IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6513",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cement Based Materials",title:"Cement Based Materials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cement-based materials have been used by humans nearly since the dawn of civilization. The Egyptians used lime and gypsum cement to bind their aggregate materials, mud and straw, resulting in bricks that are used for building their famous Egyptian pyramids (between 3000 and 2500 BC). Hydrated cement is a cement material bonded together with water and used for building construction; it is characterized by acceptable chemical, physical, thermal, mechanical, and structural stability. It plays a main role in the creation of vessels for storage, roads to travel on, weather-resistant structure for protection, inert hard stabilizer for hazardous wastes, and so on. Due to the composition of these materials and their advantages, it has been practiced in different applications. Cement is an essential component of making concrete, the single most prevalent building material used worldwide for construction, skyscrapers, highways, tunnels, bridges, hydraulic dams, and railway ties. Besides their numerous desired properties, there are some undesirable features. To overcome these disadvantages, several studies were established to prepare, improve, and evaluate innovative cement-based materials. Despite its oldness and deep research, every year several methods and materials evolve and so do cement technology. This book intends to provide a comprehensive overview on recent advances in the evaluation of these materials.",isbn:"978-1-78984-154-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-153-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-514-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71134",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cement-based-materials",numberOfPages:274,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7c92db3d5c64117861b425cb692b5695",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",publishedDate:"October 10th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6513.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19114,numberOfWosCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:65,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:140,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 25th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 5th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 4th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management at the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He was awarded an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University. Saleh has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environment-friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He has been selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"14",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"14",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",middleName:"O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92718/images/system/92718.jpeg",biography:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman is Professor of Chemical Nuclear Engineering at the Radioactive Waste Management Department, Hot Laboratories and Waste Management Center, Atomic Energy Authority of Egypt. She has a PhD in Nuclear Engineering from Alexandria University, Egypt. She has contributed to the publication of more than thirty peer-reviewed scientific papers, twenty-five book chapters and ten books. Dr. Rahman has contributed in teaching and supervising postgraduate research in chemistry, physics, petrochemicals and environmental–chemical engineering. She serves as a verified reviewer for several journals and is managing editor for two International Journals. Dr Rahman is an honored scientist of Academy of Scientific Research and Technology and a Publons top reviewer (2016–2019).",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"156",title:"Composite Materials",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials"}],chapters:[{id:"59180",title:"Introductory Chapter: Properties and Applications of Cement- Based Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73784",slug:"introductory-chapter-properties-and-applications-of-cement-based-materials",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hosam M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59180",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59180",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"60291",title:"Nonlinear Calculations of the Strength of Cross-sections of Bending Reinforced Concrete Elements and Their Practical Realization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75122",slug:"nonlinear-calculations-of-the-strength-of-cross-sections-of-bending-reinforced-concrete-elements-and",totalDownloads:858,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Calculation methodology of reinforced concrete elements based on the calculated resistance of reinforced concrete is presented. The basic depending which allows setting the strength of bending sections and elements is obtained. The reliability of the dependencies is experimentally confirmed. There are calculation examples of bending elements by the developed methodology. According to the given method, tables have been developed, which depending on the accepted parameters allow determining the resistance of the concrete, the stresses in the reinforced concrete and reinforcement, and the total relative deformation of the cross section. Using the calculated resistances of reinforced concrete allowed to reduce the calculation of reinforced concrete elements according to the nonlinear deformation model to the application of the formulas of the classical resistance of materials and to significantly simplifies the process of their calculation.",signatures:"Kochkarev Dmitriy and Galinska Tatyana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60291",authors:[{id:"223913",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatyana",surname:"Galinska",slug:"tatyana-galinska",fullName:"Tatyana Galinska"},{id:"226024",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitriy",surname:"Kochkarev",slug:"dmitriy-kochkarev",fullName:"Dmitriy Kochkarev"}],corrections:null},{id:"61087",title:"Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75102",slug:"fibre-reinforced-cement-composites",totalDownloads:1468,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Progression in cement-based technology has driven the development of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) materials; such as concrete technology. Steel fibre and synthetic fibre are fundamental fibre types, which include glass, carbon, polyvinyl, polyolefin, waste fibre materials and polypropylene. The mechanical properties of FRC members are affected from these fibres individually and in hybrid aspects. The type, content and geometry of fibres are relied to these mechanical properties. A significant improvement in mechanical and dynamic properties of reinforced concrete members is enabled due to additional fibres into cementitious composites. Most mechanical properties are enhanced through intercept micro-cracks. The level of enhancement accomplished relied on the type and dosage of fibre as compared to plain concrete. Effective tensile strength, energy dissipation capacity and toughness are explained through FRC. The shear, punching and flexure are significantly increased through the level of enhancement