained from raw material by several extraction techniques such as water or steam distillation, solvent extraction, expression under pressure, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid, or subcritical water extractions [22, 26, 27, 28]. The best extraction method to use depends on the ease of evaporating (volatility) and the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity (polarity) of the desired components. The extraction method chosen greatly affects the chemical composition of EOs.
\nThey are the most frequently used method for the extraction of EOs from plants.
\nIt is the oldest and easiest conventional method of extraction of EOs [11, 29, 30, 31]. The principle is based on the isotropic distillation. The plant material soaks up water during the boiling process, and the oil contained in the oil cells diffuses through the cell walls by means of osmosis. The distillation time depends on the plants material being processed (Figure 1).
\nDiagrammatic illustration of hydrodistillation (HD) method [
The principle of this technique is that the combined vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure at about 100°C so that the volatile components with the boiling points ranging from 150 to 300°C can be evaporated at a temperature close to that of water. The steam distillation takes advantage of the volatility of a compound to evaporate when heated with steam and the hydrophobicity of the compound to separate into an oil phase during the condensation process (Figure 2) [33].
\nDiagrammatic illustration of steam distillation method [
Also known as liquid–liquid partitioning, its principle is based on the solubility in an organic solvent non-mixable to water. This technique is used on delicate plants to produce higher amounts of EOs at a lower cost. The method is limited by the compound solubility in the specific solvent used, long extraction time, relatively high solvent consumption and often unsatisfactory reproducibility and purity (Figure 3) [33].
\nIllustration of liquid–liquid extraction method.
Typically, it is a solid–liquid extraction used when the desired compound has a limited solubility in a solvent and the impurity is insoluble in that solvent. There are several advantages of using this technique. These advantages include:
Low solvent consumption for a larger amount of raw material,
Repeatedly brought into contact with fresh portions of the solvent, this prevents the possibility of the solvent to become saturated with extractable material and enhances the removal of analyte from the matrix. Moreover, the temperature of the system is close to the boiling point of the solvent. This helps to increase the extraction kinetic of the system.
As disadvantages, it requires several hours or days to be performed; moreover, the sample is diluted in a large volume of solvent.
\nDue to heating, the thermal degradation and volatilization of components have been observed, and hydrolysis of esters to yield alcohols and carboxylic acids can occur (Figure 4) [34].
\nSoxhlet equipment [
Also kwon as scarification method, this is one of the best methods to extract EOs. The term cool pressed theoretically means that the oil is expeller-pressed at low temperature and pressure. This process insures that the resulting oil is 100% pure and retains all the properties of the plant. Here the heat is reduced and minimized throughout the batching of the raw material. EOs are then separated from the material by centrifugation [36].
\nSince economy, competitiveness, eco-friendly, sustainability, operation costs, high efficiency, and good quality become keywords of the modern industrial production, the development of EO extraction techniques has never been interrupted. The most relevant disadvantage of conventional techniques are time and solvent consumption and also related to the thermolability of EOs components which undergo chemical alteration (hydrolyze, isomerization, oxidation) due to the high applied temperatures [37]. The quality of the obtained oil is damaged, particularly if the extraction time is long. It is important that the extraction method maintain the chemical composition and the natural proportion at its original state. Strictly speaking, conventional methods are not the only way for the removal of EOs. Novel techniques known as innovative have been developed for this purpose but may not necessarily be widely used for commercial production due to the high cost of production of oils without any alteration of their thermosensitive components (Figure 5).
\nCold pressing apparatus and procedure distillation method [
It is a process of separating one component (the extractant) from another (the matrix) using supercritical fluids as the extracting solvent. In practice, more than 90% of all analytical supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is performed with carbon dioxide (CO2) as the most used fluid. The CO2 is chosen for several reasons including the following: relatively low critical pressure (74 bars) and temperature (32°C), inertness, non-toxic, nonflammable, high soluble, non-corrosive, safe, available in high purity at relatively low cost, perfect conditions for thermosensitive compounds extraction, selectivity for desired compounds, and easy removal from the extract. At lower temperatures, to avoid potential damage of desired components of EOs, supercritical CO2 extraction technique is highly recommended [39, 40]. Extraction of EOs by SFs, particularly with CO2, provides products free of toxic waste, having a higher quality (especially it reserves the thermal instability of compounds) than EOs obtained by conventional methods (Figure 6) [40, 41, 42].
