Gains from the control law and the virtual manipulator (Holonomic constraint experiment).
\r\n\t1. To draw spotlight on recent studies and research concerned with the regeneration process in animal kingdom and models with emphasis on the cellular origins of regeneration.
\r\n\t2. Then, we will be dealing with the reasons for the differences in the regenerative capacity of animals on many levels, including the molecular mechanism, gene expression, epigenetic regulation, common elements affecting regeneration and comparing their contributions to regeneration.
\r\n\t3. To provide new insights into how to promote regeneration in mammals.
Teleoperation and virtual reality systems are intrinsically related since they make a human operator interact with the environments without being in physical contact with them. In the first one, these environments are real, while in the second one, we generate them in a computer simulation. However, both types of systems must make the operator perceive, as realistically as possible, the characteristics of the remote or virtual environment. Some variables used to reproduce these characteristics are position and force, which provide visual and haptic feedback, respectively. The biggest difference between them is the procedure of generating the information received by the operator. In the teleoperation case, both signals exist physically and are transmitted via a control algorithm. The algorithm receives both signals from sensors. Both signals do not exist in virtual reality and we must generate computationally them.
Stimulating the senses of sight and touch, as precisely as possible, is essential during the interaction process, since they are the principal channels with which the operator perceives the world around them. For teleoperation, in the visual case, the communication comes directly from the environment or, if the operator is in a remote place, using a camera and a computer screen. The virtual reality system generates the environment through a digital simulation, and the operator receives the visual information through a screen. We need additional devices since the tactile issue is more complex. Those devices must be capable of transmitting the generated forces in the environment. Such a process implies including haptic robots in the systems because of their capability to generate forces and torques that the human operator can perceive in a tactile way. We need for teleoperation systems two physical robots, while in a virtual reality system we only need one robot and the virtual environment as the other.
The medical area has actively seized on both teleoperation and virtual reality systems. In the first case, a specialist can perform surgery procedures over long distances, eliminating the need for the physical presence of either the physicians or patients in the same location [1]. Practically, the specialist can examine or operate on the patient at a different geographic location without having to travel.
In Figure 1, we showed the emblematic
Da Vinci surgical robotic system.
In the second case, someone has widely used virtual reality systems for medical training simulation. With the development of computer graphics, nowadays practically any surgical procedure can be visually simulated. Minimally invasive surgery has been the most beneficial area. It has implemented virtual environments in laparoscopy, neurosurgery, and urology, to name a few [3]. As an example, in Figure 2 we showed
URP Mentor (simulator).
The challenge for researchers in graphic computing and control systems is to design mathematical tools that fit with the object’s physical characteristics to be simulated within the virtual environment. Regarding the visual feedback, the position where such objects are located is essential for the operator to perceive his movements in the Cartesian virtual space. About the force, reproducing rigidity and softness takes special interest when the virtual environment includes penetrable and nonpenetrable objects. Here, the complexity of the mathematical tools increases because their physical laws are not always easy to simulate on a computer. For this reason, it must establish an interchange between visual and haptic realism because of the finite capacity of digital processing.
Teleoperation and virtual reality applications have developed in areas as different as
Goertz presented the first
The idea of force feedback on virtual reality systems began with the fundamental work of Sutherland [11]. He established that the interaction between the human operator and the virtual environment should not only be visual but also tactile. It was not until the 1990s that he adapted the Goertz device to provide force feedback during virtual molecular coupling [12]. Since then, the use of manipulators in virtual reality applications has spread to CAD/CAM assembly [13], aerospace maintenance [14], and especially in medical training through simulators [15] where, unlike systems of master-slave teleoperation, neither the environments nor the contact forces exist. It must transmit the actual forces to the operator with precision. The quality of this transmission depends on the characteristics of the haptic interface and the corresponding force control algorithm [3].