accomplished. These fibres include polyvinyl, glass, carbon, polyolefin and polypropylene that improve the mechanical properties of concrete. The historical use of fibres and types of fibres are reported in this chapter. Similarly, the curing of steel, structural synthetic fibres, the mechanical properties of cement, the addition, placing, finishing and mixing are based on waste fibres, hybrid fibres, steel and structural synthetic.",signatures:"Wafa Abdelmajed Labib",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61087",authors:[{id:"227554",title:"Dr.",name:"Wafa",surname:"Labib",slug:"wafa-labib",fullName:"Wafa Labib"}],corrections:null},{id:"59385",title:"Cement Microstructure: Fostering Photocatalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74365",slug:"cement-microstructure-fostering-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The singularities and the qualities of the hydrated cement microstructure have been identified by researchers as enhancers to promote photocatalytic processes, mediated by titanium dioxide, to create environment-friendly cement. In this chapter, we intend to expose the microstructural characteristics of cement and those aspects that make it possible for the promotion of photocatalytic activity. Within the inherent complexity of the cement microstructure, we describe a framework of two key elements in the microstructure of this material that affects the promotion of TiO2 photocatalysis, to offer a more comprehensive view of the physical-chemical processes involved. These elements are: the porosity and the nanostructure of the C-S-H. This framework is also a starting point for future studies that seek to improve the photocatalytic response of titanium dioxide inserted in the cement matrix, as well as to provide implications for the application of photocatalytic cement technology in the construction materials industry.",signatures:"Elena Cerro-Prada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59385",authors:[{id:"227672",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Cerro-Prada",slug:"elena-cerro-prada",fullName:"Elena Cerro-Prada"}],corrections:null},{id:"60748",title:"Water Sorption of Hardened Cement Pastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76378",slug:"water-sorption-of-hardened-cement-pastes",totalDownloads:1058,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hardened cement paste (hcp), binding the components in cementitious composites, usually controls most strength, transport, and durability properties of these materials. Water sorption in hcps can cause durability problems such as sulfate and chloride ingress, frost deterioration, and esthetic problems. Replacement of air by water in the pores can also increase the thermal conductivity of the material and affect the energy efficiency. Capillary suction test as a simple method for characterization of the material resistance to water sorption is described in this chapter. Different factors affecting water sorption of hcps such as changing water to cement ratio (w/c), using pozzolanic materials, and internal hydrophobation are also discussed. Furthermore, resistance number, capillary number, and pore protection factor as different criterions for characterizing the moisture transport in cement-based materials are described. Since cement-based materials modified for reducing water sorption have different behavior in capillary suction test compared to ordinary materials, the abovementioned criteria may become inapplicable for characterizing these materials. Thus, “effective moisture transport (EMT)” factor is introduced here which can be a more comparative measure for modified cementitious materials with denser or internally hydrophobed pore structure.",signatures:"Mohammad Hajmohammadian Baghban",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60748",authors:[{id:"231273",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Hajmohammadian Baghban",slug:"mohammad-hajmohammadian-baghban",fullName:"Mohammad Hajmohammadian Baghban"}],corrections:null},{id:"62308",title:"Morphogenesis of Cement Hydrate: From Natural C-S-H to Synthetic C-S-H",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77723",slug:"morphogenesis-of-cement-hydrate-from-natural-c-s-h-to-synthetic-c-s-h",totalDownloads:1310,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Triggered by the recent advance in materials synthesis and characterization techniques, there has been an increasing interest in manipulating properties of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), which constitute the fundamental, strength-responsible building blocks of concretes. Concretes are the indispensable constituents of today’s modern infrastructures and simultaneously the most widely used synthetic material on the planet. Despite the widespread impact and high societal values, the production of their major binder component, Portland cement (PC), is the major culprit for global warming since it contributes to 5–10% carbon dioxide emission worldwide. Consequently, enhancing the ultimate strength and durability of concretes by tuning structural, compositional and mechanical properties of their basic building units and assembling them via bottom-up engineering is one of the key strategies to mitigate the aforesaid concerns. This is simply because the longer the concretes last, the less production of PC would incur. Furthermore, the current role of C-S-H in industry is not only confined to the context of construction materials but to diverse sectors of industry including drug delivery, CO2 sorbent and materials for bone replacement. This wide scope of potential applications can be ascribed to the high versatility regarding tunable structural properties such as porosity, size and morphology, all of which can be fine-tuned during the synthetic procedure. Among the listed properties, understanding and gaining control over morphological factors of C-S-H is particularly important since they are directly associated with their functional roles. C-S-H with various morphologies can be produced by altering key experimental conditions, which encompass types of synthetic procedure, precursor types such as different calcium and silicate sources and types of additives. This chapter discusses a variety of morphologies of C-S-H acquired in multiple environments. The latter include the hydration of PC or PC-blends containing supplementary materials such as slag, synthetic C-S-H produced using silica-lime reactions and crystalline CSH synthesized using hydrothermal treatment. At the end, the chapter will provide a complete review on the current range of morphologies for calcium silicate hydrate.",signatures:"Rouzbeh Shahsavari and Sung Hoon Hwang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62308",authors:[{id:"249125",title:"Prof.",name:"Rouzbeh",surname:"Shahsavari",slug:"rouzbeh-shahsavari",fullName:"Rouzbeh Shahsavari"},{id:"249128",title:"Mr.",name:"Sung",surname:"Hwang",slug:"sung-hwang",fullName:"Sung Hwang"}],corrections:null},{id:"60457",title:"Heat Integration in a Cement Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75820",slug:"heat-integration-in-a-cement-production",totalDownloads:1210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The cement industry sector is an energy-intensive industrial sector; cement is the most widely used material for construction and modern infrastructure needs. The cement industry is one of the largest consumers of carbon-containing primary energy sources and one of the primary polluters of the environment. Energy consumption represents