\nFlow diagram of SC-CO2 extraction [
SFEAP is a novel technique of extraction recently developed by Johner and collaborators [43]. It integrated both the cold-pressed extraction method and the SFE technique. Here, the solid raw material is loaded inside the extraction vessel, and a cold pressing is provided by contracting an under pressure piston with the raw material. SFEAP has been shown to offer faster extraction rate at 333 K and 40 MPa with the best yield [44]. Its advantages include gain of extraction time and solvent consumption. This technique has been used to extract EOs from
Schematic diagram of SFEAP apparatus [
The principle of the microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) is based upon its direct impact with polar materials/solvents and is governed by two phenomena: ionic conduction and dipole rotation, which in most cases occurs simultaneously [46]. MAHD has been shown to reduce both extraction time and volume of solvent required, minimizing environmental impact by emitting less CO2 in atmosphere [47, 48, 49]. Some recently reported studies have successfully utilized a microwave oven for the extraction of volatile active components from plants [50]. It has been regarded as an important alternative in conventional extraction techniques because of its advantages which mainly are a reduction of extraction time, solvents, selectivity, volumetric heating, and controllable heating process (Figure 8) [51].
\nSchematic and picture of MAHD apparatus [
The basic principle of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to extract EOs from plant raw material consist of generating sound waves (ultrasound frequency about 20 KHz), which create cavitation bubbles in the solution and produce enough energy to break the structure containing the oil in order to release it. Moreover, UAE can act as an emulsifier dispersing lipophilic molecules in water, this facilitating the subsequent separation and purification of EOs [54, 55]. This technique was developed in 1950 [56]. It has been used to extract many EOs especially from flowers, leaves, or seeds [32, 55]. As known disadvantages, it requires filtration steps, and possible degradation of compounds at high frequencies occurs (Figure 9) [57].
\nUltrasound-assisted extraction (UAE): from laboratory (a) to pilot scale (b) [
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is a process of using microwave energy to heat the solvent in contact with a sample in order to partition analytes from the sample into the solvent. The ability to rapidly heat the sample solvent mixture is inherent to MAE and is the main advantage of this technique [59]. It is a recent green technology broadly used to extract various EOs from plant. It has been established as an alternative method to conventional heating because it allows gain of time, volume of solvent used, and amount of biomass needed while increasing the extraction yield [28]. In most cases, recoveries of analytes and reproducibility are improved compared to conventional techniques (Figure 10) [59].
\nPicture and schematic diagram of the microwave oven adaptation to perform MAE [
Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) is proposed as a method for “green” extraction of edible EOs from fresh plant material, at atmospheric pressure without addition of water or organic solvent [61]. The SFME apparatus (Figure 3) is an original combination of microwave heating and dry distillation at atmospheric pressure. Based on a relatively simple principle, this method involves placing the plant material in a microwave reactor, without adding any solvent or water. The internal heating of the in situ water within the fresh plant material distends the plant cells and leads to the rupture of the glands and oleiferous receptacles. This process thus free EO which is evaporated by in situ water of the plant material. A cooling system outside the microwave oven condensed the distillate continuously. The excess of water is refluxed to the extraction vessel in order to restore in situ water to the plant material. At the end, EO is removed from the aqueous extract by simple decantation. SFME is neither a modified microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) which uses organic solvents nor a modified hydrodistillation process which uses a large amount of water; it can be consider as a dry distillation process, with water coming from the fresh plant material [62, 63, 64]. As advantages, the SFME method increases the EO yield, ameliorate the EO composition, eliminate the waste of water treatment, and also contributes to limited time, and lower an energy consumption (Figure 11) [62].
