Enzymatic process vs. whole-cell bioconversion.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10127",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",title:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art of biomass utilization in agriculture and pharmaceuticals. The information contained herein is useful to researchers and other readers interested in biomass utilization and production of bioproducts.",isbn:"978-1-83881-182-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-180-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-183-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89320",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biotechnological-applications-of-biomass",numberOfPages:638,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"17b4ebfda66ea073a28d609bc6b1dd67",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10127.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17977,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:60,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:89,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 18th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 4th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139174/images/system/139174.png",biography:"Thalita Peixoto Basso received her bachelor’s degree in Agriculture Engineering. During this period, she studied the fermentation characteristics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae isolated from ethanol industrial processes. She obtained her master’s degree from the University of Sao Paulo (ESALQ/USP), Brazil. During this time, she isolated and selected fungi with high cellulose activity for enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. She received her Ph.D. from the Agricultural Microbiology Program, ESALQ/USP, with a period as a visiting scholar at the University of California Berkeley and the Energy Bioscience Institute. Meanwhile, she worked on the improvement of S. cerevisiae by hybridization for increased tolerance toward inhibitors from second-generation ethanol substrates. Currently, she is a collaborating professor and postdoctorate working with metabolomics and proteomics of fermentation processes in the Genetics Department, ESALQ/USP.",institutionString:"University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"27117",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago Olitta",middleName:null,surname:"Basso",slug:"thiago-olitta-basso",fullName:"Thiago Olitta Basso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27117/images/system/27117.jpg",biography:"Thiago Olitta Basso is an assistant professor in the Chemical Engineering Department, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Brazil. Currently, he is involved with teaching and researching microbial physiology, microbial interactions, and strategies of metabolic and evolutionary engineering for the biotechnology sector. He worked at Novozymes as a senior scientist in its R&D Department, acting as a project leader in yeast physiology and fermentation optimization for traditional (1G) and advanced (2G) biofuels. He holds a BS in Pharmacy and Biochemistry from USP and an MSc in Biotechnology from the University of Abertay, Scotland, UK. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from USP, under Andreas Gombert´s supervision. Part of his Ph.D. was done at the Delft University of Technology, in the group of Prof. Jack Pronk.",institutionString:"University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"27097",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Basso",slug:"luiz-carlos-basso",fullName:"Luiz Carlos Basso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27097/images/system/27097.jpg",biography:"Luiz Carlos Basso holds a bachelor’s degree in Agriculture Engineering from the University of Sao Paulo (ESALQ/USP) in 1969, a master’s degree in Soil and Plant Nutrition from ESALQ/USP in 1973, Ph.D. in Biological Science from São Paulo State University (UNESP), and postdoctorate from Institut des Produits de la Vigne, Montpellier and Superior Technical Institute, Lisbon, in 1989. Since 1980, he has been involved with yeast biochemistry and physiology, aiming to increase ethanol yield using the fed-batch industrial process. During the last fifteen years, he has conducted a yeast selection program resulting in the most widely used Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains (PE-2 and CAT-1) in the Brazilian ethanol industry. Currently, he is a senior professor at ESALQ/USP teaching Biochemistry (for undergraduate students), Biochemistry and Physiology of Yeast Fermentation (for graduate students), and selecting tolerant strains for lignocellulosic inhibitors.",institutionString:"University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"885",title:"Bioenergy",slug:"sustainable-energy-bioenergy"}],chapters:[{id:"73832",title:"Biomass Conversion Technologies for Bioenergy Generation: An Introduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93669",slug:"biomass-conversion-technologies-for-bioenergy-generation-an-introduction",totalDownloads:1013,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the last century, there has been increasing debate concerning the use of biomass for different purposes such as foods, feeds, energy fuels, heating, cooling and most importantly biorefinery feedstock. The biorefinery products were aimed to replace fossil fuels and chemicals as they are renewable form of energy. Biomass is a biodegradable product from agricultural wastes and residues, forestry and aquaculture. Biomass could be sourced from a variety of raw materials such as wood and wood processing by-products, manure, fractions of organic waste products and agricultural crops. As a form of renewable energy, they have the advantages of easy storage, transportation, flexible load utilization and versatile applications. The aim of this study is to provide an overview for thermochemical and biochemical biomass conversion technologies that were employed currently. Attention was also paid to manufacture of biofuels because of their potentials as key market for large-scale green sustainable biomass product.",signatures:"Abdurrahman Garba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73832",authors:[{id:"245271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdurrahman",surname:"Garba",slug:"abdurrahman-garba",fullName:"Abdurrahman Garba"}],corrections:null},{id:"73215",title:"Biomass Pretreatment and Characterization: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93607",slug:"biomass-pretreatment-and-characterization-a-review",totalDownloads:964,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass has the potential to replace conventional fuels in a number of applications, particularly in biofuel production. It is an abundantly available renewable material with great potential as a feedstock for bioconversion processes for the production of energy, fuels and a variety of chemicals. Due to its biogenic origin, the carbon dioxide released from its combustion process does not impact atmospheric carbon dioxide. Despite these merits, a major problem hindering its widespread use has always been its recalcitrant nature, in terms of its inherent characteristics, which are unfavorable to its use in bioconversion and bio refinery processes. This makes it necessary for biomass to be pretreated before use in any conversion process for maximum product recovery. However, a major issue with regards to biomass pretreatment is the lack of rapid, high throughput and reliable tools for assessing and tracing biopolymer components of biomass relevant to the energy production potential of the biomass. This chapter therefore presents an overview of the pretreatment and characterization of biomass relevant to energy, fuels and chemicals production. The information provided will bequeath readers with the basic knowledge necessary for finding an auspicious solution to pretreatment problems and the production of energy from pretreated biomass.",signatures:"Anthony Anukam and Jonas Berghel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73215",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73215",authors:[{id:"323140",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Anukam",slug:"anthony-anukam",fullName:"Anthony Anukam"},{id:"330589",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Berghel",slug:"jonas-berghel",fullName:"Jonas Berghel"}],corrections:null},{id:"73256",title:"Getting Environmentally Friendly and High Added-Value Products from Lignocellulosic Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93645",slug:"getting-environmentally-friendly-and-high-added-value-products-from-lignocellulosic-waste",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, alternatives have been sought for the reuse of lignocellulosic waste generated by agricultural and other industries because it is biodegradable and renewable. Lignocellulosic waste can be used for a wide variety of applications, depending on their composition and physical properties. In this chapter, we focus on the different treatments that are used for the extraction of natural cellulose fibers (chemical, physical, biological methods) for more sophisticated applications such as reinforcement in biocomposites. Due to the different morphologies that the cellulose can present, depending from sources, it is possible to obtain cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), micro- nanofibrillated cellulose (MFC/NFC), and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) with different applications in the industry. Among the different cellulose nanomaterials highlighted characteristics, we can find improved barrier properties for sound and moisture, the fact that they are environmentally friendly, increased tensile strength and decreased weight. These materials have the ability to replace metallic components, petroleum products, and nonrenewable materials. Potential applications of cellulose nanomaterials are present in the automotive, construction, aerospace industries, etc. Also, this chapter exhibits global market predictions of these new materials or products. In summary, lignocellulosic residues are a rich source of cellulose that can be extracted to obtain products with high value-added and eco-friendly characteristics.",signatures:"Elizabeth Quintana Rodríguez, Domancar Orona Tamayo, José Nicacio González Cervantes, Flora Itzel Beltrán Ramirez, María Alejandra Rivera Trasgallo and Adriana Berenice Espinoza Martínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73256",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73256",authors:[{id:"278524",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Quintana Rodríguez",slug:"elizabeth-quintana-rodriguez",fullName:"Elizabeth Quintana Rodríguez"},{id:"279854",title:"Dr.",name:"Flora Itzel",surname:"Beltran Ramirez",slug:"flora-itzel-beltran-ramirez",fullName:"Flora Itzel Beltran Ramirez"},{id:"279856",title:"Dr.",name:"Domancar",surname:"Orona Tamayo",slug:"domancar-orona-tamayo",fullName:"Domancar Orona Tamayo"},{id:"279858",title:"BSc.",name:"José Nicacio",surname:"Gonzalez-Cervantes",slug:"jose-nicacio-gonzalez-cervantes",fullName:"José Nicacio Gonzalez-Cervantes"},{id:"331125",title:"Dr.",name:"María Alejandra",surname:"Rivera Trasgallo",slug:"maria-alejandra-rivera-trasgallo",fullName:"María Alejandra Rivera Trasgallo"},{id:"336412",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Berenice",surname:"Espinoza Martinez",slug:"adriana-berenice-espinoza-martinez",fullName:"Adriana Berenice Espinoza Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"74117",title:"Laboratory Optimization Study of Sulfonation Reaction toward Lignin Isolated from Bagasse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93662",slug:"laboratory-optimization-study-of-sulfonation-reaction-toward-lignin-isolated-from-bagasse",totalDownloads:534,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bagasse is scientifically defined as waste from the extraction of sugarcane liquid after the grinding process. Bagasse is biomass which is used as raw material to be processed into surfactants. Bagasse fiber cannot be dissolved in water because it consists mostly of cellulose, pentosane and lignin. The optimum conditions for obtaining the highest yield and the best conversion of bagasse to lignin were achieved when used 80 mesh bagasse and 3 M NaOH as a hydrolysis agent. Then lignin is reacted with 0.25 sodium bisulfite to the surfactant sodium lignosulfonate. Lignin and sodium lignosulfonate were further characterized using a FTIR spectrophotometer to determine the components contained therein. The lignin component consists of phenolic functional group elements, aliphatic and aromatic groups, ketone groups, aren functional groups, amine groups and alkyl groups along with standard lignin components. Likewise with lignosulfonates, with indicator components consisting of C═C alkenes, Sulfate S═O, C═O carboxylic acids and S-OR esters. The NMR test was resulted the monomer structure of SLS surfactant bagasse. The results indicate that the lignin isolation process from bagasse has been successfully. Likewise, the sulfonation of lignin to lignosulfonate is also successful.",signatures:"Rini Setiati, Septoratno Siregar and Deana Wahyuningrum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74117",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74117",authors:[{id:"271621",title:"Dr.",name:"Rini",surname:"Setiati",slug:"rini-setiati",fullName:"Rini Setiati"},{id:"291882",title:"Prof.",name:"Septoratno",surname:"Siregar",slug:"septoratno-siregar",fullName:"Septoratno Siregar"},{id:"291884",title:"Dr.",name:"Deana",surname:"Wahyuningrum",slug:"deana-wahyuningrum",fullName:"Deana Wahyuningrum"}],corrections:null},{id:"74065",title:"Agroenergy from Residual Biomass: Energy Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93644",slug:"agroenergy-from-residual-biomass-energy-perspective",totalDownloads:362,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for energy alternatives from renewable and clean sources has been gaining prominence at the international level, due to the increased demand for energy and the future depletion of fossil fuels, coupled with the concern with environmental issues. The generation of electricity distributed from the use of biomass can contribute to the conservation of the environment, the diversification of the energy matrix, the national economic development, the generation of jobs in the agro-industry and in the distribution of clean energy, as a sustainable alternative. This chapter aims to present information related to the use of different residual biomass as an energy alternative for Brazil, with a focus on electricity generation, based on a bibliographic survey, where it is highlighted as the best sources of biomass for electricity generation in the country, observing the profitability and viability for logistics and national economy.",signatures:"Cintia de Faria Ferreira Carraro, André Celestino Martins, Ana Carolina da Silva Faria and Carla Cristina Almeida Loures",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74065",authors:[{id:"323601",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cintia",surname:"de Faria Ferreira Carraro",slug:"cintia-de-faria-ferreira-carraro",fullName:"Cintia de Faria Ferreira Carraro"},{id:"323602",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla Cristina",surname:"Almeida Loures",slug:"carla-cristina-almeida-loures",fullName:"Carla Cristina Almeida Loures"},{id:"329013",title:"B.Sc.",name:"André Celestino",surname:"Martins",slug:"andre-celestino-martins",fullName:"André Celestino Martins"},{id:"329014",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana Carolina",surname:"da Silva Faria",slug:"ana-carolina-da-silva-faria",fullName:"Ana Carolina da Silva Faria"}],corrections:null},{id:"73230",title:"The Potential of Biomass in Africa and the Debate on Its Carbon Neutrality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93615",slug:"the-potential-of-biomass-in-africa-and-the-debate-on-its-carbon-neutrality",totalDownloads:651,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To enhance the energy security and promote energy diversity, biomass sources of energy are viable resources worldwide. Bioenergy is an organic source of power derived from various feedstock including fuel wood, energy crops, solid wastes, and residues of plants. This book chapter explores the use of biomass in Africa and the technical and economic potential of these resources for energy supply in the continent. Findings of literature revealed that the potential of biomass is high in Africa due to availability of land, its preference due to limited electricity supply and the exorbitant nature of fossil fuels, the assorted variety of energy crops suitable for growth in the continent and the green nature associated with the resource. The chapter