Articulated robots play a major role in medical training simulation systems with force feedback since this kind of electromechanical device can measure spatial position and generate torques. There has been a large effort to design robot haptic interfaces such as the widely used Phantom serial robot [16], the Delta Haptic parallel robot [17], and the combination of passive elements such as brakes and springs with motors [18]. Such robots are examples of impedance types devices, i.e. they read position and control force in response. There are another robots that read forces and control motion, called
Along with haptic interfaces, there has been an intense development of graphical simulation tools capable of reproducing a wide range of virtual environments. The principal aim is for the operator to perceive, as realistic as possible, objects with a high quality of detail. The applications developed include microscopic exploration [19], aviation [20], and clinical neuropsychology [21], among many others. With medical training simulation, a correct synergy between visual and tactile feedback is essential to heighten the skills of medicine students. However, to increase immersion and consequently the realism of the virtual reality displays, it is necessary to model environments that combine haptic and graphics to the same complexity [22]. This is not always possible since it limited the computational processing and it cannot execute the applications in real-time.
Salisbury et al. [23] presented the basic architecture for a virtual reality application with visual and haptic feedback. They established that the force rendering algorithms must be geometry-dependent. This is a disadvantage in medical training simulation since the virtual objects to be reproduced include bones and organs with irregularities or indentations. There are cases in which the interaction occurs not only on the surfaces of the object, but we must also calculate the penetration forces, as we do in surgery simulators. The alternative is to design algorithms based on physical laws that involve the dynamic and movement of the objects when the operator interacts with them [24]. The perfect scenario would be to render forces by combining physical approaches with the most sophisticated haptic interfaces. However, as mentioned before, doing that is computationally more expensive, not to mention the high costs it would entail.
The more realistic the force transmitted to the operator, the higher the quality of the method used. The factors mentioned above cause a series of compensations between haptic and visual realism, real-time execution, and system costs. Such offsets allowed for establishing two principal methods for rendering forces from virtual environments [25]. The first one is
It is to assume, according to
Using the
The methods mentioned above have been the cornerstone for virtual forces generation both in graphic computing and haptic systems. One of the principal requirements in such areas is that the systems be capable of reproducing the forces that would be present during contact with rigid and soft objects. This is especially important in the development of simulators used in medical training, where the tactile sensations caused by contact between a virtual tool and bones or organs must reproduce [32]. Depending on the goals of the design, we must make a compromise between haptic and visual realism.
In order to implement a virtual reality application, it is important to combine and match both visual and haptic feedback in real-time. Next, we introduce the fundamentals of virtual surface representation, which allow us to show how works the
It is important to distinguish between the different representations of virtual surfaces, both from the point of view of computer graphics and from the point of view of haptic systems. Because the physics of light (with visual representation) differs from the physics of mechanical interactions. It is important to consider that although the graphical and haptic simulation can share the coding of certain properties, such as the shape, they must differ in other aspects, such as models, mathematical techniques, and implementation [32]. It is important to note that haptic rendering in practice avoids the many complex renderings developed by the graphics computing community over the years. However, in this section, the basics of such representations are given to introduce the fundamentals of the proposed haptic representation method, which central idea is to relate holonomic and non-holonomic constraints, which mathematically have a kinematic basis, with the rigid and soft tissues of the body. Surface dynamic complexity is avoided, and instead, from a purely haptic approach, it is classified as nonpenetrable and penetrable. By using the approach of a manipulator in constrained motion, it includes the dynamic of the virtual robot to exemplify that it is possible to model the virtual tool, in a more complex way than that of a single point probe used commonly in computer graphics [34].
In order to represent forces coming from rigid surfaces, it suffices to define algebraically an implicit equation in joint coordinates (task space), or at least two of its geometric characteristics such as normal and tangential vectors, or distance and angle relationships between points, lines, and planes [35]. This simplifies the graphical and haptic implementation since it is possible to define
Convex decomposition by Phys X
In this case, a
Haptic interaction with a sphere. (a) Applied external forces. (b) Collision detection. (c) Collision response. (a) Original mesh. (b) Delaunay triangulation. (c) Mass-spring like system.