\nSchematic representation of the solvent-free microwave extraction apparatus [
Microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) is a new green extraction technique of EOs developed by Vian and collaborators in 2008. This green extraction technique is an original “upside down” microwave alembic combining microwave heating and earth gravity at atmospheric pressure [65]. MHG has become not only an economic and efficient but also an environmental- and eco-friendly, not require water or solvent and as it does require less energy (Figure 12) [65, 66].
\nSchematic representation of the microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity [
As the consumption of EOs is growing up annually, their world production by different companies to satisfy the market demand has been increasing every year. The quality control of produced EOs has become then necessary to ensure the genuineness of the product, the shelf life, and the storage conditions [67]. The EO composition can sometimes be falsified by adding cheaper oils; it is often necessary to characterize small differences between oils that correspond to variation in geographic or genetic origin of the plant material. EOs analysis can be summarized in few points: the qualitative composition, the quantitative determination (major and/or minor constituents), and the detection of alteration of true EOs. With regard to the quality aspect of the EO, the identity and the purity are always investigated. Their physical properties are commonly assessed by specific gravity, the relative density, the optical rotation, the refractive index, etc.
\nMost of the methods applied in the analysis of EOs rely on chromatographic procedures, which enable component separation and identification. These include gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS), gas chromatography-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (GC-FT-IR), gas chromatography-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry-mass spectrometry (GC-FT-IR-MS), gas chromatography-atomic emission detector (GC-AED), gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IR-MS), on-line coupled liquid chromatography-gas chromatography (LC-GC), and multidimensional gas chromatography (MDGC) [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78].
\nA considerable large number of studies on EOs to evaluate their pharmacological properties and toxicity in order to find possible alternative medicine have become active in recent years [79]. EOs are known to exhibit a large range of biological activities.
\nIt is one of the most intensively studied properties of EOs. This could be explained by the damages of various biological substances by oxidation which subsequently causes many degenerative and/or metabolic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, arthritis, inflammation, and Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease just to name a few [80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. EOs are known as rich sources of potential antioxidants that can be investigated to prevent oxidative damage [85]. Antioxidants comprise substances that, in low concentrations, significantly delay or inhibit the oxidation of the substrate [86]. Volatile compounds in EO, beside their protective antioxidant activity, can also act as prooxidant, by affecting the cellular redox status and damage cellular biomolecules, in the first instance proteins and DNA [15]. All these must be taken into account when antioxidant properties of EOs are considered.
\nAlthough phenolic compounds are recognized as being responsible for the antioxidant ability, recent studies showed that volatile components could also individually and/or in mixture (essential oil) contribute to the whole antioxidant ability. EO of lemon balm (
Cancer is a worldwide public health concern with 18.1 million people been diagnosed with the disease annually. It is the second largest single leading cause of death claiming in excess of 9.6 million lives in the world in 2018, with approximately 70% of deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries [88]. Current valuable drugs used in the treatment include vinblastine, vincristine, camptothecin, and Taxol [89]. Many studies pointed out the anticancer properties of plants. Over 500 research papers are published on the anticancer activity of EOs [90, 91, 92, 93], even though, till date, there are no scientific studies showing that aromatherapy can cure or prevent cancer. Most promising research results obtained from in vitro studies revealed that EOs were found to affect cancer cell lines in petri dishes. EOs are well known for their anti-inflammatory activity; hence it appeared that EOs could also have anticancer effects as there is a relationship between the production of reactive oxygen species to the origin of oxidation and inflammation that can lead to cancer. More than 100 EOs from more than 20 families of plants have been tested on more than 20 different types of cancers in the past 10 years [94]. Bourgou and collaborators showed that the EO from seeds of black cumin (
EOs are well-kwon as antimicrobial agents and are well documented in numerous research works. Their antimicrobial activity depends not only on the presence of the main active compounds but also on the interaction between different components which can have synergistic or antagonistic actions. It also depends on the content, concentration, interaction between main active components, and susceptibility of microorganisms [97, 98]. The inactive compounds might influence resorption, the rate of the reactions, as well as biological activities of active compounds. The combination of both major and minor components can thus modify the activity to exert significant synergistic or antagonistic effect [99, 100]. EOs extracted from cinnamon, oregano, and thyme showed significant antibacterial activities against
In general, EOs in decreasing order of antimicrobial activities are reportedly as follows: oregano (
Antibiotic resistance is one of the most serious health burdens worldwide due to the continuous appearance of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains. The bacteria that cause the most major clinical problems are
New agents that are effective against common pathogens are needed particularly for those resistant to conventional antiviral agents. The ability of viruses to persist in fresh products, as well as their low infectious dose, could lead to serious foodborne problems [111]. Plants and plant-derived natural products provide unlimited opportunities for new antiviral drugs. Many EOs have been investigated in recent years toward their antiviral activity. As conclusion of their work, Reichling and collaborators reported that particular free viruses are very sensitive to EOs [112].