also established that bioenergy is renewable and not carbon neutral. As such, accurate computation of its resultant greenhouse gas emissions based on their sequestration and emission rates is strongly advised to optimize biomass for energy utility and sustainability compared to conventional energy sources.",signatures:"Joan Nyika, Adeolu Adesoji Adediran, Adeniyi Olayanju, Olanrewaju Seun Adesina and Francis Odikpo Edoziuno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73230",authors:[{id:"323960",title:"Dr.",name:"Adeolu Adesoji",surname:"Adediran",slug:"adeolu-adesoji-adediran",fullName:"Adeolu Adesoji Adediran"},{id:"323961",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joan",surname:"Nyika",slug:"joan-nyika",fullName:"Joan Nyika"},{id:"323963",title:"Prof.",name:"Adeniyi",surname:"Olayanju",slug:"adeniyi-olayanju",fullName:"Adeniyi Olayanju"},{id:"323966",title:"Dr.",name:"Olanrewaju Seun",surname:"Adesina",slug:"olanrewaju-seun-adesina",fullName:"Olanrewaju Seun Adesina"},{id:"328978",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis Odikpo",surname:"Edoziuno",slug:"francis-odikpo-edoziuno",fullName:"Francis Odikpo Edoziuno"}],corrections:null},{id:"77187",title:"A General Overview of Sweet Sorghum Genomics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98539",slug:"a-general-overview-of-sweet-sorghum-genomics",totalDownloads:306,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sorghum is one of the main cereal crops, its consumption is large, since it provides grain, fiber and biofuel. Likewise, its genome, with only 10 diploid chromosomes, makes it an attractive model for research and genetic improvement. Sorghum is the most studied C4 plant of its genus; several lines have been developed under three main characteristics: grain, forage and sugar biomass. Compared to other crops, sweet sorghum possesses high levels of highly fermentable sugars in the stem. Also, it has the ability of producing high production yields in marginal lands. These characteristics make it and attractive crop for the generation of biofuels. Molecular markers associated to several resistances and tolerances to biotic and abiotic factors have been described in literature. These allow the development of high-density linkage maps, which, along with the rising availability of sorghum genomes, will accelerate the identification of markers and the integration of the complete genome sequence. This will facilitate the selection of traits related to biofuels and the marker-assisted genetic improvement. Most of the information presented in this review is focused in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. However, from the bioenergetics perspective, it is limited to sweet sorghum, which represents a promising opportunity for further studies.",signatures:"Raymundo Rosas-Quijano, Abraham Ontiveros-Cisneros, Noé Montes-García, Arturo Díaz-Franco, Alfredo Vázquez-Ovando and Didiana Gálvez-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77187",authors:[{id:"352784",title:"Prof.",name:"Didiana",surname:"Galvez-Lopez",slug:"didiana-galvez-lopez",fullName:"Didiana Galvez-Lopez"},{id:"352786",title:"Prof.",name:"Raymundo",surname:"Rosas-Quijano",slug:"raymundo-rosas-quijano",fullName:"Raymundo Rosas-Quijano"},{id:"352787",title:"MSc.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Ontiveros-Cisneros",slug:"abraham-ontiveros-cisneros",fullName:"Abraham Ontiveros-Cisneros"},{id:"352789",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfredo",surname:"Vazquez-Ovando",slug:"alfredo-vazquez-ovando",fullName:"Alfredo Vazquez-Ovando"},{id:"419202",title:"Dr.",name:"Noé",surname:"Montes-García",slug:"noe-montes-garcia",fullName:"Noé Montes-García"},{id:"419500",title:"MSc.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Diaz-Franco",slug:"arturo-diaz-franco",fullName:"Arturo Diaz-Franco"}],corrections:null},{id:"72955",title:"Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93433",slug:"current-situation-and-future-outlook-of-forest-biomass-production-and-its-utilization-in-japan",totalDownloads:418,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The current situation of forests and forestry as well as woody biomass utilization in Japan was described, and the future outlook for the use of forest biomass in Japan was presented. Many planted forests are now becoming mature, so the operational efficiency in forestry should be improved not only by the development of the forest infrastructure but also by the full mechanization of the logging system. The Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 promoted the energy utilization of waste woody biomass such as mill residues and wood-based waste materials, and the launch of the Feed-in Tariff scheme for renewable energy (FIT) in 2012 promoted the energy utilization of once-unutilized thinnings. In order to further expand the production of forest biomass and its utilization for energy, logging residues, small-sized trees, and short rotation woody coppices (SRWC) are promising. Thus, low-cost harvesting technologies should be developed as soon as possible, with reference to machines and systems operating in foreign countries where the utilization of such forest biomass is making steady progress.",signatures:"Takuyuki Yoshioka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72955",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72955",authors:[{id:"322969",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuyuki",surname:"Yoshioka",slug:"takuyuki-yoshioka",fullName:"Takuyuki Yoshioka"}],corrections:null},{id:"74679",title:"Location Analysis and Application of GIS in Site Suitability Study for Biogas Plant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95508",slug:"location-analysis-and-application-of-gis-in-site-suitability-study-for-biogas-plant",totalDownloads:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Proper livestock waste management and development of robust system for the treatment of the bio-waste has been emphasized and investigated by several searchers. Utilization of bio-waste for bio-energy production is advantageous for sustainable environment and socio-economic viewpoints. This study therefore is essential in providing critical strategy needed in situating bio-energy plants, consideration was made in the application of geospatial technology owing to it wide adoption and numerous advantages. Data for site analysis of biogas plant was obtained from GIS organizations and agency, the biomass generation and sites data was obtained from field survey. The biomass potential was based on paunch content generated in the various 43 abattoirs in the study area. The ArcGIS 10 software was used for all GIS operations and subsequent map production. The final suitability index map was obtained by overlaying the land use suitability map with the biomass spatial density layer. The suitable areas were divided into 4 classes: the Most Suitable, Highly Suitable, Moderate Suitable and Not Suitable. The study indicates that suitable sites are predominant in the East and central region of the study area, this study is essential in developing framework for siting biogas plant.",signatures:"Emmanuel C. Chukwuma, Chinenye F. Okey-Onyesolu, Daniel C. Anizoba and Joseph I. Ubah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74679",authors:[{id:"315803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Chukwuma",slug:"emmanuel-chukwuma",fullName:"Emmanuel Chukwuma"},{id:"344071",title:"Dr.",name:"Faith C.",surname:"Okey-Onyesolu",slug:"faith-c.-okey-onyesolu",fullName:"Faith C. Okey-Onyesolu"},{id:"344072",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel C.",surname:"Anizoba",slug:"daniel-c.-anizoba",fullName:"Daniel C. Anizoba"},{id:"344073",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph C.",surname:"Ubah",slug:"joseph-c.-ubah",fullName:"Joseph C. Ubah"}],corrections:null},{id:"77512",title:"Silvopastoral Systems for Energy Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98844",slug:"silvopastoral-systems-for-energy-generation",totalDownloads:238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The silvipastoral systems are characterized by the association between tree crops, pastures and animals and can also constitute an efficient and sustainable means of supplying forest biomass for energy purposes such as electric, mechanical and thermal energy generation. It is an unconventional energy alternative and the evaluation of the energy potential offered by this productive system depends on several factors, such as management techniques, forest species, silvipastoral system characteristics and the design of the conversion and energy utilization process. In this context, it was developed a mathematical model to determine the energy efficiency of silvipastoril production system integrated with a cogeneration system for the production of thermal, mechanical and electrical energy. It can be concluded that these results are advantageous in relation to the conventional modalities of energy generation, taking into account the prices of electricity practiced in the market.",signatures:"Cid Marcos Gonçalves Andrade, Sérgio Inácio Gomes, Mauro Antônio da Silva Sá Ravagnani and Eugênia Leandro Almeida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77512",authors:[{id:"330939",title:"Prof.",name:"Cid Marcos G.",surname:"Andrade",slug:"cid-marcos-g.-andrade",fullName:"Cid Marcos G. Andrade"},{id:"418506",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",surname:"Inácio Gomes",slug:"sergio-inacio-gomes",fullName:"Sérgio Inácio Gomes"},{id:"418507",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Antônio da Silva Sá Ravagnani",slug:"mauro-antonio-da-silva-sa-ravagnani",fullName:"Mauro Antônio da Silva Sá Ravagnani"},{id:"418508",title:"MSc.",name:"Eugênia Leandro",surname:"Almeida",slug:"eugenia-leandro-almeida",fullName:"Eugênia Leandro Almeida"}],corrections:null},{id:"73542",title:"Market Prospecting and Assessment of the Economic Potential of Glycerol from Biodiesel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93965",slug:"market-prospecting-and-assessment-of-the-economic-potential-of-glycerol-from-biodiesel",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycerol from biodiesel is a potential raw material for synthesis of several products with high added value. The world demand and the market value of these products are important information for defining the best investment for the implantation of a biorefinery. The information is available on websites of social associations, production companies and market consulting companies and can be mined, free of charge. The International Trade Center (ITC), with information on world trade and websites linked to the foreign trade agencies of every country, such as Comex Stat, in Brazil, are relevant search sources. In this context, this work presents procedures and search techniques for prospecting such information. Such a procedure is illustrated through a case study for which a search of market parameters for glycerol and its derivatives was carried out for use in the process design and economic evaluation of an industrial plant. It was found that crude glycerol had a market price close to US$ 170/ton, in 2019. Among its derivatives, acrylic acid, acrylonitrile and 1,3-propanediol have great potential for the development of new processes, within the scope of a biorefinery. Industrially, acrylic acid (US$ 1100/ton) and acrylonitrile (US$ 1500/ton) are produced from propene (US$ 880/ ton) and 1,3-propanediol (US $ 2000/ton) comes from glucose (US$ 460/t) or ethylene oxide (US$ 1200/t), which encourages the development of new sustainable processes.",signatures:"Alisson Dias da Silva Ruy, Ana Luíza Freitas Ferreira, Antônio Ésio Bresciani, Rita Maria de Brito Alves and Luiz Antônio Magalhães Pontes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73542",authors:[{id:"98033",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Maria",surname:"De Brito Alves",slug:"rita-maria-de-brito-alves",fullName:"Rita Maria De Brito Alves"},{id:"328306",title:"BSc.",name:"Ana Luíza",surname:"Freitas Ferreira",slug:"ana-luiza-freitas-ferreira",fullName:"Ana Luíza Freitas Ferreira"},{id:"328307",title:"BSc.",name:"Alisson",surname:"Dias Da Silva Ruy",slug:"alisson-dias-da-silva-ruy",fullName:"Alisson Dias Da Silva Ruy"},{id:"328308",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio Ésio",surname:"Bresciani",slug:"antonio-esio-bresciani",fullName:"Antônio Ésio Bresciani"},{id:"328309",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Antônio",surname:"Magalhães Pontes",slug:"luiz-antonio-magalhaes-pontes",fullName:"Luiz Antônio Magalhães Pontes"}],corrections:null},{id:"74308",title:"Collagen: From Waste to Gold",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94266",slug:"collagen-from-waste-to-gold",totalDownloads:705,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Industrial processing of bovine hides into leather results in many unusable hide off-cuttings, shavings and trimmings. This waste raw material is under-utilised and presents a waste valorisation opportunity to derive a high-value product such as collagen. Collagen is a highly sought-after protein which consists of three polypeptide chains, comprising 30% of the mammalian body’s protein, being the main component of skin, connective tissue and cartilage. The demand for collagen is rising at approximately 20% annually and global collagen-based biomaterials market is predicted to reach US$5 billion by 2025. This chapter presents a waste valorisation opportunity to extract collagen from waste bovine hide off-cuttings. Further, it discusses collagen extraction method optimization and methods used to investigate physicochemical properties of collagen are reviewed.",signatures:"Safiya Noorzai and Casparus J.R. Verbeek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74308",authors:[{id:"102391",title:"Dr.",name:"Casparus J.R.",surname:"Verbeek",slug:"casparus-j.r.-verbeek",fullName:"Casparus J.R. Verbeek"},{id:"323904",title:"Dr.",name:"Safiya",surname:"Noorzai",slug:"safiya-noorzai",fullName:"Safiya Noorzai"}],corrections:null},{id:"74170",title:"Composting of Pig Effluent as a Proposal for the Treatment of Veterinary Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94758",slug:"composting-of-pig-effluent-as-a-proposal-for-the-treatment-of-veterinary-drugs",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pig farming currently occupies a prominent place in the southern states of the Brazil, owning approximately 50% of the national squad, estimated at 42 million pig heads. However, the swine activity contributes significantly to the generation of environmental impacts on the environment. Recently, the greatest need for animal protein has exerted pressures on the current animal production system and one of the alternatives has been to the use of veterinary medicines, which have several uses ranging from therapeutic use, preventive in the treatment of various diseases and as growth promoters. Its indiscriminate and uncontrolled use is currently endangering the environmental balance of producing sites through effluent contamination. Many producers have been using contaminated slurry as a biofertilizer. In this sense, further studies on techniques and processes of treatment of organic effluents contaminated by veterinary drugs are necessary. Alternative low-cost and environmentally viable treatment systems are needs to minimize the entry into the environment of these contaminants. Therefore, the composting process that can defined as a process of aerobic microbial decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling can be an alternative for the treatment of effluents contaminated by veterinary drugs.",signatures:"Robson Evaldo Gehlen Bohrer, Mastrângello Enivar Lanzanova, Ramiro Pereira Bisognin, Marciel Redin, Eduardo Lorensi de Souza, Daniela Mueller de Lara, Divanilde Guerra, Danni Maisa da Silva, Maiara Figueiredo Ramires and Diego Armando Amaro Da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74170",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74170",authors:[{id:"322709",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson Evaldo Gehlen",surname:"Bohrer",slug:"robson-evaldo-gehlen-bohrer",fullName:"Robson Evaldo Gehlen Bohrer"},{id:"326542",title:"Dr.",name:"Danni Maisa da",surname:"Silva",slug:"danni-maisa-da-silva",fullName:"Danni Maisa da Silva"},{id:"327057",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Lorensi De",surname:"Souza",slug:"eduardo-lorensi-de-souza",fullName:"Eduardo Lorensi De Souza"},{id:"327061",title:"MSc.",name:"Diego Armando Amaro Da",surname:"Silva",slug:"diego-armando-amaro-da-silva",fullName:"Diego Armando Amaro Da Silva"},{id:"327062",title:"Dr.",name:"Marciel",surname:"Redin",slug:"marciel-redin",fullName:"Marciel Redin"},{id:"337297",title:"Dr.",name:"Divanilde",surname:"Guerra",slug:"divanilde-guerra",fullName:"Divanilde