the largest part of the production cost for cement factories and has a significant influence on product prices. The potential of waste heat utilization of cement production was determined and a recovery potential accounting site wide in demand is defined by the process integration technique. The author has analyzed the energy consumption of a cement factory to obtain minimum energy needs of production and proposed the options to improve energy efficiency by the process integration approach. The authors conclude that the energy consumption of the cement factory can be reduced by 30%. The results help to the cement plant’s profitability and reduce environmental impact of the cement industry as well as sustainability. Given that it is realized in modern society that infrastructural projects lead to a higher level of economy and sustainability for countries, reducing the production cost in the cement industry is a very important problem.",signatures:"Stanislav Boldyryev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60457",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60457",authors:[{id:"228977",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Boldyryev",slug:"stanislav-boldyryev",fullName:"Stanislav Boldyryev"}],corrections:null},{id:"60349",title:"Utilization of By‐Product Materials in Ultra High‐Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74376",slug:"utilization-of-by-product-materials-in-ultra-high-performance-fiber-reinforced-cementitious-composit",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a review on the use of various industrial wastes, by-products in the development of green ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (UHPFRCCs), and their effects on mechanical properties of UHPFRCC, such as metakaolin, rejected fly ash, glass powder, and palm oil fuel ash. The outcomes of this chapter would encourage the use of by-product as a supplementary cementitious material. This could be useful in protecting the environment by minimizing the volume of waste disposed on the wasteland and minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases that are released during cement production, besides contributing to cost–saving, which could somehow contribute toward the sustainability of the concrete industry.",signatures:"Majed A. A. Aldahdooh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60349",authors:[{id:"222839",title:"Dr.",name:"Majed",surname:"Aldahdooh",slug:"majed-aldahdooh",fullName:"Majed Aldahdooh"}],corrections:null},{id:"59353",title:"Tire-Derived Aggregate Cementitious Materials: A Review of Mechanical Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74313",slug:"tire-derived-aggregate-cementitious-materials-a-review-of-mechanical-properties",totalDownloads:986,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents an overview of tire-derived aggregate concrete, also known as rubberized concrete, a cementitious-based material with some or all of its mineral aggregates replaced with rubber particles. Typical source of rubber materials is scrap tire. Tire-derived aggregate concrete has practical applications as safety barriers, sound barriers, and architectural features among others. General observed trends include a decrease in compression strength, a decrease in flexural strength, and an increase in energy absorption and damping capacities with an increase of rubber content. These characteristics are modifiable by application of lightweight aggregates, fiber-reinforcement, admixtures, and other common techniques. The chapter also includes discussions on handling, design, and analysis of tire-derived aggregate concrete.",signatures:"Fariborz M. Tehrani and Nathan M. Miller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59353",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59353",authors:[{id:"224599",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fariborz M.",surname:"Tehrani",slug:"fariborz-m.-tehrani",fullName:"Fariborz M. Tehrani"},{id:"239903",title:"Mr.",name:"Nathan",surname:"Miller",slug:"nathan-miller",fullName:"Nathan Miller"}],corrections:null},{id:"61871",title:"Alternative Stabilizer for Mud Concrete",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76065",slug:"alternative-stabilizer-for-mud-concrete",totalDownloads:1722,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cement is one of the key stabilizers for earth constructions since Roman civilization. The invention of cement was one step in the human civilization. However, cement has many issues especially when it comes to the environmental conservation. The production of cement creates a lot of carbon dioxide and destroys the natural setting to some extent due to the high consumption of clay and lime. Therefore, this study was conducted to alter the cement in mud concrete block. The study started with an inventory of alternative stabilizers that can be found in nature as well as in the human production. And then, the chemical patterns of those stabilizers were carefully identified to alter the typical Portland cement. Several mix proportions were tested and developed to alter the cement and found that the following materials can be developed to alter cement. A natural stabilizer such as tree resins, latex rubber stabilizer, waste ash, rice husk ash and many other ashes can be developed to chemically stabilize the earth blocks. However, out of the invented stabilizers, fly ash and rice husk ash have the high potential to replace cement.",signatures:"Chameera Udawattha and Rangika Halwatura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61871",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61871",authors:[{id:"222852",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Chameera",surname:"Udawattha",slug:"chameera-udawattha",fullName:"Chameera Udawattha"},{id:"222854",title:"Dr.",name:"Rangika",surname:"Halwatura",slug:"rangika-halwatura",fullName:"Rangika Halwatura"}],corrections:null},{id:"61010",title:"Sorel Cements from Tunisian Natural Brines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74315",slug:"sorel-cements-from-tunisian-natural-brines",totalDownloads:925,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the experimental design methodology is applied to optimize the formation conditions of magnesium chloride cement. A factorial design to model and to optimize the operating parameters that govern the formation was used. The studied factors were mass ratio of MgCl2.6H2O/MgO, mixing time and stirring speed. The considered responses were compressive strength and setting time. The optimum operating conditions were quite efficient to have a good compressive strength and suitable setting time. The phases’ compositions of the magnesium oxychloride cement were evaluated by X-ray diffraction, the morphological properties were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) method and their thermal behavior was analyzed by differential thermal analysis/thermogravimetric analysis (DTA/TGA). The raw materials used in the study were magnesium oxide and magnesium chloride hexahydrate obtained from natural brines in the south of Tunisia.",signatures:"Halim Hammi, Amal Brichni, Salima Aggoun and Adel Mnif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61010",authors:[{id:"223686",title:"Dr.",name:"Halim",surname:"Hammi",slug:"halim-hammi",fullName:"Halim Hammi"}],corrections:null},{id:"61543",title:"Calcium Phosphate Bone Cements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74607",slug:"calcium-phosphate-bone-cements",totalDownloads:1639,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomaterials utilized in biomedical applications are of various characteristics and cements are unique in their in situ, biomimetic formation ability. They present the most topographically complex surfaces that usually elicit a favorable cellular response for tissue regeneration. In addition their composition may provide an effective chemical gradient around the resorbing implant to induce desired cellular activity that leads to rapid wound healing and regeneration. These are the main reasons for many cement systems to function well in the body, especially as hard tissue replacements. The properties and the setting mechanisms of the clinically most relevant cement system, calcium phosphate cements have been elucidated in this chapter.",signatures:"Erdem Şahin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61543",authors:[{id:"227768",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdem",surname:"Şahin",slug:"erdem-sahin",fullName:"Erdem Şahin"}],corrections:null},{id:"59354",title:"Cements for High-Temperature Geothermal Wells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74108",slug:"cements-for-high-temperature-geothermal-wells",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Geothermal environments are among the most difficult conditions for cements to survive. Normally accepted for high-temperature oil wells silica-modified Portland-based cement formulations are not durable in hostile geothermal environments failing to provide good zonal isolation and metal casing corrosion-protection. High-temperature well cement compositions based on calcium-aluminate cements have been designed to seal such wells. Two types of calcium-aluminate cement are of particular interest for geothermal applications. One is–chemical type, calcium-aluminate-phosphate cement (CaP) already used in the field and the other, alkali-activated calcium-aluminate type (thermal shock resistant cement, (TSRC), has been recently developed. The CaP cements were designed as CO2-resistant cements for use in mildly acidic (pH ~ 5.0) CO2-rich downhole environments. TSRC was formulated to withstand dry-heat – cold water cycles of more than 500°C. This chapter includes information and discussions of cement forming mechanisms, cements mechanical properties, resistance to mild and strong acids, cement-carbon steel bonding and self-recovery of mechanical strength and fractures closure after imposed damage. Performance of common high-temperature OPC-based composites is discussed for comparison.",signatures:"Tatiana Pyatina and Toshifumi Sugama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59354",authors:[{id:"227358",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Pyatina",slug:"tatiana-pyatina",fullName:"Tatiana Pyatina"},{id:"227360",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshifumi",surname:"Sugama",slug:"toshifumi-sugama",fullName:"Toshifumi Sugama"}],corrections:null},{id:"60913",title:"Clay-Based Materials in Geopolymer Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74438",slug:"clay-based-materials-in-geopolymer-technology",totalDownloads:3101,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The term “geopolymer” was introduced by Davidovits in the 1970s. The prefix “geo” was selected to symbolize the constitutive relationship of the binders to geological materials, natural stone and/or minerals. Geopolymer is mineral polymers of inorganic polymer glasses with structure resembling natural zeolitic materials. Previously, geopolymer formation used source materials such as clay (e.g. kaolin and calcined kaolin) or industrial by-product (e.g. slag and fly ash). The precursor material plays an important role in the formation of geopolymer. The source material provides silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al) for reaction by an alkali activator solution. The Si and Al contents in the source materials dissolve in the alkaline activator solution and then polymerize to form a polymeric Si-O-Al-O framework which becomes the binder. Geopolymeric materials are attractive because of their excellent mechanical properties; durability and thermal stability can also be achieved. Owing to their low calcium content, they are more resistant to acid attack than materials based on Portland cement. In addition, they are of great interest because of the reduced energy requirement for their manufacture and the higher sustainability. Recently the search for alternative low cost and easily available materials led among others to Clay. Clay generally consists of a mixture of different clay minerals and associated minerals, which are strongly affected by the nature of the parent rocks. These materials are extensively distributed over the surface of the world and may show certain reactivity after a thermal activation process shows a great potential to be utilized in geopolymer technology. This article presents the potential of different types of clay as the source materials for geopolymerization reaction in terms of morphological properties. Moreover, the mechanical and microstructural properties of geopolymer made with various kinds of clay and its potential application are also presented.",signatures:"Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Liew Yun Ming, Heah Cheng\nYong and Muhammad Faheem Mohd Tahir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60913",authors:[{id:"224049",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri",surname:"Abdullah",slug:"mohd-mustafa-al-bakri-abdullah",fullName:"Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah"},{id:"240180",title:"Dr.",name:"Liew",surname:"Yun Ming",slug:"liew-yun-ming",fullName:"Liew Yun Ming"},{id:"240181",title:"Dr.",name:"Heah",surname:"Cheng Yong",slug:"heah-cheng-yong",fullName:"Heah Cheng Yong"},{id:"240182",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Faheem",surname:"Mohd Tahir",slug:"muhammad-faheem-mohd-tahir",fullName:"Muhammad Faheem Mohd Tahir"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6847",title:"Characterizations of Some Composite Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0869b3bb91cf9acb7e69004b1bd17ec",slug:"characterizations-of-some-composite-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. 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\r\n\tSince 2500 BC, a wealth of knowledge and experience has been accumulated in the practice of acupuncture and moxibustion. Since then, acupuncture and moxibustion have been used throughout the world, particularly since the 1970s. According to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture evolved following the principle that physiological functions are maintained through the “meridian” and “Qi and blood” systems. Along 14 meridians, 365 identified acupoints can relieve Qi stagnation for stimulating, balancing, and harmonizing the yin and yang. This treatment has been used to facilitate the homeostasis of human organs. Due to the development of biotechnology, it is easier to elucidate the mechanism of action for acupuncture and moxibustion. As for acupuncture and moxibustion research methodology, there is no doubt that a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial is the gold standard, but in regard to clinical practice, most practitioners and patients primarily focus on therapeutic outcomes. For clinical practice, one should bear in mind that the outcome of acupuncture and moxibustion is closely related to acupoint specification, needling techniques, number and duration of treatment sessions, manipulation methods, and even needles and physical state of the patient. Therefore, to achieve the best effects, emphasis should be placed on optimizing and standardizing acupuncture parameters and procedures.