\nMost of EOs have been firstly identified and used for the treatment of inflammatory and oxidative diseases.
The insect repellent activity of EOs is well studied and many research papers have been published. The EOs of
EOs of the leaves of
EOs are generally very complex mixture (60–300) of nonpolar and semipolar lipophilic constituents of low molecular weight, at different concentrations with two or three appearing to be major ones [116, 117]:
Terpenoids
Straight-chain compounds not containing any side chain
Aromatic and phenolic components
Sulfured derivatives
The variation in odor and taste of EO depends on the plants variety, the harvesting seasons, the geographical location, the drying methods, and the extraction techniques [102, 118, 119, 120]. The major volatile constituents may be classified into two main categories: terpenoids and polypropanoids [121, 122, 123]. We will focus our investigation on terpenoids.
\nTerpenes are defined as secondary metabolites with molecular structures containing carbon backbones of isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) units [124]. Terpenes are synthetized in the cytoplasm of plant cells through the mevalonic acid pathway. Biochemical modification such as oxidation or rearrangement of terpenes produces the related terpenoids. Terpenoids are then oxygenated derivatives of hydrocarbon terpenes such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, ethers, and esters [34]. Terpenoids are the largest classes of plants’ natural products accounting for more than 40,000 individual compounds of both primary and secondary metabolisms been identified; to date, new terpenoids are being discovered every year [12, 124].
\nIn general, terpenoids can be divided into at least four groups of compounds that include true terpenes, steroids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides.
\nThese types of natural lipids can be found in every class of living things, mainly in plants as constituents of EOs, and are therefore considered as the largest and structurally diverse group of natural products [125]. In general, only the hemiterpenoids, the monoterpenoids, and sesquiterpenoids are sufficiently volatile to be components of EOs. As widely acknowledged, the composition of EOs is mainly represented by mono-, sesqui-, and even diterpene hydrocarbons and their respective oxygenated derivatives [30, 126, 127, 128].
\nStructurally, EO constituents typically have low molecular weights, which contribute to their high volatility. Terpenes are the most common constituents found in EOs [128]. They are made from isoprene units (several five carbon base units). Each group of terpenes arises from the head-to-tail condensation of a variable number of isoprene units. Variations in the number of isoprene unit repetitions, cyclisation reactions, and rearrangements are primarily responsible for their chemical and structural diversity. EOs consist of mainly monoterpenes (C10) and sesquiterpenes (C15) but also have diterpenes (C20), triterpenes (C30), and tetraterpenes (C40) at very low concentration with their oxygenated derivatives, respectively (Figure 13) [15, 102, 130].
\nBiosynthesis pathways of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes.
Hemiterpenes are part of minor terpenes of EOs. They are usually alcohols, aldehydes, and esters, with a 2-methylbutane skeleton [131]. The number of hemiterpene aglycone is less than 100 [132]. Chlorinated hemiterpenes were recently isolated from the leaves of
Structure of few isolated hemiterpenes and hemiterpenoids.