Guerra"},{id:"337298",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Mueller",surname:"De Lara",slug:"daniela-mueller-de-lara",fullName:"Daniela Mueller De Lara"},{id:"337299",title:"Dr.",name:"Maiara Figueiredo",surname:"Ramires",slug:"maiara-figueiredo-ramires",fullName:"Maiara Figueiredo Ramires"},{id:"337300",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramiro Pereira",surname:"Bisognin",slug:"ramiro-pereira-bisognin",fullName:"Ramiro Pereira Bisognin"},{id:"337301",title:"Dr.",name:"Mastrângello Enivar",surname:"Lanzanova",slug:"mastrangello-enivar-lanzanova",fullName:"Mastrângello Enivar Lanzanova"}],corrections:null},{id:"73334",title:"A Comparative Study of MSW to Emery in Oman",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93745",slug:"a-comparative-study-of-msw-to-emery-in-oman",totalDownloads:576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The adverse impact of the energy production from fossil fuels is now well recognized globally; therefore, the move toward renewable and sustainable energy has become an integral part to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This chapter presents a comparative study considering a waste-to-energy plant to produce electricity in Oman. A research strategy that includes both qualitative and quantitate research methods were adopted to evaluate the MSW generation and emissions, electricity consumption and emissions, public participation in waste segregation, and to estimate the reduction in emission by considering a 5000 tons/day waste-to-energy plant in Oman. The results show that the current emission from fossil fuels to meet the electricity requirement of 70,633.37 Million kWh/year is 161.781 Million tonnes (CO2/year). Similarly, the emissions from MSW which currently stood at 2.159 million tons/year are 3,424,247 tons CO2/year. A 5000 ton per day waste-to-energy plant will not only produce 29.30 million kWh daily but will also enable an annual reduction of 24,527 million kg CO2. Such an initiative will help Oman to improve its sustainability performance in energy, climate change, waste reduction, and economic growth and will pave the road to achieve the relevant SDGs by 2030.",signatures:"Tariq Umar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73334",authors:[{id:"322616",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",surname:"Umar",slug:"tariq-umar",fullName:"Tariq Umar"}],corrections:null},{id:"72179",title:"Production Pathways of Acetic Acid and Its Versatile Applications in the Food Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92289",slug:"production-pathways-of-acetic-acid-and-its-versatile-applications-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:1698,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Acetic acid is a commodity chemical with the global demand of approximately 15 million tons per year with several applications in the chemical and food industry. The production of acetic acid can be widely categorized into chemical and fermentative routes, with the chemical route being the predominant one in the current industrial practice. In this chapter, we have reviewed the most recent developments in acetic acid production and applications over past two decades, including process intensification and catalysis by keeping the main emphasis on process sustainability. Acetic acid is used in several industrial sectors such as chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, polymer and paints, food and beverages. Furthermore, acetic acid has several applications in food industry and is traditionally known as vinegar. In addition, it is an acidulant, which is used to give a characteristic flavor profile to food. It can be used for microbial decontamination of meat and as a mild descaling agent in the food industry. More recently, acetic acid is reported to be used as an antimicrobial edible food coating agent. The diversified food culture has a significant demand in the development of such kind of innovation and acetic acid can be an efficient solution.",signatures:"Gunjan Deshmukh and Haresh Manyar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72179",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72179",authors:[{id:"316193",title:"Dr.",name:"Haresh",surname:"Manyar",slug:"haresh-manyar",fullName:"Haresh Manyar"},{id:"316199",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunjan",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"gunjan-deshmukh",fullName:"Gunjan Deshmukh"}],corrections:null},{id:"71830",title:"Xylanase and Its Industrial Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92156",slug:"xylanase-and-its-industrial-applications",totalDownloads:874,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomass is a renewable raw material. Industrial interest with new technology has grown to take advantage of this raw material. Different microbial enzymes are treated with biomass to produce the desired products under ideal industrial conditions. Xylanases are the key enzymes that degrade the xylosidic linkages in the xylan backbone of the biomass, and commercial enzymes are categorized into different glycoside hydrolase families. Thermophilic microorganisms are an excellent source of thermostable enzymes that can tolerate the extreme conditions of industrial processing. Thermostability of xylanases from thermophilic microorganisms has given the importance for a specific activity at elevated temperatures and distinction due to biochemical properties, structure, and mode of action. Optimized xylanases can be produced through genetic engineering: a novel xylanase is isolated from an extreme environment and then genetically modified to improve suitability for industrial contexts. Recombinant protein techniques have made it possible to engineer and express thermostable xylanases in bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous fungi. We will discuss the biotechnological potential of xylanases from thermophilic microorganism and the ways they are being optimized and expressed for industrial applications.",signatures:"Abdul Basit, Wei Jiang and Kashif Rahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71830",authors:[{id:"279285",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif",surname:"Rahim",slug:"kashif-rahim",fullName:"Kashif Rahim"},{id:"316927",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiang",surname:"Wei",slug:"jiang-wei",fullName:"Jiang Wei"},{id:"317907",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Basit",slug:"abdul-basit",fullName:"Abdul Basit"}],corrections:null},{id:"74057",title:"Chemical Modification of Xylan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94208",slug:"chemical-modification-of-xylan",totalDownloads:425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Our study is part of the general context of valuing by-products from the wood industry, which consists of the chemical modification of xylan by synthesis of branched copolymers such as xylan-g-PLLA. The used xylan is extracted from chestnut and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) is the catalyst. In fact, the synthesis of xylan-graft-poly (L-lactide) copolymer starting from natural and renewable resource products xylan and L-lactide is performed under different conditions. The results of the grafting reaction are unfavorable due to longer time because of depolymerization reactions. Another result is the solubility and insolubility of the copolymers synthesized in water. This first result indicates that there is a change in the properties of xylan. Moreover, the solubility of the xylan-g-PLLA copolymers is different from one study to another. Grafting of PLLA onto xylan was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and 1HNMR analyzes. The dynamic mechanical analysis showed that the xylan-g-PLLA plastic materials have interesting thermomechanical properties.",signatures:"Djamila Kerrouche, Nabila Rouba and Vincent Chaleix",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74057",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74057",authors:[{id:"315966",title:"Dr.",name:"Djamila",surname:"Kerrouche",slug:"djamila-kerrouche",fullName:"Djamila Kerrouche"},{id:"318237",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabila",surname:"Rouba",slug:"nabila-rouba",fullName:"Nabila Rouba"},{id:"318238",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincent",surname:"Chaleix",slug:"vincent-chaleix",fullName:"Vincent Chaleix"}],corrections:null},{id:"73872",title:"The Application of Solid State Fermentation for Obtaining Substances Useful in Healthcare",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94296",slug:"the-application-of-solid-state-fermentation-for-obtaining-substances-useful-in-healthcare",totalDownloads:446,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the current review we summarised the research involving solid state fermentation (SSF) for the production of compounds that could be used in healthcare (terpenoids, polyphenols, fibrinolytic enzymes, mycophenolic acid and others). We described several groups of obtained agents which hold various activity: antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, anticoagulant and others (e.g. anticancer or anti-diabetic). It seems that especially terpenoids and polyphenols could be useful in that field, however, other substances such as enzymes and fatty acids play important role as well. We described main groups of microorganisms that are applied in SSF of those compounds, particularly Bacillus genus and fungi, and where possible provided information regarding genes involved in those processes. We also compared various approaches toward optimisation of SSF.",signatures:"Łukasz Wajda and Magdalena Januszek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73872",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73872",authors:[{id:"322395",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Łukasz",surname:"Wajda",slug:"lukasz-wajda",fullName:"Łukasz Wajda"},{id:"326148",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Januszek",slug:"magdalena-januszek",fullName:"Magdalena Januszek"}],corrections:null},{id:"73619",title:"Microalgae: The Multifaceted Biomass of the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94090",slug:"microalgae-the-multifaceted-biomass-of-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:500,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microalgae are unicellular, eukaryotic organisms which possess unique qualities of replication, producing biomass as a precursor for biofuels, nutraceuticals, biofertilizer, and fine chemicals including hydrocarbons. Microalgae access nitrates and phosphates in wastewater from municipalities, industries, and agricultural processes to grow. Wastewater is, therefore, culture media for microalgae, and provides the needed nutrients, micronutrients, inorganic and organic pollutants to produce microalgae biomass. Suitable strains of microalgae cultivated under mesophilic conditions in wastewater with optimized hydrodynamics, hydraulic retention time (HRT), luminous intensity, and other co-factors produce biomass of high specific growth rate, high productivity, and with high density. The hydrodynamics are determined using a range of bioreactors from raceway ponds, photobioreactors to hybrid reactors. Carbon dioxide is used in the photosynthetic process, which offers different growth stimuli in the daytime and the night-time as the microalgae cultivation technique is navigated between autotrophy, heterotrophy, and mixotrophy resulting in microalgal lipids of different compositions.",signatures:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa and Maggie Chetty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73619",authors:[{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Tyoker Kukwa",slug:"donald-tyoker-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa"}],corrections:null},{id:"73988",title:"Microalgae Cultivation in Photobioreactors Aiming at Biodiesel Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93547",slug:"microalgae-cultivation-in-photobioreactors-aiming-at-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for a renewable source as an alternative to fossil fuels has driven the research on new sources of biomass for biofuels. An alternative source of biomass that has come to prominence is microalgae, photosynthetic micro-organisms capable of capturing atmospheric CO2 and accumulating high levels of lipids in their biomass, making them attractive as a raw material for biodiesel synthesis. Thus, various studies have been conducted in developing different types of photobioreactors for the cultivation of microalgae. Photobioreactors can be divided into two groups: open and closed. Open photobioreactors are more susceptible to contamination and bad weather, reducing biomass productivity. Closed photobioreactors allow greater control against contamination and bad weather and lead to higher rates of biomass production; they are widely used in research to improve new species and processes. Therefore, many configurations of closed photobioreactors have been developed over the years to increase productivity of microalgae biomass.",signatures:"Mateus S. Amaral, Carla C.A. Loures, Fabiano L. Naves, Gisella L. Samanamud, Messias B. Silva and Arnaldo M.R. Prata",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73988",authors:[{id:"138047",title:"MSc.",name:"Carla C.A.",surname:"Loures",slug:"carla-c.a.-loures",fullName:"Carla C.A. Loures"},{id:"322352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mateus S.",surname:"Amaral",slug:"mateus-s.-amaral",fullName:"Mateus S. Amaral"},{id:"324661",title:"Prof.",name:"Arnaldo M.R.",surname:"Prata",slug:"arnaldo-m.r.-prata",fullName:"Arnaldo M.R. Prata"},{id:"324662",title:"Prof.",name:"Messias B.",surname:"Silva",slug:"messias-b.-silva",fullName:"Messias B. Silva"},{id:"324665",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiano L.",surname:"Naves",slug:"fabiano-l.-naves",fullName:"Fabiano L. Naves"},{id:"328171",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisella L.",surname:"Samanamud",slug:"gisella-l.-samanamud",fullName:"Gisella L. Samanamud"}],corrections:null},{id:"73644",title:"Microalgae Growth under Mixotrophic Condition Using Agro-Industrial Waste: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93964",slug:"microalgae-growth-under-mixotrophic-condition-using-agro-industrial-waste-a-review",totalDownloads:491,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microalgae has a great potential to produce biofuels and bioproduct but the cost is still too high mainly due to the biomass production. Mixotrophic cultivation has been pointed as microalgae cultivation mode for biomass/bioenergy production with lower cost and able to make remediation of organic waste. The proposals of this work was to make a review of microalgae growth under mixotrophic condition using agro-industrial waste. Agro-industrial by-products and wastes are of great interest as cultivation medium for microorganisms because of their low cost, renewable nature, and abundance. However biotechnological technologies are necessary to develop the production of microalgae on a large scale.",signatures:"Izabel Pereira, Adriano Rangel, Bruna Chagas, Bruno de Moura, Stela Urbano, Roberto Sassi, Fabiana Camara and Cíntia Castro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73644",authors:[{id:"142834",title:"MSc.",name:"Stela",surname:"Urbano",slug:"stela-urbano",fullName:"Stela Urbano"},{id:"322756",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bruna",surname:"Chagas",slug:"bruna-chagas",fullName:"Bruna Chagas"},{id:"325694",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriano",surname:"Rangel",slug:"adriano-rangel",fullName:"Adriano Rangel"},{id:"325695",title:"MSc.",name:"Izabel",surname:"Pereira",slug:"izabel-pereira",fullName:"Izabel Pereira"},{id:"325696",title:"Dr.",name:"Cintia",surname:"Castro",slug:"cintia-castro",fullName:"Cintia Castro"},{id:"325697",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"De Moura",slug:"bruno-de-moura",fullName:"Bruno De Moura"},{id:"325698",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Sassi",slug:"roberto-sassi",fullName:"Roberto Sassi"},{id:"329901",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Camara",slug:"fabiana-camara",fullName:"Fabiana Camara"}],corrections:null},{id:"73998",title:"Magnetic Field Application to Increase Yield of Microalgal Biomass in Biofuel Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94576",slug:"magnetic-field-application-to-increase-yield-of-microalgal-biomass-in-biofuel-production",totalDownloads:333,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Use of fuels from non-renewable sources has currently been considered unsustainable due to the exhaustion of supplies and environmental impacts caused by them. Climate change has concerned and triggered environmental policies