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of acupuncture and moxibustion that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-862-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-861-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-863-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e40653fa6cd3f2c653436c4e4bd8ad1e",bookSignature:"Dr. Wen-Long Hu, Dr. Mao-Feng Sun and Dr. Yu-Chiang Hung",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11820.jpg",keywords:"Clinical Trial, Meta-Analysis, Review, Animal Study, Laser Acupuncture, Acupressure, Acupotomy, Fire Needle, Cupping, Meridians, Acupoints, Physics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 26th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in laser acupuncture with 28 years of experience, Dr. Hu is an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. He is a senior member of the International Association for the Study of Pain, and holder of a patent for needle improvement with a supercritical fluid-treated needle.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in acupuncture, Dr. Sun has throughout his career been appointed Dean of College of Chinese Medicine in CMU, Chinese Medicine vice Superintendent in CMU Hospital, and is now Board Member of CMU and a member of the Executive Committee of the World Federation of Acupuncture-Moxibustion Societies. He was awarded the Certificate of World’s Famous Doctor Award in 2001.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Hung is a pioneering researcher in the physical study of meridian and holder of a registered patent for needle improvement with a supercritical fluid-treated needle. With a Ph.D. degree from the Chang Gung University and awarded the Research thesis of scholarship in Integrate Traditional Chinese and West medicine in 2009, his clinical practice in Chinese medicine including acupuncture spans 25 years.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. 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He is also an Executive Committee of the World Federation of Acupuncture-Moxibustion Societies, representing Taiwan on acupuncture-related matters. He was awarded the Certificate of World’s Famous Doctor Award by The 21st Century Congress of Natural Medicine in May 2001. 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He graduated with a Bachelor's degree from the China Medical University in 1990, an M.D., degree from the National Yang-Ming University in 1992, and a Ph.D. degree from the Chang Gung University in 2010. Professor Dr. Hung was awarded “Research thesis of scholarship” in Integrate Traditional Chinese and West medicine 2009 in Taiwan and “Outstanding Scientist Award” on Engineering, Science and Medicine 2021 in India. His experiences in clinical practice in traditional Chinese medicine including acupuncture spans about 25 years. He holds a patent for needle improvement with a supercritical fluid-treated needle. 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1. Introduction
The Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) was first introduced in 1964 by Epstein, Anchong, and Barr [1, 2, 3], from a tissue sample of Burkitt’s lymphoma and was observed with an electron microscope. EBV has the same characteristic as herpes viruses in tissue cultures from specimens of Burkitt’s lymphoma. EBV is included in the family of Herpesviridae, which has a characteristic of the viral genome covered inside a nucleocapsid bounded by the viral envelope. In 1968, 4 years right after its first discovery, EBV was found to be the causal agent of the infectious mononucleosis (also called glandular fever). On other studies that conducted after, EBV was also found on tissue samples of nasopharyngeal carcinoma [3, 4], non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, T-cell lymphoma, as well as oral hairy leukoplakia that associated with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) [4, 5].
EBV DNA has a nature of double-strand and consists of guanosine and cytosine as much as 58%. Due to the nature of the receptors on B-cell surfaces, EBV shows a great permissivity toward B lymphocytes. When B lymphocytes are infected by EBV, they will be “transformed” into lymphoblasts in vitro, this process known as immortalization. EBV occurs commonly and infects approximately 90% of human [1, 2, 3]. EBV-specific antibodies are found in about 95% of adults and 50–85% of the children [4, 5]. EBV infections are typically asymptomatic or have a subclinical infection, but once infected, it can lead to a viral carrier state for a lifetime. In some cases, primary EBV infection occurring during early adulthood could show clinical significance that is known as glandular fever or infectious mononucleosis [2, 5, 6]. Fortunately, most patients with infectious mononucleosis show a short recovery period since both cellular and humoral immune responses play a prominent role during the infection.
Ocular manifestations caused by EBV infection have been previously described. Previous studies showed that specific antibodies were detectable in 65% of tear and 87.5% of serum samples from 40 normal subjects [4]. EBV infection manifested in the eye may involves all segments of the eye, including oculoglandular syndrome, dry eye syndrome, dacryoadenitis, conjunctivitis, episcleritis, keratitis, uveitis, choroiditis, retinitis, retinal vasculitis, and papillitis [3]. Follicular conjunctivitis is the most common ocular disease during acute EBV infection. It is observed in 1–38% of cases and is usually unilateral. Bilateral stromal keratitis with coin-shaped lesions noted on tapering of systemic steroid therapy has been reported [6]. Uveitis occurred in 0.5% of patients with EBV infection [6].
The ocular manifestations of systemic EBV infection are numerous and have not been emphasized. Therefore, the role of EBV infection in ocular manifestation should be fully understood.
2. Pathophysiology infection of EBV
Usually, the first introduction to EBV in the period of childhood will cause subclinical infection, however if this primary event happens during adolescence, most of the time would trigger infectious mononucleosis. This syndrome consists in an acute and self-limiting lymphoproliferation of infected B cells and, at the same time, the development of virus-specific T cells that are triggered in order to tackle viral dissemination.
EBV transmission occurs by the sharing of saliva and then cause infection of mucosal surfaces and lymphoid tissues [3]. Almost most of seropositive individuals shed virus in their saliva. It was proposed earlier that initial replication of the virus happened also in the epithelial cells of the oropharynx, which causes the B cell infection by the previously infected epithelial cells. However, newer studies suggest that B cells located in the oropharynx could be infected first and act as the primary site.
During the latent stage of the infection, the site in which EBV persists within the body is the resting memory B cells. The viral replication in the oropharynx is partially suppressed in patients taking acyclovir, in the other hand, the amount of B cell EBV infected in the circulation remains the same.
Typical symptoms and signs are fever, pharyngitis, lymphadenopathy, and splenomegaly. The basic lesion is a perivascular infiltration of both normal and abnormal lymphocytes in all the tissues except bone marrow [7].