Regular monoterpenes are made from the combination of two isoprene units (C10) linked by the head-to-tail binding. They are the major molecules consisting of 90% of (some) EOs; thereby, they contribute to the specific smell of plants [134, 135]. Monoterpenes are found in nearly all EOs and usually possess one double bond in their structures. In nature, they are mostly involved in plant–animal and plant–plant interactions such as pollination, seed and fruit dissemination, and allelopathic agents. Monoterpenes occur in more than 30 known skeletons and can be divided into 3 subgroups: acyclic, monocyclic, and bicyclic. A number of monoterpenes are oxygenated (Figure 15).
\nStructures of some monoterpenes and monoterpenoids.
Sesquiterpenes are other major EO components and are less volatile than monoterpenes. They are derived from three isoprene units and exist in a wide variety of forms, including linear, monocyclic, bicyclic, and tricyclic frameworks. Sesquiterpenes are the most diverse group of terpenoids (Figure 16).
\nStructures of some sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenoids.
They are chemically complex and are usually components of plants resins but are sometimes encountered as by-products in the isolation of EOs. Diterpenes are less volatile because of their high molecular weights and less numerous than the mono- and sesquiterpenes. Consequently, they are difficult to extract by steam distillation and then appear rarely in distilled EOs. When present, they are found in EOs in very low amounts. However, traditional extraction using distillation allows separation and identification of diterpenes present in EOs [136]. Generally, molecules with molecular masses higher than 300 uma can be seen as sign of improper extraction conditions or adulteration. Diterpenes that are usually found in EOs include camphorene, cafestol, kahweol, cambrene, and taxideme (Figure 17).
\nStructures of some diterpenes and diterpenoids.
Some sesquiterpenoids are very toxic, but some are antifungals, carminatives, and insecticides.
\nBeing complex mixtures of constituents, overall activities of EOs cannot therefore be attributed only to their major components (terpenoids) [137]. Many aroma components of EOs, such as terpenes and terpenoids, were proposed to contribute to their antioxidant activity; that include
Terpenoids are, by far, the most important group (numerous and structurally diverse) of natural products as far as EOs are concerned. Reports on the level of terpenoids in EOs vary considerably. Many terpenes have biological activities and are used for medical purposes. For example, the antimalarial drug artemisinin and the anticancer drug Taxol (paclitaxel) are two of a few terpenes with established medical applications [26].
\nMonoterpenes are well known as main constituents of EOs, floral, and scents. Monoterpenes and monoterpenoids have antioxidant, anticonvulsant, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antitumor, antiviral, analgesic, antihypertensive, antibacterial, and therapeutic antidiabetic properties [26, 138]. The general mechanism of action of monoterpenes, such as their antimicrobial and antitussive activity, is mainly related to their volatility. Their hydrophobicity, as well as the EOs as a whole, determines their effect on bacterial cell structures with a subsequent antimicrobial effect [139].
Some bicyclic monoterpenoids are known to suppress the acetylcholinesterase activity, which is increased in patient with Alzheimer’s disease. In a study of 17 monoterpenes and monoterpenoids, (+)- and (−)-
In recent years, a considerable large number of research studies have been carried out on the chemical constituents of EOs as source of bioactive natural products against cancer. Piaru and collaborators showed that EO of
Many EO components possess enantiomers that can be sometime present in an oil. It is important to note that there is a close relationship between the chirality of organic compounds and their biological properties. For a given optically active substance, the activity is not identical for both enantiomers [153]. Linalool, for example, has two enantiomers: (3
Geraniol, an acyclic aldehyde monoterpene present in various EOs from many aromatic plants, has in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity against several cancer cell lines. In fact, geraniol alters several metabolic pathways of HepG2 cells such as the mevalonate pathway and the phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, which results in cell growth inhibition, cell cycle arrest occurring at the G0/G1 interphase, and increased apoptosis [155]. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of oils with high levels of sesquiterpenes as cadinene, spathulenol, and selinene were described [156].