that favor research on clean and renewable energy sources. Thus, production of third generation biofuels is a promising path in the biofuel industry. To yield this type of biofuels, microalgae should be highlighted because this raw material contains important biomolecules, such as carbohydrates and lipids. Technological approaches have been developed to improve microalgal cultivation under ecological conditions, such as light intensity, temperature, pH and concentrations of micro and macronutrients. Thus, magnetic field application to microalgal cultivation has become a viable alternative to obtain high yields of biomass concentration and accumulation of carbohydrates and lipids.",signatures:"Lucielen Oliveira Santos, Pedro Garcia Pereira Silva, Sharlene Silva Costa and Taiele Blumberg Machado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73998",authors:[{id:"323381",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucielen",surname:"Oliveira Santos",slug:"lucielen-oliveira-santos",fullName:"Lucielen Oliveira Santos"},{id:"331702",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Garcia Pereira Silva",slug:"pedro-garcia-pereira-silva",fullName:"Pedro Garcia Pereira Silva"},{id:"331703",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharlene Silva",surname:"Costa",slug:"sharlene-silva-costa",fullName:"Sharlene Silva Costa"},{id:"331704",title:"Dr.",name:"Taiele",surname:"Blumberg Machado",slug:"taiele-blumberg-machado",fullName:"Taiele Blumberg Machado"}],corrections:null},{id:"73244",title:"Valorization of Lignocellulosic and Microalgae Biomass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93654",slug:"valorization-of-lignocellulosic-and-microalgae-biomass",totalDownloads:524,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomass has gained increasing recognition in the past decades for the production of value-added products (VAPs). Biomass feedstocks obtained from various sources, their composition, and pretreatment techniques employed for delignification into bioenergy production are discussed. The conversion processes of biomass into VAPs involve various methods. Notable among them are biochemical conversions; namely, anaerobic digestion and ethanol fermentation, and thermo-chemical conversions; namely, pyrolysis and gasification which are considered in this chapter. Microalgae can adapt to changes in the environment, producing biomass that serves as a precursor for a variety of biomolecules, such as proteins, which find their application in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and biofuel industries. Suitable strains of freshwater microalgae biomass contain high levels of lipid which can be harnessed for bioenergy production. Hence, the advancement in the conversion of biomass into VAPs could help scientists and environmentalists for sustainable use of biomass in future developments.",signatures:"Edward Kwaku Armah, Maggie Chetty, Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji and Donald Tyoker Kukwa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73244",authors:[{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Tyoker Kukwa",slug:"donald-tyoker-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa"},{id:"324641",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Kwaku",surname:"Armah",slug:"edward-kwaku-armah",fullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah"},{id:"326294",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremiah Adebisi",surname:"Adedeji",slug:"jeremiah-adebisi-adedeji",fullName:"Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji"}],corrections:null},{id:"73696",title:"Recent Advances in Algal Biomass Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94218",slug:"recent-advances-in-algal-biomass-production",totalDownloads:577,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The promise of algae to address the renewable energy and green-product production demands of the globe has yet to be realized. Over the past ten years, however, there has been a substantial investment and interest in realizing the potential of algae to meet these needs. Tremendous progress has been achieved. Ten years ago, the price of gasoline produced from algal biomass was 20-fold greater than it is today. Technoeconomic models indicate that algal biocrude produced in an optimized cultivation, harvesting, and biomass conversion facility can achieve economic parity with petroleum while reducing carbon-energy indices substantially relative to petroleum-based fuels. There is also an emerging recognition that algal carbon capture and sequestration as lipids may offer a viable alternative to direct atmospheric CO2 capture and sequestration. We review recent advances in basic and applied algal biomass production from the perspectives of algal biology, cultivation, harvesting, energy conversion, and sustainability. The prognosis is encouraging but will require substantial integration and field testing of a variety of technology platforms to down select the most economical and sustainable systems to address the needs of the circular economy and atmospheric carbon mitigation.",signatures:"Meghna Rajvanshi and Richard Sayre",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73696",authors:[{id:"323202",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Sayre",slug:"richard-sayre",fullName:"Richard Sayre"},{id:"327666",title:"Dr.",name:"Meghna",surname:"Rajvanshi",slug:"meghna-rajvanshi",fullName:"Meghna Rajvanshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74277",title:"Use of Olive Mill Wastewaters as Bio-Insecticides for the Control of Potosia Opaca in Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93537",slug:"use-of-olive-mill-wastewaters-as-bio-insecticides-for-the-control-of-em-potosia-opaca-em-in-date-pal",totalDownloads:332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The date palm is one of the most economically important perennial plants of the North Africa and in Morocco, where it is extensively cultivated for food and many other commercial purposes. Palm trees are threatened by many pests such as Potosia opaca newly identified in Morocco, especially in Marrakesh and Errachidia regions. In addition, olive mill wastewaters (OMW) are an environmental problem in olive oil producing countries such as Morocco. Generally, these effluents are drained into ecosystems without any pre-treatment. To reduce their negative impact and to get benefits in particular from their high phenolic content, OMW were used as bio-insecticides in crude form. The results showed that crude OMW were effective to control this pest causing a weight loss similar to Cordus insecticide (17% vs. 15%) and mortality almost similar to Kemaban insecticide. OMW’s biocide potential was related principally to their high phenolic content. Based on HPLC analysis, ten phenolic molecules were identified, including two which were revealed as the major monomeric phenolic compounds in OMW, 0.248 g/L of hydroxytyrosol and 0.201 g/L of tyrosol. In this chapter, the potential use of OMW as bio-insecticides for the control of P. opaca in date palm is discussed.",signatures:"Abdelilah Meddich, Abderrahim Boutasknit, Mohamed Anli, Meriame Ait Ahmed, Abdelilah El Abbassi, Hanane Boutaj, Mohamed Ait-El-Mokhtar and Ali Boumezzough",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74277",authors:[{id:"307126",title:"Prof.",name:"Boumezzough",surname:"Ali",slug:"boumezzough-ali",fullName:"Boumezzough Ali"},{id:"322362",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelilah",surname:"Meddich",slug:"abdelilah-meddich",fullName:"Abdelilah Meddich"},{id:"327801",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahim",surname:"Boutasknit",slug:"abderrahim-boutasknit",fullName:"Abderrahim Boutasknit"},{id:"327936",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Anli",slug:"mohamed-anli",fullName:"Mohamed Anli"},{id:"327937",title:"Ms.",name:"Meriame",surname:"Ait Ahmed",slug:"meriame-ait-ahmed",fullName:"Meriame Ait Ahmed"},{id:"327938",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelilah",surname:"El Abbassi",slug:"abdelilah-el-abbassi",fullName:"Abdelilah El Abbassi"},{id:"327939",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanane",surname:"Boutaj",slug:"hanane-boutaj",fullName:"Hanane Boutaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"72932",title:"Fungal Biomass Load and Aspergillus flavus in a Controlled Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93307",slug:"fungal-biomass-load-and-em-aspergillus-flavus-em-in-a-controlled-environment",totalDownloads:332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fungal biomass quantification is critical in understanding the interactions between the pathogen and susceptibility or resistance of the host plant as well as identifying competition between individual fungal spp. in disease progression. In the present chapter, two maize lines grown in different climatic regions of Kenya were infected with an aflatoxigenic A. flavus isolate (KSM014) and fungal colonization of the maize plant tissues was monitored by measuring fungal biomass load after 14 days in a controlled environment. The objective of the study was to determine whether the maize line colonized was a factor in increasing or limiting the growth of an aflatoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus.",signatures:"Alfred Mitema and Naser Aliye Feto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72932",authors:[{id:"304785",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",surname:"Mitema",slug:"alfred-mitema",fullName:"Alfred Mitema"},{id:"323258",title:"Dr.",name:"Naser",surname:"Aliye Feto",slug:"naser-aliye-feto",fullName:"Naser Aliye Feto"}],corrections:null},{id:"73709",title:"Role of Decomposers in Agricultural Waste Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93816",slug:"role-of-decomposers-in-agricultural-waste-management",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, agricultural waste residue management by bio-organisms is discussed along with different types of decomposition processes. Tons of agricultural wastes are produced every year. These agricultural wastes create major environmental problems without effective means of management methods. There are many technologies being used for the decomposition, which mainly include anaerobic decomposition, compositing, fermentation, etc. All these decomposition processes depend upon the different soil-inhabiting microbes. These microbes are the key components of agri-residue decomposition process. Every step of decomposition requires different microbes. Various sets of catalytical enzymes are involved for the catabolic procedures of organic matter. By successive catabolic reactions, all the organic matters are mineralized into soil essential constituents, which will be the most effective sources of macro- and micronutrients for the soil fertility. Working efficiency of these microbes depends upon different parameters like moisture, temperature, pH, etc. The vitality and efficiency of microbes can be enhanced by using various inert carriers. If the efficiency of these soil microbes enhances by various factors, then the rate of decomposition could be enhanced to handle this ever-increasing problem of agriculture residue in near future.",signatures:"Nusrat Iqbal, Amrish Agrawal, Saurabh Dubey and Jitender Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73709",authors:[{id:"315502",title:"Dr.",name:"Saurabh",surname:"Dubey",slug:"saurabh-dubey",fullName:"Saurabh Dubey"},{id:"317856",title:"Ms.",name:"Nusrat",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"nusrat-iqbal",fullName:"Nusrat Iqbal"},{id:"332608",title:"Dr.",name:"Amrish",surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amrish-agrawal",fullName:"Amrish Agrawal"},{id:"332610",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitendra",surname:"Kumar",slug:"jitendra-kumar",fullName:"Jitendra Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"73450",title:"Gasification of Biomass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93954",slug:"gasification-of-biomass",totalDownloads:802,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gasification is an indirect combustion of solid and liquid biomass by converting them to combustive syngas. Gasification is an alternative process for the traditional combustion, in which the emission of dust and toxic gases can be minimized. In this chapter, a comparison of these two biomass-to-heat conversion processes applied on biomass is presented in term of environmental impacts and technological benefits with a hope to provide readers a basic view of choices. Gasification is classified as in term of gasification agents, non-catalytic and catalytic process, and plasma assisted process. Popular types of gasification equipment, aka gasifiers, are introduced with working principles, through which the advantages and weakness of technology are briefly discussed.",signatures:"Thanh Phong Mai and Dinh Quan Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73450",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73450",authors:[{id:"291521",title:"Prof.",name:"Dinh Quan",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-quan-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Quan Nguyen"},{id:"301392",title:"Prof.",name:"Thanh Phong",surname:"Mai",slug:"thanh-phong-mai",fullName:"Thanh Phong Mai"}],corrections:null},{id:"73806",title:"Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Thermochemical Treatment for the Liquefaction of Lemon Bagasse in a Jacketed Vessel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94364",slug:"numerical-and-experimental-analysis-of-thermochemical-treatment-for-the-liquefaction-of-lemon-bagass",totalDownloads:412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, it was investigated the time evolution of thermal profile inside a liquefaction vessel and how the temperature and time of reaction influenced liquefaction yield. Liquefaction was performed in two different ways: (1) Experimental Analysis; (2) Numerical 3-D model, using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Liquefaction was performed using lemon bagasse samples, glycerol and sulphuric acid, as catalyst. Temperature and liquefaction Yield (LY) were measured for different time of reaction (30, 60 and 90 minutes). From experimental data, LY were higher than 70 wt% for 90 minutes reaction. The increase in the temperature inside the reactor occurred due to the conduction and natural convection phenomena. Although the jacketed vessel was fed with steam at 125°C, working conditions allowed the heating of the mixture to less than 100°C. CFD thermal profile was in accordance with experimental data. They showed it was necessary 60 minutes to achieve a steady state of heating in the mixture inside this liquefaction vessel. From CFD transient simulations, it was observed some oscillations and detachment from experimental data, which may be due to changes in fluids properties along the process. Despite this consideration CFD could satisfactory analyse heat transfer in this liquefaction process.",signatures:"Brenno S. Leite, Daniel J.O. Ferreira, Sibele A.F. Leite and Vanessa F.C. Lins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73806",authors:[{id:"168180",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanessa F. C.",surname:"Lins",slug:"vanessa-f.-c.-lins",fullName:"Vanessa F. C. Lins"},{id:"240200",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel J.O.",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"daniel-j.o.-ferreira",fullName:"Daniel J.O. Ferreira"},{id:"323539",title:"Dr.",name:"Brenno S.",surname:"Leite",slug:"brenno-s.-leite",fullName:"Brenno S. Leite"},{id:"323540",title:"Dr.",name:"Sibele A. F.",surname:"Leite",slug:"sibele-a.-f.-leite",fullName:"Sibele A. F. Leite"}],corrections:null},{id:"73112",title:"Investigation of Nonisothermal Combustion Kinetics of Isolated Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Case Study of Cellulose from Date Palm Biomass Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93549",slug:"investigation-of-nonisothermal-combustion-kinetics-of-isolated-lignocellulosic-biomass-a-case-study-",totalDownloads:417,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The efficient and high yielding acid-base and Organosolv methods were studied for cellulose isolation from date palm lignocellulose waste biomass and thereafter analyzed for nonisothermal kinetic and thermodynamic parameter determination using model-free methods. The structural and chemical characterization of the isolated celluloses revealed structures and functional groups characteristics of cellulose. Thermal decomposition analysis revealed one major peak with average mass loss of 72.51 ± 0.7% and 55.82 ± 1.1% for the acid-base and Organosolv method, respectively. This occurred in the temperature region between 250 and 350°C associated with cellulose degradation and contrasted with the three peaks detected in the original biomass. The kinetic and thermodynamic results revealed a strong relationship between the average activation energy and average change in enthalpy with a difference of 5.23 and 147.07 kJmol−1 for Organosolv and acid-base methods, respectively. The Gibbs’s free energy results revealed that Organosolv cellulose pyrolysis would reach equilibrium faster in KAS, Starink and FWO models with average ΔG values of 115.80 ± 36.62, 115.89 ± 36.65, and 119.45 ± 37.98 kJmol−1, respectively. The acid-base method for FWO model gave negative entropy values. The Malek method revealed the acid-base and Organoslv cellulose pyrolysis mechanism as (gα=−ln1−α14) and (gα=−ln1−α13), characterized by random nucleation and growth, respectively.",signatures:"Emmanuel Galiwango and Ali H. Al-Marzouqi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73112",authors:[{id:"324157",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Galiwango",slug:"emmanuel-galiwango",fullName:"Emmanuel Galiwango"},{id:"324158",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali H.",surname:"Al-Marzouqi",slug:"ali-h.