These cells are metaplastic noninvasive and to be formed in situ from other cells of the reticuloendothelial system. This lesion distributed throughout the body, and in any individual patient may be most marked in the central nervous system, liver, lungs, and other organs or systems.
Before the entry process into B cell, gp350, a major envelope glycoprotein, fixes to the receptor of the virus, CD21 molecule, which is located on the surface of the B cell. There are other factors besides CD21 that play a significant role, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules that acts as a cofactor during B cells infection. EBV genome linear DNA molecules encode 100 viral proteins. These proteins are significant in the process of construction of virion as well as carrying forward immune responses of the host.
EBV infection in vivo of the epithelial cells consequences in active replication while simultaneously with lysis of the cells as well as production of virus. Meanwhile, EBV infected B cells in vitro will become immortalized and causes latent infection. Only a small portion of cases that viral replication is triggered immediately after the infection of B cells.
Both cellular and humoral immunity plays an important role in the infection of EBV in humans. Even though the presentation of antibodies designed against viral structural proteins is critical, cellular immunity plays a higher role on the controller of EBV infection. The control of proliferation of EBV infected B cells in the primary infection is carried forward by CD4+, CD8+, and natural killer cells. During the period of infectious mononucleosis, a proportion of 40% of CD8+ T cells are focused on single replicative EBV protein sequence, meanwhile only 2% are focused to single latent EBV protein sequence.
During acute infection, first IgM and then IgG antibodies to viral capsid antigens (VCA) appear. Anti-VCA IgG may lead to virus carrier state and persist for a lifetime [3, 7]. Antibodies to early antigens rise during the acute phases of the disease and subsequently decrease to low or undetectable.
EBV can exist regardless of competent responses from the healthy immune system that are targeted toward it. It would most probably suggest that EBV has developed some tactics to evade the response from the immune system. EBV encrypts a cytokine as well as cytokine receptors that have a crucial role in moderating capable immune system therefore this allows tenacious infection. The 70% of amino acid sequence of EBV BCRF1 has the same characteristics as interleukin-10.
The protein of BCRF1 imitates the behavior of interleukin-10 of inhibits interferon-γ synthesis by in vitro human peripheral-blood mononuclear. In addition to that, EBV BARF1 protein acts as a soluble receptor for colony-stimulating factor 1. It is known that colony- stimulating factor 1 usually upregulates the expression of interferon-α of monocytes, therefore BARF1 protein able to operate as a decoy receptor to halt the action of cytokine. Since inhibition of the outgrowth of EBV infected cells in vitro is done by interferon-γ and interferon-α, BARF1 and BCRF1 proteins could aid the EBV to avoid the immune system of the host in the period of both acute as well as latent infection. EBV also codes more than two proteins that cause apoptosis inhibition. Protein of the EBV BHFR1 is similar to the protein of human bcl-2 protein, this protein has the same function on blocking apoptosis. In addition, EBV LMP-1 increases several cellular protein expressions that hinders the process of apoptosis, i.e. bcl-2.
Antibodies to EBV nuclear antigens appear weeks to months later, providing serologic evidence of past infection. Lesions of the special sense organs are somewhat rare, but there are few reports of eye lesions or manifestations [7].
Ocular manifestations have been reported to affect all segments of the eye and most commonly associated with acute mononucleosis [3]. Manifestations in the ocular may be the cause of direct involvement of the eye and its adnexa through inflammatory syndrome similar to that of infectious mononucleosis, and those affecting vision and the neuro-ophthalmologic apparatus owing to a more remote occurrence of the lesion, most commonly involving the central nervous system [7].
3. Clinical manifestation
Ocular manifestations of acute EBV infection may affect the central nervous system to the extent of disturbance in the visual or oculomotor pathways, in addition it could as well cause a disorder in the eye and adnexa of the eye [4, 8]. Further manifestations were observed due to the advancement of diagnostic tools that could give much more sensitive and specific results [8].
Neurologic abnormalities caused by EBV could disturb the host vision. Disorders that have been reported previously consisted of papilledema, convergence deficiency, nerve palsies, retinal necrosis, central nervous system vasculitis, retinochoroiditis, necrotizing retinitis with extensive hemorrhage that were co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus and cytomegalovirus and optic neuritis [9].
The appearance of yellowish, coalescing lesion in the macula as well as edematous optic disk were seen in a patient with EBV infection by Kim et al. [10]. From our previous case-report, it was examined from funduscopy a peculiar finding of prominent presentation of white sheathing retinal phlebitis covering all four retinal quadrants (Figure 1). Other reports had described this finding as frosted branch angiitis. It was also well known that frosted branch angiitis has been seen regularly in numerous disorders such as Crohn disease, Behcet disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus. However, from our previous case, the patient did not show any typical symptoms of Crohn disease, Behcet disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus, also, PCR was done on the patient’s serum and was positive for EBV.
Figure 1.
Bilateral fundus photographs showing white sheathing of retinal veins in four retinal quadrants (frosted branch-like appearance) with macular edema. Reprinted from [1]. Copyright 2016 by Retinal Cases & Brief Reports.
EBV infects lymphoid tissues and also mucosal surfaces. In the cellular level, EBV infects B cell and conforming virus-specific T cells, which will lead to symptoms such as lymphadenopathy and pharyngitis. Based on seroepidemiologic data, it was reported that EBV infects all parts of the eye, though the most common abnormality includes follicular conjunctivitis. After the availability of serologic virus-specific tests, other disorders of the anterior segment that is associated with EBV were detected more frequently, which includes keratitis, iritis, episcleritis, as well as dacryoadenitis.