The case of deformable surfaces is more complex since, from a biomedical approach, a physically realistic simulation must consider all the nonlinearities of material deformation (e.g. stress, strain, elasticity, and viscoelasticity). One strategy is to combine a finite element discretization of the geometry together with a finite difference discretization of time and an updated Lagrangian iterative scheme [38]. Another very used representations of deformable surfaces in computer graphics are the
Particle model by FLEX (soft tissue). (a) Original mesh. (b) Delaunay triangulation. (c) Mass-spring like system.
Using
More sophisticated graphic tools such as SOFA (Simulation Open Framework Architecture) address the description of the object, typically by using three models: an internal model with independent degrees of freedom, the mass, and the constitutive laws, a collision model with contact geometry, and a visual model with detailed geometry and rendering parameters [39]. During runtime, it synchronizes the models using a generic mechanism called
Let
We map the velocities similarly to
where the Jacobian matrix
Given forces
The kinematic relation (2) allows to rewrite the Eq. (3) as
Since Eq. (4) holds for all velocities
The kinematic mappings (1), (2), and (5) allow to compute displacements and to apply forces. They are also used to connect generalized coordinates, such as joint angles, to task space geometries.
From a robot control approach, we can consider a tool in contact with an object as a robot in constrained motion. The constraints of this system will be well defined if we associate them with physically realizable forces. This occurs, for example, with an industrial robot in contact with a proper surface (a real one) like a car bonnet in a painting or welding task. But with virtual environments, where surfaces do not exist, there are no physical constraint forces associated to them. Thus, the constraints are not well defined, and they are called
Let
where
Constraints that involve not only the generalized coordinates but also their first derivatives in the form
with
where
A kinematic constraint can be integrable, there are
Here, the kinematic constraints are, in fact, geometric constraints. Pfaffian constraints set of
From Eq. (9), we get
where
The set of Pfaffian constraints
where
A vector field
where
Given
where
A distribution assigns a subspace of the tangent space to each point in
where the span over the set of smooth real-valued functions on
A distribution is
We said distribution
The hypersurfaces defined by the level sets
This theorem gives a necessary and sufficient condition for the complete integrability of a distribution. Thus, if
So it is possible to establish when a Pfaffian constraint is non-holonomic by checking if its distribution is not involutive.
A common practice in the computer graphics community is to associate the position and orientation of virtual tools directly with that of the haptic interface. However, this assumption is because some real tools have negligible dynamics, such as a scalpel. From a teleoperation approach, we assumed that even the simplest tool has some dynamic properties to consider in the virtual environment. This section presents a description of this proposal, both mathematical and intuitive.
In order to describe the operation of the haptic system, two independent sets of task space coordinates are considered as shown in Figure 6.
Haptic system.
The operator manipulates the haptic interface, i.e., the master robot in the real environment and we denote whose Cartesian coordinates as
In a similar approach, Faurlin et al. clarify in [44] that the virtual environment can be represented by a set of generalized coordinates
which is a mapping between the real and virtual environment, similar to that of Eq. (1) but where the former acts as a master model.
The set of coordinates
Consider a
while the virtual slave dynamics is modeled by
where the subscripts m and v denote the real master and the virtual slave manipulators, respectively. For
where
External torques are acting in both robots, either the real torque
where
where
Whit of holonomic constraints we assume that, in virtual task space coordinates, the virtual robot is subject to
where a suitable normalization is done for the gradient of this constraint,
to be unitary.
The representation of constraint (25) in generalized virtual coordinates is
where
These two gradients are related by
where
where
According to
With non-holonomic constraints, something well known is that we cannot express them as a function of only the generalized coordinates as in (25) or (27). Instead, they are commonly expressed as Pfaffian constraints. In the present case, these constraints are written more intuitively in terms of the virtual end-effector velocities
where
Assuming that the virtual robot is subject to
the torque because of the contact with the virtual environment in (21) can be expressed as
where
The non-holonomic constraints reduce the number of virtual robot available degrees of freedom to an
In this section, the theoretical and practical aspects of implementing a virtual reality system with virtual restrictions are presented. The principal aspect concerned is the design of a controller capable to perform accurate haptic feedback that makes to feel the operator to be in contact with either a penetrable or nonpenetrable virtual surface. The method for visually reproducing the
As mentioned in Section 2, the important aspect to get realistic haptic feedback from a surface embedded into a virtual environment comprises defining its geometry. In Figure 7, we show an idealized representation of a virtual point probe in contact with either an nonpenetrable or penetrable virtual surface.