-al-marzouqi",fullName:"Ali H. Al-Marzouqi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73760",title:"Economics, Sustainability, and Reaction Kinetics of Biomass Torrefaction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94400",slug:"economics-sustainability-and-reaction-kinetics-of-biomass-torrefaction",totalDownloads:444,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass torrefaction is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It is often referred to as complex reactions involving the decomposition of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation due to several reactions involved. To evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance, considering the economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost and capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, procurement and transportation costs is of high importance. In this Chapter, the economics of torrefaction process will be discussed. In addition, ways to ensure competitiveness of torrefaction technology will be explained provided factors including the use of plant with larger capacity, integrated system features such as pelletization, and moisture content of the feedstock, are properly considered. Thereafter, the concept of sustainability of biomass torrefaction in relation with the environmental factor (sustainable forest management), social factor (revitalization of rural areas), and economic factor (fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption) will be presented.",signatures:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73760",authors:[{id:"323103",title:"Dr.",name:"Temitope Olumide",surname:"Olugbade",slug:"temitope-olumide-olugbade",fullName:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade"}],corrections:null},{id:"75168",title:"Soft Sensors for Biomass Monitoring during Low Cost Cellulase Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96027",slug:"soft-sensors-for-biomass-monitoring-during-low-cost-cellulase-production",totalDownloads:366,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Low cost cellulase production has become a major challenge in recent years. The major hurdle in the production of biofuel and other products from biomass is the lack of efficient economically feasible cellulase. This can be achieved by proper monitoring and control of bioprocess. In order to implement any control scheme, the accurate representation of the system in the form of a model is necessary. There are many challenges associated with modeling the fermentation process such as inherent nonlinear dynamic behavior, complexity of process due to co-existence of viable and nonviable cells, presence of solid substrates, etc. Toward the achievement of this goal, researchers have been developing new techniques that can be used to monitor the process online and at-line. These newer techniques have paved the way for designing better control strategies that can be integrated with quality by design (QbD) and process analytic technology (PAT).",signatures:"Chitra Murugan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75168",authors:[{id:"306600",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Chitra",surname:"Murugan",slug:"chitra-murugan",fullName:"Chitra Murugan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7238",title:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3b4eb4ac5837543b99bd6e1a1a4cacc",slug:"fuel-ethanol-production-from-sugarcane",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7238.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",surname:"Peixoto 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Andreas Svensson and Helen Nilsson Sköld",authors:[{id:"36761",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen Nilsson",middleName:null,surname:"Sköld",fullName:"Helen Nilsson Sköld",slug:"helen-nilsson-skold"},{id:"47938",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Svensson",fullName:"P. 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In the 1970s, Brazil and the United States started mass production of bioethanol grown from sugarcane and corn respectively. The most common usage of bioethanol is to power automobiles by mixing it with petrol. The sugar yield from these feedstocks is very high and the biomass processing is rather simple, thus fueling the transportation this way was economically viable, especially in the countries with scarce fossil fuel resources, like Brasil.
Bioethanol is generally CO2 neutral because the released during the burning of ethanol is compensated by the absorption of the CO2 by growing the feedstock biomass. This however does not consider the CO2 generated by the logistics of the biomass production and processing. Besides, blending bioethanol with gasoline helps to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions by oxygenating the fuel mixture which makes it burn more completely. Thus bioethanol was considered to be an environmentally friendly alternative to petrol.
In the future, with improved efficiency, utilization of non-agricultural feedstocks and use of renewable energy, the respective life cycle GHG emissions could be cut by up to 86 percent relative to gasoline as reported in EPA’s Emission Facts [EPA (2007) Emission Facts; Greenhouse Gas Impacts of Expanded Renewable and Alternative Fuels Use. Emission Facts Report (EPA420-F-07-035). Office of Transportation and Air Quality, EPA, US].
Thus the agenda of bioethanol production was shifted to the products derived from lignocellulosic biomass to avoid competition with food and limit the use of agricultural land.
In the brink of the 21st century a considerable public and private effort to implement the so-called second-generation bioethanol industry based on lignocellulosic, non-edible feedstock was undertaken, and eventually faded away due to economic inefficiency. The frustrating experience of lignocellulosic bioethanol hype of the past years triggered the formation of a broader view of the biorefinery concept. It grew with the understanding that if only a part of the biomass, namely the cellulose, is used to make a product, moreover, not a high-value product such as bioethanol, the economics of such an undertaking does not work [1].
This notion coincided with the growing understanding that biomass is not merely a quick fix for a deficit of fossil resources in some countries, but a fundamental raw material for bioeconomy. Consequently, a biorefinery concept was forming with the term borrowed from the petroleum oil refinery, which goes beyond the exhaustion of biomass into a spectrum of products. Biorefineries are based on four principles [2], namely principles of sustainability, cascading, non-conflict with food, and neutral carbon footprint.
Thus to implement the biorefineries as fundamental units of bioeconomy, all biomass components cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin need to be utilized. Moreover, the general approach should be similar to the oil refinery concept - the raw material needs to be fractionated to result in a range of intermediates leading to a variety of products from high to low-value. Ideally, there has to be in-built flexibility allowing to change the product portfolio according to the current market demands.
One of the fundamental differences of biorefineries from oil refineries is the repertoire of tools that can be used, where enzymes - the natural catalysts play an important role.
Nature is using biocatalysts – the protein molecules called enzymes - for performing virtually all biochemical reactions happening inside organisms, and often outside as well.
It is logical to assume that a bio-based economy would be largely relying on bio-catalysis. Extremely high specificity and selectivity as well eco-friendliness make enzymes potentially very attractive in many industrial applications.
Following the concept of Biorefineries, the society has to make a leap from biofuel factories using local agricultural feedstocks to produce bioethanol for fulfilling local demand for automobile fuel to the biorefineries providing raw materials for various industries from energy to chemicals and materials producers. From this perspective, wood seems to be the most likely feedstock to be able to fulfill the industry demand.
It has to be noted that biomass alone, wood or other types, is unlikely to fulfill the energy demand of modern society from the volume point of view. Other energy-providing technologies, like solar and wind energy need to fill in the gap. However, biomass is suited to assume other roles in a circular economy, related to materials and chemicals. This notion provides only more motivation for diversifying the biorefineries’ product range.
Wood is one of the most abundant, sustainable raw materials on Earth, which is available around the year. It requires no roof for storage and has a high density, which is favorable for logistics and handling. Furthermore, it requires no additional field space and has no agricultural or nutritional use.
If wood is the most likely feedstock of the rising bioeconomy, then the pulp and paper industry is the most likely first block in the value chains of the biobased products. This industry has many years of experience in maintaining and working forests, as well as harvesting, transporting, and processing wood. It is also noteworthy that in the Nordic countries, the volume of sustainably harvested forests is growing faster than the current consumption: regulation and standardized systems are in place to allow forests to be harvested sustainably to meet significant industrial demand.
The drawback of this industry being at the foundation of the biobased economy is that this industry has highly refined processes focusing on cellulose fibers only, the industry is highly conservative due to low-margin economic positioning and besides this industry in its current state is used to offering a very narrow product portfolio which is marketed through distributors.
Diversifying the product offering of the pulp and paper industry may require changes in the processes or the addition of parallel process lines and more intimate interaction with various markets. This in turn requires investments and a change in attitude.
Biorefineries can be positioned on the interface of pulp and paper/forestry industry and chemicals and materials industry. And it has to be admitted that this interface is yet to be created. For example, it can be implemented with a third party operating a biorefinery with the over-the-fence supply of raw materials (feedstocks) and possibly even utilities from a pulp and paper mill. These feedstocks may comprise lignin, zero fibers (short fibers disposed of with the wastewater), pulp products depending on the demand of both markets. This could be set up as a joint venture so that both organizations can benefit from this model. Alternatively, a joint venture with the end-user of the biorefinery products can be envisaged as well.
Enzymes as an important part of the economics and the technology of the biorefineries can also be considered as part of the production process. On-site manufacturing of enzymes allows saving costs on concentration, formulation, storage, and shipping of the enzymes. Some companies embracing biorefineries, develop their own enzymatic solutions to be implemented in their biorefineries, and can set up on-site manufacturing at their will. Whereas other types of biorefinery owners, like pulp and paper companies, usually rely on an external enzyme supplier. Usually, enzyme suppliers are not open to providing their production strains to third parties for on-site manufacturing. In this respect, MetGen has a more flexible business model towards supplying enzymatic solutions for biorefineries, including a possibility of on-site manufacturing.
Many if not most industrial chemical processes are dependent on catalysts - substances that accelerate chemical reactions without themselves being consumed in the catalyzed reaction and can continue to act repeatedly. Because of this, only very small amounts of catalyst are required to have a dramatic effect on the reaction rate. The development of affordable durable and efficient catalysts was vital for the establishment and economic viability of fossil-based chemistry and material science.
It is equally important for the biobased economy to adapt and further develop nature’s catalytic tools.
The historic concern about enzymes is that they are vulnerable to industrial conditions and often could not be applied to existing industrial processes. Modern molecular biology and bioengineering pave the way to much wider use of enzymes in the industry by making it possible to adapt enzymes to performing in unnatural harsh conditions. The development time for new enzymes was further reduced with the development of bioinformatics tools and genome editing.
Especially as new bio-based processes are being developed it is a good time to consider making them more enzyme-adaptable by assuming somewhat longer retention times while transitioning to lower temperatures and pressures, as compared to currently common conditions.
Enzymatic processes are truly similar to chemical catalysis. They can be run as homogeneous catalysis with a soluble enzyme added and disposed of with every production batch, or as heterogeneous catalysis, where the enzyme is used in the immobilized form and reused from batch to batch or used in a continuous process with a column set up.
Importantly, the enzymes present also a third option not applicable with the chemical catalysts - a continuous membrane bioreactor. Sometimes this technology is called “enzymes immobilized by perfusion”. This setup exploits the best of the previous two - affordability of the soluble enzyme and reusability of the immobilized one. In this setup, the enzyme is trapped in a bioreactor connected to a tangential flow micro-filtration membrane unit allowing the low-molecular-weight product to penetrate through the membrane but retaining the enzyme inside.
This setup allows not only an efficient use of the enzyme but can also provide product fractionation and more complex designs with parallel processes. Ultra and nano-filtration is also a very useful and economical water removal tool. We will further discuss this setup in the section dedicated to lignin valorization.
One important aspect of enzyme-dependent catalysis is the necessity of a cofactor for some enzymes. Cofactors are important accessories to biochemical processes. They are small organic compounds or metal ions empowering enzymes to function at maximal catalytic effectiveness or endurance. Cofactors may aid in substrate binding, catalysis, stabilizing the transition state, or contributing to the overall stability of the enzyme’s structure. In some cases cofactors are modified during the reaction, for example, providing or accepting an electron in reduction–oxidation reactions, or providing energy through a high energy bond braking. In this case, in order to be reused, cofactors need to be regenerated during the reaction - oxidized/reduced/phosphorylated respectively. Regeneration requires another enzyme and a co-substrate to be oxidized or reduced. With the cofactor regeneration in place, the reaction can proceed continuously with only a small amount of the cofactor present. The chemistry of cofactor regeneration is well known nowadays [3]. The challenge is mostly regarding how to achieve the regeneration with immobilized enzyme systems which are preferred for industrial processes to facilitate the recovery and continuous use of the catalysts. This has become a great hurdle for the industrialization of many promising enzymatic processes. Once again, recent advances in membrane technologies led to the development of sustainable methods based on membrane entrapment [4].