It was found by Plugfelder et al., [11], that some cases of primary Sjogren’s syndrome developed right after infectious mononucleosis. These authors [11] gathered patients that have aqueous tear deficiency and evaluated them for a serologic finding of EBV infection. A significant correlation was found between elevated early antigen EBV titers and severe aqueous tear deficiency once the results were placed in multivariate analysis. This suggests that EBV infection could be a risk factor in developing aqueous tear deficiency [11, 12].
Inflammation of the conjunctiva has been seen and linked with keratitis, that variate from mild hyperemia to mild follicular reaction in the inferior and superior tarsal conjunctiva. A study by Matoba [4] has found stromal keratitis related to EBV infection to infect all layers of stroma. Matoba [4] has also reported there were two forms of EBV-related keratitis, the first type was a granular, multiple, well-defined, ring, or circular-shaped opacities which was distributed all over the anterior as well as mid-stroma. Another form is nonsuppurative, multifocal keratitis including deep layers or full thickness of peripheral cornea and also related to various grades of vascularization [4]. In another study by Chodosh J, stromal keratitis associated with EBV infection presented three principal forms (Figure 2) [7].
Figure 2.
Subepithelial infiltrates resembling adenoviral infection-associated keratitis in a patient with recent primary EBV infection. Reprinted from [2]. Copyright 1990 by Surv Ophthalmol.
Type I: multifocal subepithelial infiltrates that resemble adenoviral keratitis.
Type II: multifocal, blotchy, pleomorphic infiltrates with active inflammation or granular ring-shaped opacities (inactive form) in anterior to midstroma.
Type III: multifocal deep or full thickness peripheral infiltrates, with or without vascularization.
Matoba et al. [4] proposed a hypothesis about the pathophysiology of EBV related keratitis onset being carried forward by infectious and immunologic processes. Due to the quick response to the introduction of topical corticosteroid and seeming resolution of the inflammation without involving the use of antiviral therapy, it is more likely that immunologic processes were involved rather than viral replication. If this is true, the cornea was affected could be due to native keratocyte share a similar antigen with EBV, or it might be caused by EBV antigen develops located within the tissue [4].
Other common symptoms affecting the ocular include periorbital edema, pain when rotating the eyes, deep orbital pain, photophobia, as well as headache. It was spotted by Tanner [8] that episcleritis, as well as uveitis as part of the ocular manifestation of EBV infection. Tanner [8] reported nongranulomatous uveitis taking place at the end stage of clinical manifestation of infectious mononucleosis had been noted in four cases. One specific exhibition is the disorder of the oculomotor apparatus. Fledelius et al. [8] observed an exclusive inferior rectus paresis. Motto and Ashworth [8] were the first to notice a bilateral papilledema case of infectious mononucleosis with the nonappearance clinical manifestation of encephalitis nor meningitis. Other studies observed ptosis, nystagmus, as well as diplopia in their patients [8].
4. A diagnostic approach for detecting ocular disease by EBV infection
Most of the ocular manifestations linked to the EBV infection have been based mostly on seroepidemiologic data. This claimed is supported by the fact that numerous patients with EBV infection that showed ocular manifestations have been confirmed from in-situ hybridization of EBV genome from the biopsy of suspected tissue specimens.
The diagnosis of EBV infection by serologically for quite sometimes has been hinge on heterophile antibodies detection [4]. Heterophile antibodies are classified in the IgM group and would typically reach its highest levels around the second to third week since the first onset of the sickness and would exist and visible till 1 year [4]. They are detectable in up to 90% of adults who suffered from primary EBV infection [4].
Monospot test is a test that could be used in detecting EBV infection. This test is a quick slide agglutination test for specific heterophile antibodies produced by the human immune system in response to EBV infection. The sample will clump when it exposes to equine erythrocytes if these specific antibodies present in the patient’s blood specimen. The Monospot test is considered to be a very specific test. However, its sensitivity falls in the range of 70–90% [13]. Patients with atypical clinical features and patients and with suspected of chronic infection are better evaluated with EBV specific serologic test that measure antibody levels against VCA, EBNA, and EA [4].
5. Management
The overall goal of EBV treatment is mainly supportive since the disease is usually self- limited [4]. Antiviral drugs have been used to inhibit the replication cycle of the virus. The action of antiviral agents can be divided into: (1) disrupting with cellular process which the virus uses for its replication; (2) inhibits the function of the virus by bind to the nucleic acid; (3) modifies the viral envelope which is resulting in preventing the virus infecting new cells; (4) inhibits the formation of new progeny by interfering with viral assembly; (5) interferes with the viral enzyme and inhibits their function; (6) prevents the processing of viral precursor polypeptide. The effect of some of the antiviral agents used in EBV infection is uncertain, but some studies have reported good results of treating EBV infection with systemic antiviral [4, 12].
Several antiviral drugs have been used to treat EBV infection and can be grouped into three as nucleoside analogs such as ganciclovir, valganciclovir, acyclovir, valaciclovir, acyclic nucleotide analog such as cidofovir and adefovir, and pyrophosphate analog such as foscarnet [12]. Acyclovir is recommended as the first-line drug for treating EBV infection. Therefore, it has become the most commonly prescribed antiviral regimen [14, 15, 16]. Anderson et al. [14] have found a significant reduction of EBV-infected B-lymphocytes after acyclovir treatment. Accordingly, systemic acyclovir therapy showed a good result of treating EBV-associated ocular involvement and Acute retinal necrosis [15].