\nCristiani and coworkers have reported the antimicrobial activity of four monoterpenes (
Monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated derivatives extracted from EOs have shown strong inhibitory activities against pathogenic bacteria, hence suggesting their use as flavoring and antioxidant agents [104].
\nAlzheimer’s disease is by far the most prevalent of all known forms of dementia. Wojtunik-Kulesza and collaborators showed that three monocyclic monoterpenes (carvone, pulegone, and γ-terpene) possess acetylcholinesterase (AchE) inhibitory activity. Among the investigated terpenes, the three later were recognized as compounds with promising activities in the development of multi-target directed ligands [160]. The lipophilic character of terpene skeleton combined with the hydrophobic character of the functional group is essential for activity. Thus, a rank of activity has been proposed as follows: aldehydes > ketones > alcohols > esters > hydrocarbons [156].
\nIn 2010, Conti and coworkers measured the insect repellent activity of three EOs. They found that at lowest dose (0.001%), the OE of
In EOs, the components found in higher concentrations and related to antimicrobial activity are phenolic compounds such as linalool, sabinene, menthol, myrcene, and camphene [161].
\nSesquiterpenes have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties. The anti-inflammatory activities of some medicinal plants are due to the presence of one or more sesquiterpene lactones [26]. Above all, terpenes are responsible for the smell and flavor typical of the different varieties of
Terpenes represent one of the largest and most diverse classes of natural products. They have numerous roles ranging from defense repellents against herbivores or pathogens through animal attract hormones to agents designed to help disperse seeds and pollen. Monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids are obviously the major constituents of EOs, while in some oils the occurrence of diterpenoids was observed as quite minor constituents when present. In an ecological context, mono- and sesquiterpenes play an important role in the relations between organisms, for example, as attractants of pollinators or deterrents of herbivores. The enormous diversity of terpenoids and wide spectrum of biological activities make them attractive for many industries, and new areas of application still have not been discovered. Despite their rich and complex composition, the use of EOs remains limited to the cosmetics and perfumery domains. It is worthy to develop a better understanding of their chemistry and biological properties as well as that of their individual components for new and valuable applications in human health.
\nDespite their well-recognized bioactivities, EOs have been misused with regard to their level of toxicity. Some EOs or their major constituents have been recorded to be much toxic with bad side effects including convulsions, irritation, and photodermatosis. Literature review of the available data shows that serious accidents, most of which involve young children, are due to a small number of EOs, ingested in large amount. The development and the expansion of therapies using EOs and the evaluation of their acute toxicity have become more important to avoid their abusive use. The most common adverse events are eye, mucous membrane, and skin irritation and sensitization particularly to oils containing aldehydes and phenols. Despite all, no well-defined studies have proved that these EOs are harmful, but this deserves more detailed studies.
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Hair is a derivative of the epidermis and consists of two distinct parts: the follicle and the hair shaft. The follicle is the essential unit for the generation of hair. The hair shaft consists of a cortex and cuticle cells, and a medulla for some types of hairs. Hair follicle has a continuous growth and rest sequence named hair cycle. The duration of growth and rest cycles is coordinated by many endocrine, vascular and neural stimuli and depends not only on localization of the hair but also on various factors, like age and nutritional habits. Distinctive anatomy and physiology of hair follicle are presented in this chapter. Extensive knowledge on anatomical and physiological aspects of hair can contribute to understand and heal different hair disorders.