Nevertheless, the necessity of a cofactor complicates the enzymatic process and increases the cost. Thus most of the bio-transformations involving cofactors have been traditionally performed in the industry with living cells often referred to as microbial cell factories [5].
Whole-cell biotransformation has advantages and disadvantages as compared to the enzymatic process. As mentioned before it solves the problem with the cofactors as they are widely used in cell metabolism and regeneration routes are in place. The balance of cellular metabolic fluxes can be further genetically adjusted for the increased level of the components necessary for the product synthesis. Another advantage of the microbial cell factories is that multistep reactions can be carried out, and it is often possible to use simple and affordable raw materials such as glucose because the cell has a metabolic pathway in place to convert it to a large variety of precursor and eventually to the final product. Among the shortcomings of the cell factories, one should mention a very narrow operational space due to microorganisms viability constraints. While some individual enzymes can tolerate high temperatures close to water boiling point and a wide range of pH, industrial microorganisms are usually performing only in ambient conditions. Besides, there are often multiple pathways in the cell to convert the starting material, which leads to the formation of side products. In more detail, the cons and pros of enzymatic and whole-cell bioconversions are listed in Table 1. In conclusion, as opposed to whole microorganism bio-conversions, more common in the past, enzymes provide faster and safer processes with a broader operational range.
Enzymatic process | Whole call process | |
---|---|---|
Temperature, pH range | Wide | Narrow |
Substrate/product load | High | Low |
Tolerance to solvents | Moderate | Low |
External cofactors/cofactor regeneration system | Needed | Not needed |
Multistep processes | Difficult | Natural |
Control over the reaction speed | By increasing the enzyme concentration | Only by increasing the size of the vessel |
Side products | No | Yes |
Enzymatic process vs. whole-cell bioconversion.
Enzymes are also attractive in industrial use from the safety point of view: enzymes are not living organisms and they cannot breed (as opposed to the whole-cell factories) and can be considered environmentally safe. Additionally, being proteins, enzymes do not create toxic waste and decompose naturally over time. It should be noted that enzymes – as is the case with all proteins – may cause allergenic irritation. Therefore, the use of highly concentrated industrial enzymes should always be done according to handling instructions and material safety documentation.
Thus, with all the pros and cons in mind, the preferred type of bioconversion needs to be identified for each particular process.
Respective sectors of molecular biology dealing with enzymatic processes and whole-cell bioconversions are Enzyme engineering [6] and Metabolic engineering [7] respectively. Where enzyme engineering provides tools for optimizing protein structure for better performance; and metabolic engineering provides tools for optimizing the microbial genome to redistribute metabolic pathways in favor of the desired product formation. It has to be noticed that industrial process engineering is extremely important to go hand in hand with molecular engineering.
Enzymes are extremely abundant in nature and exist in all living organisms from bacteria to humans. All industrial enzymes have their origin and prototypes in nature, where wood is decomposed by rot microorganisms, the most efficient of which are fungi. It is thus natural that most enzymes used in industry for wood and other biomass applications are of fungal origin. Robust industrial strains and processes for fungal enzyme production have been developed through decades of optimization.
One of the major problems of fungal enzymes is that fungi are not known to live in extreme environments, such as elevated temperatures and extreme pHs, and their enzymes are usually not tolerant to harsh industrial conditions, which is sometimes limiting their application. In contrast, bacteria populate such environments as hot springs, salt lakes, and ocean depths. Some bacteria also possess individual enzymes with relevant catalytic activities for industrial biomass applications. Recent advances in molecular biology, genome sequencing, and genetic engineering made bacterial enzymes an attractive alternative to their fungal counterparts. Bacteria offer more diverse natural prototypes, and there are better-developed tools for genetic engineering in bacteria, allowing further optimization of the enzymes to required conditions.
Some unique industrial enzymes of bacterial origin have been developed in the past years breaking the boundaries of industrial enzyme applications. Nevertheless, when multiple enzymes are required in one process, such as cellulases, fungal production is usually a preferred option.
The biorefinery platform requires pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials, which can be very recalcitrant, to improve further processing through enzymatic hydrolysis, and for other downstream unit operations.
Pretreatment employs a combination of chemical and physical elements such as temperature, pressure, and acid or alkali. This partially separates biomass components such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin from each other resulting in a paste-like rather than a solid substance. This level of destruction allows access of enzymes to all the biomass components and further separation and hydrolysis.
Many pretreatment methods and unit operations were inherited from the bioethanol-oriented processes, where the target product was a fermentable sugar mix, and the ultimate goal to reduce the cost of the process. Now, when the focus of the biorefinery concept has shifted from the design of more or less energy-driven biorefineries to much more versatile facilities where chemicals and other raw materials can be produced apart from energy carriers, the view to the pretreatment has been transforming as well. In some cases, a pretreatment with a higher cost, but also better separation of the biomass components and higher quality streams are preferred. For example, organosol or chemical treatment employing ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents. In the end, the choice of pretreatment must be based on a thorough techno-economic evaluation considering the proposed applications and the source of the biomass. This topic is reviewed in detail elsewhere [8, 9].
It is well known that wood is efficiently decomposed in nature by filamentous fungi. In their natural habitat, these microorganisms live on a solid substrate like wood and secrete a number of hydrolytic enzymes degrading all wood components down to low molecular weight substances that can be used as nutrients. In industry, the enzyme preparations were traditionally obtained by the propagation of the fungal strains in a liquid medium, and such production method resulted in a cocktail of different enzymatic activities, often generally referred to as cellulase [10]. Fungal metabolism has a complex regulation in order to be able to produce the set of enzymes relevant to the available type of biomass [11]. Thus, for example, cellulase production by the fungal cells is induced by certain compounds generated in wood hydrolysis. The enzymatic cocktail produced by a fungus depends on the fungal strain properties and is not always optimal for a particular industrial application.
The most noticeable hurdle for the industrial application of natural fungal cellulase cocktails is the mechanism preventing glucose accumulation in the environment of the fungal cell. Such accumulation could provide a favorable environment for competing microbes such as bacteria, which cannot degrade wood themselves. To achieve this regulation, all of the enzymes of the cellulase cocktail are inhibited by their reaction products [12]. As seen in Figure 1, cellulose is initially attacked by a number of enzymes most prominent one - exoglucanase (also known as cellobiohydrolase or CBH) comprising more than 50% of total protein in the cocktail, which is assisted by accessory enzymes endoglucanase, oxidative cellulase lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase (LPMO), and indirectly by other enzymes. The concerted action of these enzymes results in the formation of glucose dimer, cellobiose. This is followed by the last step of the cellulose hydrolysis, splitting cellobiose to two glucose, performed by beta-glucosidase. Glucose is further absorbed by the cell and metabolized. If the hydrolysis proceeds faster than glucose is consumed causing glucose accumulation, beta-glucosidase is inhibited by glucose and slows down, this, in turn, results in cellobiose accumulation slowing down exoglucanase, and thus the entire chain of the reactions is regulated by the feedback response from the last step (as shown with red arrows in Figure 1). However, in industrial biomass hydrolysis, glucose accumulation is the ultimate goal. Thus, this feedback loop needs to be overruled. This is usually done by artificially increasing the amount of beta-glucosidase in the cocktail. This can be done by inserting additional genes for beta-glucosidase into the fungal strain. Besides, some beta-glucosidases are less inhibited by glucose (or more glucose-tolerant) than others, and this can also be exploited in composing industrial cellulase cocktails. It has to be noted that glucose tolerance of beta-glucosidases is poorly understood and occurs more often in bacterial enzymes than in fungal ones. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of glucose tolerance is a very important aspect of cellulose biotechnology research of glucose tolerance [13].
Natural regulation of cellulose hydrolysis.
Apart from providing a feedback regulation of hydrolysis speed, beta-glucosidase has another important function - generating the inducers of cellulase gene expression and ultimately the cellulase production. Those inducers are unusual glucose dimers of which sophorose, a glucose dimer with β-1,2 bond, is the most efficient one. In nature, these compounds appear in small amounts in the presence of cellobiose as a result of a side-activity of some beta-glucosidases. This activity is referred to as trans-glycosylation [14]. The molecular mechanism underlying the ability of the beta-glucosidase to perform trans-glycosylation is obscure. There are several different glucosidases in the fungal cell, extracellular as well as intracellular. Most probably it is the intra-cellular beta-glucosidases that are responsible for the inducer generation in nature [15].
In the industrial hydrolysis process, the inducer sugar is produced artificially from glucose either using random chemical dimerization catalyzed by phosphoric acid under elevated temperature and pressure or using beta-glucosidase with transglucosylase activity.
Thus in cellulose hydrolysis, CBH is the most prominent enzyme comprising more than a half of the total protein content of the cocktail, however, beta-glucanase is the most important enzymatic tool to providing cellulase efficiency in industrial hydrolysis applications.
Biochemists and molecular biologists have been studying the components of fungal cellulases and identified specific proteins responsible for the degradation of various plant polymers such as cellulose, other glucans, pectin, xylan, mannan, lignin, etc.
The native cocktails were improved after discovering that certain additional activities could enhance the conversion rates of specific biomass feedstock types [16, 17, 18, 19]. For example, feedstocks could comprise different plants, pretreatments, or combinations of both. These augmented cellulases were produced by blending different secretomes containing the desired activities. More recently, some required activities have been genetically engineered into production strains.
Despite the considerable improvements in general-purpose cellulases available from the main enzyme-producing companies, a “one-size-fits-all” cellulase does not effectively address the wide range of biomass type-pretreatment chemistry combinations. However, customization of the cellulase cocktail is not commonly offered by enzyme producers. On the contrary, MetGen offers customization of the hydrolysis solution MetZyme® SUNO™ to the client’s specific substrate/pretreatment as well as an option for on-site enzyme manufacturing.
Biomass is mostly comprised of polymers. The main structural components of plant biomass are polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose, starch, pectin, and other plant polymers), and polyphenols (lignin). All these polymers apart from cellulose are branched and diverse in structure. In the plant cell, they are interlaced to form a complex and often recalcitrant structure.
Natural fungal cocktails are instrumental in the full hydrolysis of the biomass to monomers or low molecular weight compounds. This was the mainstream strategy of non-food biomass processing in the biofuel era. When we think of wider and wiser use of the biomass in a range of industrial applications it may appear sensible to preserve the polymeric structure of certain components. This can be partly achieved by choosing the right pretreatment method and other chemical and physical methods of processing the streams. Further, the process of biomass fractionation can be tuned by enzymes.
Generally speaking, the same enzyme toolbox is applicable both in the biorefinery industry and in Pulp and Paper sector. Notably, however, while in the P and P industry enzymes are minor and optional components of the process, in the biorefinery concept, enzymatic processes play a major role and represent a major cost, thus also opening a major market.
Let us consider how various product streams from biomass can be tuned by specific enzymes. An overview of the individual enzyme activities used in enzymatic solutions provided by MetGen is given in Table 2.
In the earlier biorefinery concepts, lignin was often mostly regarded as a recalcitrance factor, fermentation inhibitor, sugar stream contaminant, etc. A broader view of the biorefinery, however, considers the valorization of lignin as a vital component of the economics of the entire concept. This is why it is one of the fastest-growing research and development areas in the biomass valorization field [20, 21, 22, 23].
The main hurdles of lignin valorization are its diverse structure and poor solubility. Liquefaction of lignin would allow its use as fuel, as it is reached in high-energy chemical structures. More precise depolymerization or fragmentation of lignin may enable higher-value products for various industries from construction to high-performance materials. Even though lignin-based replacement products have already been reported [20, 24, 25, 26] to be useful as binders, coatings, and fillers, and others, these applications are not yet widely industrially implemented. The main challenges for the full valorization of lignin are the economical production of suitable lignin and maintaining consistent quality throughout different batches. In order to achieve desirable properties for the industrial application, lignin usually needs to be fragmented and refined to a lower molecular weight and often chemically modified as well.
Enzymatic degradation of lignin, which occurs in nature, was speculated for a long time to be applicable in the industry [27]. This approach seems attractive because the catalysis takes place in water and under mild conditions avoiding high pressure, temperatures, and hazardous and expensive chemical catalysts, thus saving CAPEX and lowering environmental impact.
Research efforts for enzymatic lignin depolymerization were especially focusing on laccases (copper oxidases), as these enzymes require no cofactors, or co-substrates (such as hydrogen peroxide), they use oxygen as an electron acceptor and produce water as the only by-product. Prospective and challenges of laccase application in biotechnology were recently reviewed [28, 29]. The vast majority of industrially available laccases are fungal enzymes. These enzymes, however efficient, work in acidic-to-neutral pH [30], at which lignin is hardly soluble in water. This prevents their industrialization in this area.
Recently METGEN has developed and brought to the market a proprietary lignin refining technology METNIN™. This technology is based on combining enzyme-catalyzed lignin oxidation and cascading membrane fractionation. The enzymatic element of this technology is a proprietary artificially evolved enzyme MetZyme® METNIN™ laccase able to function under extremely alkaline conditions (typical process pH 10.5) [31, 32]. METNIN™ process is outlined in Figure 2. Membrane-based separation of lignin by molecular size provides useful fractions of various molecular weights.