Acyclovir triphosphate inhibits viral replication by acting as a competitive substrate for viral DNA polymerase, and its subsequent incorporation into the viral DNA chain results in obligate chain termination. The recommended regime is intravenous acyclovir 10 mg/kg every 8 hours (or 1500 mg/m2) per day for 5–10 days, followed by oral acyclovir 400–800 mg 5 times daily for an additional 6–12 weeks. Second eye involvement may occur within the first 6 weeks after EBV infection; thus, the minimum duration of subsequent oral therapy was 6 weeks. Even though some ophthalmic centers are switching to oral therapy alone, few studies found a higher level of intravitreal acyclovir when given intravenously [15, 16, 17]. From the limited data available, one may conclude that acyclovir given intravenously and orally is the recommended regime [16, 17].
The effectiveness of steroid along with antiviral drug in treating ocular manifestations of EBV infection remains unclear. Some studies described that ophthalmic steroids relieve the symptoms of ocular inflammation in the anterior segment of the eye, including keratitis, anterior uveitis, and ocular allergies or injuries, yet its effect on the posterior part is still not clear [2, 4, 17].
6. Conclusion
It can be concluded that distinctive characteristic pathologic clinical manifestation, as well as lesions of infectious mononucleosis, exists in the ocular area. The ocular manifestations of systemic EBV infection are wide-ranging and have not been highlighted. EBV infection is best diagnosed using heterophile antibody tests to detect primary EBV infections and serology tests for asymptomatic patients. Despite of the self-limiting nature of the disease, acyclovir still becomes the first line of treatment with its attribute to reduce the viral replication. EBV infection should be included in the differential diagnosis of most unusual inflammatory course of the eye.
Conflict of interest
There are no conflicts of interest in this chapter.
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Even though ocular involvements in EBV infections are infrequently reported, an increasing number of ocular manifestations have been previously reported . Ocular manifestation caused by EBV infection involved all segments of the eye, including oculoglandular syndrome, dry eye syndrome, dacryoadenitis, conjunctivitis, episcleritis, keratitis, uveitis, choroiditis, retinitis, retinal vasculitis, and papillitis. Previous reports found neurologic complications such as papilledema, optic neuritis, ophthalmoplegia, impaired accommodation, and facial nerve palsy. Any atypical ocular inflammatory process should be considered EBV infection in the differential diagnosis. The ocular manifestations of systemic EBV infection are varied and have not been emphasized. And the role of EBV infection in ocular manifestations should be fully described.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73462",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73462",signatures:"Andi Arus Victor",book:{id:"9619",type:"book",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-490-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-489-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-491-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"228998",title:"Dr.",name:"Andi Arus",middleName:null,surname:"Victor",fullName:"Andi Arus Victor",slug:"andi-arus-victor",email:"arvimadao@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Indonesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pathophysiology infection of EBV",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Clinical manifestation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. A diagnostic approach for detecting ocular disease by EBV infection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Cohen JI. Epstein-Barr virus infection. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2000;343:481-492'},{id:"B2",body:'Victor AA, Sukmana N. Retinal vasculitis associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection, a case report. Retinal Cases & Bried Reports. 2016:1-4'},{id:"B3",body:'Slobod KS. Molecular evidence of ocular Epstein-Barr virus infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2000;31:184-188'},{id:"B4",body:'Matoba AY. Ocular disease associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection. Survey of Ophthalmology. 1990;35:145-150'},{id:"B5",body:'Kramer S, Brumer C, Zierhut M. Epstein-Barr virus associated acute retinal necrosis. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2001;85:110-120'},{id:"B6",body:'Wong KW, D’Amico DJ, Hedges TR III, et al. Ocular involvement associated with chronic Epstein-Barr virus disease. Archives of Ophthalmology. 1987;105:788-792'},{id:"B7",body:'Chodosh J. Epstein-Barr virus stromal keratitis. Ophthalmology Clinics of North America. 1994;7(4):549-556'},{id:"B8",body:'Tanner OR. Ocular manifestations of infectious mononucleosis. In: Presented at the 36th Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast Oto-Ophthalmological Society, 1st May 1952, Salt Lake City; 1952'},{id:"B9",body:'Andi AV. Ocular Manifestations in Epstein Barr Virus Infection [Online First]. IntechOpen; October 5th 2020'},{id:"B10",body:'Kim SJ, Baranano DE, Grossniklaus HE, Martin DF. Epstein- Barr infection of the retina: Case report and review of the literature. Retinal Cases and Brief Reports. 2011;5:1-5'},{id:"B11",body:'Pfugfelder SC, Tseng SCG, Pepose JS, et al. Epstein-Barr virus infection and immunologic dysfunction in patients with aqueous tear deficiency. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:313-323'},{id:"B12",body:'Yaro A. Epstein-Barr infection: Current treatment options. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 2013;6(1):10-13'},{id:"B13",body:'Stuempfig ND, Seroy J. Monospot test. [Updated 2019 Mar 10]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020. p. 1'},{id:"B14",body:'Keorochana N. A case report of Epstein-Barr virus associated retinal vasculitis: Successful treatment using only acyclovir therapy. International Medical Case Reports Journal. 2016;9:213-218'},{id:"B15",body:'Rafailidis PI, Mavros MN, Kapaskelis A, Falagas ME. Antiviral treatment for severe EBV infections in apparently immunocompetent patients. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2010;49(3):151-157'},{id:"B16",body:'Patrick MK, Claire YH, Susan L. Antiviral selection in the management of acute retinal necrosis. Clinical Ophthalmology. 2010;4:11-20'},{id:"B17",body:'Lee FF, Foster CS. Pharmacotherapy of uveitis. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2010;11:1135-1146'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Andi Arus Victor",address:"arvimadao@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Cipto Mangunkusumo National General Hospital, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/25479",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"25479"},fullPath:"/chapters/25479",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()