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Bilgen Erdoğan",authors:[{id:"193661",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgen",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",slug:"bilgen-erdogan",fullName:"Bilgen Erdoğan"}]},{id:"52801",doi:"10.5772/66156",title:"Psychosocial Aspects of Hair Loss",slug:"psychosocial-aspects-of-hair-loss",totalDownloads:2508,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Hair loss (alopecia) is a common dermatological condition that affects men and women of all ages. It can be due to a wide variety of causes including scarring and non-scarring diseases. Although alopecia is not a life-threatening condition, it has significant psychological impact on the quality of life. Mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, social phobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and suicidal thoughts are increased among alopecia patients. On the other hand, alopecia frequency increases during the course of psychological disorders. In this chapter, psychosocial aspects of hair loss and the relationship between alopecia and psychological disorders are reviewed.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Hilal Gokalp",authors:[{id:"193580",title:"M.D.",name:"Hilal",middleName:null,surname:"Gokalp",slug:"hilal-gokalp",fullName:"Hilal Gokalp"}]},{id:"62733",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79807",title:"Ethosomes: An Exciting and Promising Alcoholic Carrier System for Treating Androgenic Alopecia",slug:"ethosomes-an-exciting-and-promising-alcoholic-carrier-system-for-treating-androgenic-alopecia",totalDownloads:1063,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Androgenetic alopecia (male-pattern hair loss) is characterized by the deposition of dihydrotestosterone at the pilosebaceous unit of the scalp. Oral administration of drugs (like finasteride) which can reverse androgenic alopecia causes undesired effects to the body. Targeting these drugs directly to the pilosebaceous unit of the scalp will enhance the pharmacological response at the desired site by reducing undesired systemic side effects. This chapter discusses about ethosomes, a specially tailored ethanolic vesicular carriers which can efficiently deliver various drugs with different physicochemical properties to and through the skin. The unique characteristics of the ethosomal carriers, their composition, preparation methods, and the mechanism of permeation, safety, and practical experience (finasteride and herbal extracts) have been discussed in detail.",book:{id:"6961",slug:"alopecia",title:"Alopecia",fullTitle:"Alopecia"},signatures:"Veintramuthu Sankar, Santhanam Ramesh and Karthik Siram",authors:[{id:"254541",title:"Prof.",name:"Sankar",middleName:null,surname:"Veintramuthu",slug:"sankar-veintramuthu",fullName:"Sankar Veintramuthu"},{id:"260986",title:"Mr.",name:"Karthik",middleName:null,surname:"Siram",slug:"karthik-siram",fullName:"Karthik Siram"},{id:"260991",title:"Dr.",name:"Santhanam",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"santhanam-ramesh",fullName:"Santhanam Ramesh"}]},{id:"42516",doi:"10.5772/54609",title:"Epidermolysis Bullosa Simplex",slug:"epidermolysis-bullosa-simplex",totalDownloads:4211,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"3038",slug:"current-genetics-in-dermatology",title:"Current Genetics in Dermatology",fullTitle:"Current Genetics in Dermatology"},signatures:"Ken Natsuga",authors:[{id:"152977",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Natsuga",slug:"ken-natsuga",fullName:"Ken Natsuga"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53880",title:"Anatomy and Physiology of Hair",slug:"anatomy-and-physiology-of-hair",totalDownloads:7686,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Hair is one of the characteristic features of mammals and has various functions such as protection against external factors; producing sebum, apocrine sweat and pheromones; impact on social and sexual interactions; thermoregulation and being a resource for stem cells. Hair is a derivative of the epidermis and consists of two distinct parts: the follicle and the hair shaft. The follicle is the essential unit for the generation of hair. The hair shaft consists of a cortex and cuticle cells, and a medulla for some types of hairs. Hair follicle has a continuous growth and rest sequence named hair cycle. The duration of growth and rest cycles is coordinated by many endocrine, vascular and neural stimuli and depends not only on localization of the hair but also on various factors, like age and nutritional habits. Distinctive anatomy and physiology of hair follicle are presented in this chapter. Extensive knowledge on anatomical and physiological aspects of hair can contribute to understand and heal different hair disorders.