METNIN™ process, schematic representation.
Lignin preparations of different molecular weights can be further valorized and utilized in various industrial applications [20, 25] as long as chemical/physical properties are matching the requirements [33]. Thus, the target of lignin refining is to create lignin fractions that are bioequivalent, for example, to oil-based compounds used as resins, adhesives, composites and foams (Table 3).
Generic activity | Application | Reaction conditions | MetZyme® family |
---|---|---|---|
Cellulase (cocktail) | Biomass hydrolysis | 55 C, pH 5.0 | MetZyme® SUNO™ |
Endoglucanase | Cellulose fiber modification, nanocellulose production; biomass hydrolysis; | High/ambient temperature, acidic/alkaline pH, | MetZyme® BRILA™ components |
Xylanase | Hydrolysis of xylan for fiber modification; customization of hydrolysis cocktail | High/medium temperature, acidic/alkaline pH | MetZyme® BRILA™ optional components MetZyme® Suno optional components |
Mannanase | Hydrolysis of mannan for fiber modification; customization of hydrolysis cocktail | High/ medium temperature, acidic pH | MetZyme® BRILA™ optional components MetZyme® SUNO™ optional components |
Pectinase | Hydrolysis of pectin for fiber modification; customization of hydrolysis cocktail; R&D – pectin valorization | High/ medium temperature, acidic pH/highly alkaline pH | MetZyme® BRILA™ optional components MetZyme® SUNO™ optional components |
Glucose isomerase | Low purity glucose to fructose conversion for platform chemicals production (especially suited for lignocellulosic glucose). | High temperature Acidic to moderately alkaline pH | MetZyme® PURECO™-GI |
Pyranose oxidase | Glucosone from Glucose | Medium temperature Acidic to moderately alkaline pH | MetZyme® PURECO™-Pyranose oxidase |
Lytic polysaccharide monoxygenase (LPMO) | Fiber modification (adding charge to cellulose fibers) | Not commercially available. Lab samples are available from MetGen for joint product development. | |
Laccase | Phenol/Polyphenol oxidation | METNIN™ – lignin refining technology MetZyme® BRILA™ optional components MetZyme® SUNO™ optional components |
MetGen’s product families and respective enzymatic activities.
Lignin type | Application areas examples | Bio-equivalent of | Indicative price of the oil-based chemical |
---|---|---|---|
Crude Lignin | Fuel | Oil/Electricity | 50–100 €/ton |
METNIN™ MACRO | Bitumen, Fillers (Market established products, agro) | SBS Polymer, Inorganic fillers | 400–600 €/ton |
METNIN™ MICRO | Coatings & Surface treatment (Sizing value chain, Carbon fibers, agro) | Phenol resins, AKD, ASA, Wax, Latex | 1000–2000 €/ton |
METNIN™ ULTRA | Composites (Toy value chain) | Polyols | 1500–3000 €/ton |
METNIN™ NANO | Carbon Fibers (re-polymerized version), new materials | Specialty Chemicals, aromatics & phenols | > 4000 €/ton |
METNIN™ products.
Importantly, the absence of organic solvents in the reaction mixture allows for utilization of polymer-based ultrafiltration membranes widely used in the food industry, making this technology scalable and economically feasible. Ultrafiltration membranes of different cut-off are available and widely used in industry. The choice of membranes can be customized and adds flexibility to the technology. By adjusting process parameters, outcoming lignin properties and mass distribution between the fractions can be changed.
Demethylation is a desirable process in lignin upgrade, as it increases the number of hydroxyls and thus results in activation of lignin. Demethylation can be monitored by measuring MeOH in the reaction mixture after depolymerization using Purpald-method [34]. This is a fast and convenient method to monitor the oxidation process, however, it does not give the full picture of the chemical modification of the lignin, as some of the resulting hydroxyls can end up in new ester bonds or be further oxidized. For further characterization, titration methods and NMR need to be used. Using these methods, we observed an increased number of hydroxyls and sometimes carboxylic groups per gram of dry matter, especially towards lower Mw fractions.
METNIN™ process allows tuning the resulting fractions in several ways: by choosing membranes with different cut-offs according to the desired molecular weight, by adjusting the extent of oxidation to tune other properties such as the content of OH-groups (phenolic aliphatic and carboxylic), and controlled polymerization, which affects reactivity and solubility of the resulting fractions. Thus variance in the starting material can be compensated by the process adjustment and the refining process results in more homogeneous fractions with a less batch-to-batch variation. Post-fractionation processing of the fractions can further tune the properties – purity and solubility in water or solvents.
Refining of lignin in METNIN™ process is accompanied by chemical activation via demethylation and benzylic oxidation as well as increased solubility in neutral and acidic pH and altered colloidal behavior. The process parameters largely depend on the starting lignin itself. In practice, each new lignin needs to be investigated to understand its behavior in the process.
One of the biggest challenges of lignin valorization is that lignin’s structure is highly dependent not only on the species of wood but also on the treatment and extraction method. Therefore, the process parameters of lignin oxidation and fractionation need to be optimized experimentally. MetGen not only provides the licensing of the technology but also offers customer-specific projects for demonstration of the impact of METNIN™ process on customer’s lignin.
METNIN™ process has been demonstrated and is routinely run at a pilot-scale (400 Liters reactor vessel). In addition, technology transfer to a ton (1000 kg) scale batch production has been completed and an engineering package for the industrial scale is developed and available for licensing from MetGen. Lignin fractions were tested in various applications.
Oligomeric fraction METNIN™ ULTRA was used as lignopolyol to completely replace a commercial polyol in polyurethane rigid foam formulations [35]. The specifications of the obtained foams such as closed cell count, water uptake, and compression characteristics, were all within industry standards for rigid foam applications.
METNIN™ MICRO showed excellent potential in paper coating application and the respective product is being developed together with the pulp and paper industry. Other applications are being tested with industry partners.
Cellulose is the most traditional product from non-food biomass. Cellulose fibers further turned into paper were produced for centuries by the pulp and paper industry. However, if the printing and writing paper used to be the main product of this industry, the recent changes in the consumer market and the digitalization of the information market shifted the focus of the pulp and paper industry to hygiene and packaging products, which are much more diverse in terms of the required properties of the fibers (strength, softness, odor, water absorption/resistance etc). Changing the fiber properties can be achieved by adjusting the wood refining and chemical treatment, however, it can also be enhanced by enzymatic treatment [36]. For this purpose, individual enzymes or a set of enzymes are needed rather than a natural hydrolytic cocktail.
The main component of fiber strength improvement cocktail is endoglucanase, an enzyme that introduces individual brakes in a cellulose strand [37]. It attacks amorphous regions of cellulose fiber, where the crystalline structure was distorted by refining. These brakes make fibers more “hairy” and improve fibrillation (incorporation of the fibers into paper webbing), which eventually translates into improved strength properties of the paper [38, 39]. This enzymatic activity can also be used to even further cleave the amorphous region and help to create nano-cellulose [40], which is widely used in various applications from packaging to electronics and health. The conventional mechanical process of obtaining nanocellulose is highly energy demanding and enzymes can considerably reduce the required refining energy. Another cellulose base product with growing demand is the so-called dissolving pulp, which is used for viscose production. The process of liquefying the pulp by separating the fibrils (the strands of cellulose) is also highly energy demanding and chemically polluting. Viscose production can be more eco-friendly and economic by using enzymes, specifically xylanases and cellulases to selectively remove hemicelluloses and improve pulp reactivity, respectively [41].
These cellulose products are usually not considered to be in the scope of biorefineries but rather pulp and paper industry, however, some fiber-based products could be introduced into the biorefineries offering. The MetZyme®BRILA™ product family of MetGen’s portfolio is dedicated to fiber modification solutions (see Table 2).
The main outcome of cellulose processing in the biorefineries is currently glucose. Glucose is the central nutrient in the microbial world. Almost all microorganisms can be cultivated on glucose with some supplement of nitrogen-containing compounds and microelements. Thus the demand for glucose will grow as the bioeconomy develops. And glucose can be a starting material for bioconversion to practically any natural compound by a whole-cell microbial factory.
Apart from being a central nutrient for microbial production glucose can also serve as a starting material for platform chemicals [42]. By acid catalysis, sugar molecules can be converted to platform chemicals such as hydroxy-methyl furfural (HMF), furfuryl alcohol (FAL), and levulinic acid (LA) which can be further used for polymer synthesis [43].
HMF is an important emerging platform chemical that can be further converted to 2,5-furan dicarboxylic acid (FDCA) by chemical [44] or enzymatic [45] oxidation. In turn, FDCA is a precursor for a new to the world polymer polyethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate (PEF) which provides an alternative to the oil-based plastics polyethylene terephthalates (PET) used for the majority of disposable plastic bottles. Remarkably, PEF represents not only a biobased alternative to PET but also provides a technical advantage in gas retention, which is extremely important for carbonated drinks’ shelf life. Apart from PEF, other polyesters and various polyamides and polyurethanes containing FDCA have been described in the literature [46].
HMF can be obtained by dehydration of carbohydrates. The preferred substrate for dehydration is fructose, which can be obtained by the chemical or enzymatic isomerization of glucose (Figure 3).
Bioconversion of glucose using MetZymes® and related processes.
The respective enzyme is called glucose isomerase, although biochemically speaking it is xylose isomerase with a side activity of glucose isomerization [47]. These enzymes are widely available: they are one of the largest in volume in the industrial enzyme market for their production of widely-used High Fructose Syrups (HFS) for food applications. Isomerization is a reversible reaction; enzymes bring the mixture of glucose and fructose to the equilibrium ratio of about 1:1 and the reaction stops. Fructose provides sweetness for food and beverages, but can also be used as an intermediate for bioplastics.
The currently available commercial enzymes are highly sensitive to substrate sugar impurities. This is acceptable for food industry applications, where sugar has to be pure anyway. Typically, even sugar produced from starch requires activated carbon filtration, ion-exchange chromatography, and degasification before it can proceed to isomerization reaction as described by the technology providers, see, for example https://www.myandegroup.com/starch-syrup-process-technology.html. Sugars produced from 2nd generation biorefinery (especially from wood) have much more impurities than starch-derived sugar, including lignin, extractives, etc. It would need a lot of purification to enable utilization of currently available glucose isomerase, and the required level of purity is not justified for the technical sugar. MetGen has developed a proprietary industrially relevant recombinant bacterial glucose isomerase with high tolerance to substrate impurities. The enzyme can work directly in biomass hydrolysate. Lower requirements for purification lead to reduced process costs. This enzyme was further engineered to be much less sensitive to the presence of xylose - a preferred substrate of all of the natural glucose isomerases, and thus a potent competitive inhibitor in the reaction with glucose.
Proposed enzymatic solutions for biorefinery and especially for sugars-to-biochemicals pathways are numerous, however, they are still mostly in the research and development stage [48], and the takeoff of the bio-based economy largely depends on the success of this effort. MetZyme® PURECO™ product family – to which previously mentioned glucose isomerase also belongs – is dedicated to next-generation enzymes allowing specific conversions towards high value-addition renewable chemicals, which are beyond sugars. One of these enzymes MetZyme® PURECO™Pyranose oxidase opens an economical route to previously commercially unavailable above a gram scale compound glucosone (2-Keto-D-glucose). While until now the use of d-glucosone has been limited due to its high price and limited availability, it has been envisaged for a long time to provide an alternative route to fructose [49]. As opposed to isomerization reaction, oxidation of glucose to glucosone can be driven to completion, and glucoson’s aldehyde group can be further reduced with high specificity to a hydroxyl leading to fructose (Figure 3). The second step can be performed either by chemical hydrogenation [50] or enzymatically by an aldose reductase [49]. Recently, more applications of glucosone started to be developed, for example, it has been shown, that certain fine chemicals such as kojic acid could potentially be produced from this source (Figure 3) [51].
MetZyme®PURECO™ Pyranose oxidase and glucose isomerase are commercially available proprietary enzymes developed by MetGen in the course of the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, funded by the European Union’s Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking.
MetGens philosophy in serving biobased industries is to provide a full solution rather than on-shelf enzymes to the customers, and where possible an engineering package. Therefore, MetGen embraces all stages of enzyme technology development from enzyme discovery and molecular biology to application testing, streamlined efficient production, and integration into an industrial process. We call this ENZYNE platform.
Another vastly important principle for us is to take an active part in open innovation to combine forces with industry players to build the new value chains in the bioeconomy.
Building consumer awareness is also key for the expansion of the bioeconomy. Society needs to gain a common understanding of the importance of bio-based solutions and their impact on sustainability and circularity.
This research recieved funding from the Bio Based Industries Joint Undertaking under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No: 792061 SWEETWOODS is acknowledged.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
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\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
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\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
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The discrete-continuum model is a relatively new modeling method, which accounts for turbulent and laminar flow in karst aquifer. MODFLOW-CFP (Conduit Flow Process) is compared to the MODFLOW, a numerical code based on Darcy law, to evaluate the accuracy in a sub-regional scale karst aquifer. MODFLOW-CFP is more accurate than the MODFLOW when comparing the head simulation results with field measurements. After that, the CFPv2 and UMT3D numerical models are applied in the WKP to establish a sub-regional scale model to simulate chloride transport processes in the last four decades, and to predict contamination development. Numerical simulation results indicate sprayfields are the major chloride source in the study region. Conduit networks significantly control solute transport and contaminant distribution in the study region. Chloride transports through conduits rapidly and spread to several large contamination plumes in a short period. Chloride concentration started to increase in 1980s due to the operation of sparyfield. Solute transport simulation results by discrete-continuum models are more accurate because of the precise description of conduit network.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Bill X. Hu and Zexuan Xu",authors:[{id:"181982",title:"Dr.",name:"Bill",middleName:"X.",surname:"Hu",slug:"bill-hu",fullName:"Bill Hu"},{id:"181983",title:"Mr.",name:"Zexuan",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"zexuan-xu",fullName:"Zexuan Xu"}]},{id:"50765",doi:"10.5772/63496",title:"Modelling Water Dynamics, Transport Processes and Biogeochemical Reactions in Soil Vadose Zone",slug:"modelling-water-dynamics-transport-processes-and-biogeochemical-reactions-in-soil-vadose-zone",totalDownloads:2021,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Large numbers of numerical models are nowadays available for the description of physical and chemical processes affecting water flow and solute transport in soil vadose zone. This chapter explains basic principles of water flow and solute transport modelling in soil vadose (variably saturated) zone and some of the most important processes present in it. First part deals with water dynamics in the soil, that is, soil water content, pressure head, soil porosity, and water flow. Also, some of the measurement techniques used to estimate water dynamics in soil are explained. Water retention curve and soil hydraulic properties needed for modelling are briefly discussed with the explanation of basic (i.e. most commonly used) hydraulic relationship in soil (van Genuchten equation) and water flow (Richards equation) approaches. Second part includes solute transport description in vadose zone, including processes such as advection, diffusion, dispersion, and adsorption. Basic advection‐dispersion equation is explained and also the implementation of boundary and initial conditions in the numerical model. Preferential flow is shortly discussed with the basic principles behind its occurrence and modelling in the soil vadose zone. One real case one‐dimensional (1D) example of modelling with HYDRUS software is presented in which water flow and nitrate transport is simulated on the lysimeter study. Short overview of the most widely used numerical models for simulating vadose zone processes is also presented, whereas the final part is focused on chemical speciation modelling in relatively homogeneous soil solutions using visual MINTEQ interface.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Vilim Filipović, Gabrijel Ondrašek and Lana Filipović",authors:[{id:"46939",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabrijel",middleName:null,surname:"Ondrasek",slug:"gabrijel-ondrasek",fullName:"Gabrijel Ondrasek"},{id:"182575",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilim",middleName:null,surname:"Filipović",slug:"vilim-filipovic",fullName:"Vilim Filipović"},{id:"185968",title:"MSc.",name:"Lana",middleName:null,surname:"Matijević",slug:"lana-matijevic",fullName:"Lana Matijević"}]},{id:"50700",doi:"10.5772/63508",title:"Spatiotemporal Analysis of Groundwater Recharge Trends and Variability in Northern Taiwan",slug:"spatiotemporal-analysis-of-groundwater-recharge-trends-and-variability-in-northern-taiwan",totalDownloads:1779,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this study, the base flow estimation method was used to assess long‐term changes of groundwater recharge in Northern Taiwan. The Mann‐Kendall test was used to examine the characteristics of the trends. This was followed by trend slope calculation and change‐point analysis. The annual groundwater recharge was found to exhibit a significant upward trend for the Fushan and Hengxi stations (Tamsui river basin). On the other hand, the Ximen Bridge station (Lanyang river basin) recorded a significant downward trend. Calculations showed that the rate of change for the Fengshan and Touqian river basins was small (less than 10%). However, that for the following stations was greater than 30%: Fushan, Hengxi, Ximen Bridge, and Niudou (also in the Lanyang river basin). The results of the change‐point analysis further indicated a significant change‐point for the annual recharge at Fushan, Hengxi, and Ximen Bridge stations in 1999, 1983, and 2001, respectively. The findings can be used for regional hydrological studies and as reference for water resource planning.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Hsin‐Fu Yeh, Chen‐Feng Yeh, Jhe‐Wei Lee and Cheng‐Haw Lee",authors:[{id:"180104",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-Fu",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"hsin-fu-yeh",fullName:"Hsin-Fu Yeh"},{id:"185794",title:"Mr.",name:"Chen-Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"chen-feng-yeh",fullName:"Chen-Feng Yeh"},{id:"185795",title:"Dr.",name:"Jhe-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"jhe-wei-lee",fullName:"Jhe-Wei Lee"},{id:"185796",title:"Prof.",name:"Cheng-Haw",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"cheng-haw-lee",fullName:"Cheng-Haw Lee"}]},{id:"50779",doi:"10.5772/63324",title:"Appraisal of Groundwater Flow Simulation in the Sub- Himalayan Watershed of Pakistan",slug:"appraisal-of-groundwater-flow-simulation-in-the-sub-himalayan-watershed-of-pakistan",totalDownloads:1895,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Numerical modeling of an aquifer is increasingly used as a power tool for monitoring and management of groundwater. This paper focuses on conceptualizing hydrogeological condition and establishing numerical simulation model using Visual MODFLOW to simulate the continuous depletion of groundwater in the southwestern part of the Soan watershed in Pakistan. An integrated groundwater modeling and management approach was adopted to provide suitable alternatives for water management in different hydro-environments. Geospatial techniques were employed for spatial database development, integration with a remote sensing (RS), and numerical groundwater flow modeling capabilities to simulate groundwater flow behavior. The calibration results indicated a reasonable agreement between the calculated and observed heads. The calibrated heads were used as initial conditions in the transient-state modeling. The modeling approach facilitated in identifying potential groundwater regime besides providing artificial recharge options for sustainable groundwater development.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Zulfiqar Ahmad, Arshad Ashraf and Mohsin Hafeez",authors:[{id:"13305",title:"Prof.",name:"Zulfiqar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"zulfiqar-ahmad",fullName:"Zulfiqar Ahmad"},{id:"99395",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"arshad-ashraf",fullName:"Arshad Ashraf"}]},{id:"51278",doi:"10.5772/63903",title:"Study of Unsaturated Soils by Coupled Numerical Analyses of Water Flow-Slope Stability",slug:"study-of-unsaturated-soils-by-coupled-numerical-analyses-of-water-flow-slope-stability",totalDownloads:2007,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The geotechnical engineering, among the problems related to water flow, is specifically interested in soil and water that it contains, and also on the movement of water through their pores, in addition to the laws governing this phenomenon. A very important subject is to quantify the retention and filtration of water within the soil structure; however, the emphasis should be not only on how much water flows through the soil but also on the state of pore water pressures because this pressure, either positive or negative, has a direct influence on the stress state and changes in volume of soil. Several publications address the issue of water flow in saturated state; however, only some of them consider the flow under unsaturated conditions. In this chapter, the main emphasis is focused on the study of water flow in unsaturated soils.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Norma Patricia López-Acosta and José Alfredo Mendoza-Promotor",authors:[{id:"139295",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Acosta",slug:"norma-patricia-lopez-acosta",fullName:"Norma Patricia Lopez-Acosta"},{id:"188534",title:"MSc.",name:"José Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Promotor",slug:"jose-alfredo-mendoza-promotor",fullName:"José Alfredo Mendoza-Promotor"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51278",title:"Study of Unsaturated Soils by Coupled Numerical Analyses of Water Flow-Slope Stability",slug:"study-of-unsaturated-soils-by-coupled-numerical-analyses-of-water-flow-slope-stability",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The geotechnical engineering, among the problems related to water flow, is specifically interested in soil and water that it contains, and also on the movement of water through their pores, in addition to the laws governing this phenomenon. A very important subject is to quantify the retention and filtration of water within the soil structure; however, the emphasis should be not only on how much water flows through the soil but also on the state of pore water pressures because this pressure, either positive or negative, has a direct influence on the stress state and changes in volume of soil. Several publications address the issue of water flow in saturated state; however, only some of them consider the flow under unsaturated conditions. In this chapter, the main emphasis is focused on the study of water flow in unsaturated soils.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Norma Patricia López-Acosta and José Alfredo Mendoza-Promotor",authors:[{id:"139295",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Acosta",slug:"norma-patricia-lopez-acosta",fullName:"Norma Patricia Lopez-Acosta"},{id:"188534",title:"MSc.",name:"José Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Promotor",slug:"jose-alfredo-mendoza-promotor",fullName:"José Alfredo Mendoza-Promotor"}]},{id:"50543",title:"Mobility and Transformation of Inorganic Contaminants in Mining-impacted Groundwater",slug:"mobility-and-transformation-of-inorganic-contaminants-in-mining-impacted-groundwater",totalDownloads:1900,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Mining often results in the contamination of groundwater by metal, sulphate and radionuclide ions following their percolation from tailings impoundments. This chapter discusses the processes by which elements within tailings are transformed and translocated to groundwater and the role of aquifer characteristics and colloids in these processes. The prevention and remediation of contaminated groundwater is also discussed, with particular attention given to the use of permeable reactive barriers and sulphate reducing bacteria.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Anita Etale and Sabelo Mhlanga",authors:[{id:"181427",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Etale",slug:"anita-etale",fullName:"Anita Etale"},{id:"185134",title:"Prof.",name:"Sabelo",middleName:null,surname:"Mhlanga",slug:"sabelo-mhlanga",fullName:"Sabelo Mhlanga"}]},{id:"51394",title:"Numerical and Analytical Methods for the Analysis of Flow of Water Through Soils and Earth Structures",slug:"numerical-and-analytical-methods-for-the-analysis-of-flow-of-water-through-soils-and-earth-structure",totalDownloads:2664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a compendium of the primary methods that are used to perform water flow analyses with a focus on computational approximation methods. Some of the current algorithms for carrying out this type of analysis are summarized. In addition, general guidelines are provided for using the methodologies for specific types of analysis, such as transient-state flow caused by water drawdown and flow in unsaturated media. Emphasis is placed on the need for stochastic analysis of water flow. Lastly, conclusions and general recommendations are given for performing numerical groundwater seepage analyses in soils.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Norma Patricia López-Acosta",authors:[{id:"139295",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Acosta",slug:"norma-patricia-lopez-acosta",fullName:"Norma Patricia Lopez-Acosta"}]},{id:"50779",title:"Appraisal of Groundwater Flow Simulation in the Sub- Himalayan Watershed of Pakistan",slug:"appraisal-of-groundwater-flow-simulation-in-the-sub-himalayan-watershed-of-pakistan",totalDownloads:1894,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Numerical modeling of an aquifer is increasingly used as a power tool for monitoring and management of groundwater. This paper focuses on conceptualizing hydrogeological condition and establishing numerical simulation model using Visual MODFLOW to simulate the continuous depletion of groundwater in the southwestern part of the Soan watershed in Pakistan. An integrated groundwater modeling and management approach was adopted to provide suitable alternatives for water management in different hydro-environments. Geospatial techniques were employed for spatial database development, integration with a remote sensing (RS), and numerical groundwater flow modeling capabilities to simulate groundwater flow behavior. The calibration results indicated a reasonable agreement between the calculated and observed heads. The calibrated heads were used as initial conditions in the transient-state modeling. The modeling approach facilitated in identifying potential groundwater regime besides providing artificial recharge options for sustainable groundwater development.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Zulfiqar Ahmad, Arshad Ashraf and Mohsin Hafeez",authors:[{id:"13305",title:"Prof.",name:"Zulfiqar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"zulfiqar-ahmad",fullName:"Zulfiqar Ahmad"},{id:"99395",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"arshad-ashraf",fullName:"Arshad Ashraf"}]},{id:"50700",title:"Spatiotemporal Analysis of Groundwater Recharge Trends and Variability in Northern Taiwan",slug:"spatiotemporal-analysis-of-groundwater-recharge-trends-and-variability-in-northern-taiwan",totalDownloads:1776,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this study, the base flow estimation method was used to assess long‐term changes of groundwater recharge in Northern Taiwan. The Mann‐Kendall test was used to examine the characteristics of the trends. This was followed by trend slope calculation and change‐point analysis. The annual groundwater recharge was found to exhibit a significant upward trend for the Fushan and Hengxi stations (Tamsui river basin). On the other hand, the Ximen Bridge station (Lanyang river basin) recorded a significant downward trend. Calculations showed that the rate of change for the Fengshan and Touqian river basins was small (less than 10%). However, that for the following stations was greater than 30%: Fushan, Hengxi, Ximen Bridge, and Niudou (also in the Lanyang river basin). The results of the change‐point analysis further indicated a significant change‐point for the annual recharge at Fushan, Hengxi, and Ximen Bridge stations in 1999, 1983, and 2001, respectively. The findings can be used for regional hydrological studies and as reference for water resource planning.",book:{id:"5255",slug:"groundwater-contaminant-and-resource-management",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Contaminant and Resource Management"},signatures:"Hsin‐Fu Yeh, Chen‐Feng Yeh, Jhe‐Wei Lee and Cheng‐Haw Lee",authors:[{id:"180104",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-Fu",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"hsin-fu-yeh",fullName:"Hsin-Fu Yeh"},{id:"185794",title:"Mr.",name:"Chen-Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"chen-feng-yeh",fullName:"Chen-Feng Yeh"},{id:"185795",title:"Dr.",name:"Jhe-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"jhe-wei-lee",fullName:"Jhe-Wei Lee"},{id:"185796",title:"Prof.",name:"Cheng-Haw",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"cheng-haw-lee",fullName:"Cheng-Haw Lee"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"867",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. 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