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Bilgen Erdoğan",authors:[{id:"193661",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgen",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",slug:"bilgen-erdogan",fullName:"Bilgen Erdoğan"}]},{id:"53947",title:"Infections, Infestations and Neoplasms of the Scalp",slug:"infections-infestations-and-neoplasms-of-the-scalp",totalDownloads:3437,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews common cutaneous infections, infestations, and neoplasms of the scalp. Infections of the scalp are subdivided into three major groups. The most seen are: (1) Bacterial: Folliculitis, folliculitis decalvans, tufted hair folliculitis and acne keloidalis nuchae. (2) Fungal: Tinea capitis, favus and kerion celsi. (3) Protozoal: Syphilitic alopecia. Pediculosis capitis is the most common worldwide infestation of the scalp. The neoplasms of the scalp are large group of different diseases due to arising different origin. In the following section, trichilemmal cyst, proliferating trichilemmal cyst, nevus sebaceous and cylindroma are discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Filiz Canpolat",authors:[{id:"191617",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Canpolat",slug:"filiz-canpolat",fullName:"Filiz Canpolat"}]},{id:"53525",title:"Trichoscopy and Trichogram",slug:"trichoscopy-and-trichogram",totalDownloads:2583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Hair and scalp examination techniques can be classified into three categories: noninvasive methods (clinical history, general examination, photography, hair count, weighing shed hair, pull test, global hair counts, dermoscopy, electron microscopy, laser scanning microscopy, etc.); semi‐invasive methods (the trichogram, unit areatrichogram); and invasive methods (biopsies in cicatritial alopecia). Scalp dermoscopy or trichoscopy is one of thenoninvasive techniques for the evaluation of patients with hair loss that allows for magnified visualization of the hair and scalp skin. It may be performed with a manual dermoscope (10× magnification) or a videodermoscope (up to 1000× magnification). This method is simple, quick, and easy to perform, is well‐accepted by patients, and is useful for monitoring treatment, determining severity of the disease and follow‐up. It is a simple, minimally invasive and rapid technique for measuring hair follicle activity. Trichogram represents a semi‐invasive technique for the evaluation of patients with hair loss that allows the microscopic examination of hairs plucked from the scalp and provides information about the state of the proximal end of the hair shaft and the distal end. The trichogram is a useful complementary tool for clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and the monitoring of treatment response.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Melike Kibar",authors:[{id:"189899",title:"Dr.",name:"Melike",middleName:null,surname:"Kibar Ozturk",slug:"melike-kibar-ozturk",fullName:"Melike Kibar Ozturk"}]},{id:"42524",title:"Hereditary Palmoplantar Keratosis",slug:"hereditary-palmoplantar-keratosis",totalDownloads:4514,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3038",slug:"current-genetics-in-dermatology",title:"Current Genetics in Dermatology",fullTitle:"Current Genetics in Dermatology"},signatures:"Tamihiro Kawakami",authors:[{id:"155091",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tamihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakami",slug:"tamihiro-kawakami",fullName:"Tamihiro Kawakami"}]},{id:"63066",title:"Pharmacological Treatment of Alopecia",slug:"pharmacological-treatment-of-alopecia",totalDownloads:1417,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, we will explore non-surgical treatments of alopecia. Unlike many other areas of medicine, pharmacological treatments for alopecia are relatively new. There are only two treatments which are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); the rest are drugs developed for other indications which have gained popular off-label use to promote hair growth. The reasons for this are many, including the designation of alopecia by the FDA as a cosmetic disease. This designation has restricted alopecia development programs to compounds with virtually no side effects. Unfortunately, it has also led to off-label use of far more dangerous compounds as alopecia treatments, without the benefit of controlled trials. There is a growing recognition that alopecia, particularly alopecia areata and chemotherapy-induced alopecia, are disorders which significantly alter the quality of life, similar to acne vulgaris and psoriasis, and merit treatment accordingly. There have also been several recent advances in our understanding of the hair cycle, revealing new targets for developing alopecia therapies. As a result, there is a more robust slate of programs for developing new pharmacological treatments for alopecia. In this chapter, we will review current pharmacological treatments for alopecia and selected treatments under development (i.e., those with significant preclinical or clinical data which have appeared in the published literature).",book:{id:"6961",slug:"alopecia",title:"Alopecia",fullTitle:"Alopecia"},signatures:"Robert Gensure",authors:[{id:"16515",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Gensure",slug:"robert-gensure",fullName:"Robert Gensure"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1003",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. 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