(
In the first case, we assume that the contact arises at a single point over the surface from where the virtual probe cannot move forward, i.e., its velocity is equal to zero. Therefore, a normal force vector, which magnitude increases depending on the force applied by the operator, avoids motion. In robot control, if we are supposed to connect the probe to the end effector of a manipulator, according to
The best way to find the place of the contact point (which belongs to a set of points defining each surface) is by establishing an implicit equation
which coincides with the holonomic constraint of Eq. (25) in Cartesian coordinates or Eq. (27) in generalized coordinates. From those expressions, it can establish a collision detection algorithm by defining the following conditions:
If
If
If
For the virtual reality system, it is important to remember that the vector
Motion in 2D of the virtual tool inside a virtual object.
For easy visualization, it showed the motion in 2D but during the simulation, we must reproduce it in 3D with the aim of increase the realism of the application by improving the operator’s dexterity. The contact begins in
The trajectories of the virtual tool shown in Figure 8 are common in noninvasive surgical procedures. For example, in the simulator of
The contribution of this approach is, in contrast to common single point haptic feedback methods, that we produce forces that prevent lateral movement of the virtual tool. However, the major disadvantage is that the environment’s elastic properties are not considered. As a result, the reaction of the force that limits the movement of the operator, depending on such properties, is not reproduced and can move the
In Figure 9, we show a scheme in 2D of the contact between a virtual tool and a virtual surface to illustrate the use of the model given by Eq. (21).
Virtual robot in interaction with a penetrable surface.
We attach the tool to the virtual robot’s last DOF, acting as its end-effector. It is important to note that the manipulator dynamic model is used to reproduce a classic bilateral teleoperation system and assuming that, since it is simulated digitally, it can be exchanged by a simpler or more complex model, including those of medical instruments such as forceps endoscopes, gripers, and retractors. This assumption leads to the proposition that, if we use the model of a surgical tool during the simulation, the realism of the contact with the surface would increase. The principal difference between defining a holonomic and a non-holonomic constraint is a need for an expression of
for which each column represents a vector of the end-effector coordinate frame, described in the base frame. This allows defining
We claim that a set of non-holonomic constraints can be defined if the manipulator degrees of freedom are greater than those necessary to control the end-effector position, i.e.,
where
If the robot may not move in the
By choosing the distribution
where
as a basis for the null-space of the
can be constructed, representing the directions of allowed motion, [42].
It is easy to verify that the Lie bracket is
which shows the non-involutivity of the distribution and thus establishes the non-holonomic nature of the constraints according to
Notice also that if the degrees of freedom were 2, the null-space would be of dimension 1, which is necessarily involutive, and the constraints would be holonomic.
A correct haptic rendering largely depends on the force control algorithm. In classic haptic systems, the common solution is to define indirect impedance or compliance control schemes. In contrast, in this section, we present two hybrid control algorithms for haptic interaction with virtual constrained systems. As mentioned in Section 2, the usual practice is to associate the position of the haptic interface directly with that of the virtual avatar. Therefore, a position control scheme is unnecessary, as the operator’s movements are reflected in the graphical application accurately. However, in the proposed approach, the task space coordinates of the virtual environment depend on the correct tracking between the position of the haptic robot and that of the virtual one, i.e., the control algorithm generates the virtual environment itself. This is due to including the virtual robot dynamics and the fact that the operator should feel the virtual tool because of the masking effect. In order to address this, we explored a control scheme used in teleoperation to achieve both position and force tracking. Next, we show a block diagram of this scheme in Figure 10.
Block diagram of the proposed scheme.
Considering once again
as the desired position trajectories, and
as the desired velocity trajectories, i.e., if
We define the corresponding tracking error as
Based on [48], we proposed
and
where
with
Now, by considering the velocity reference as
where
We define also the auxiliary variable
By supposing that both robots are in free movement, for that case, the control laws for the master and the virtual robots are proposed as
respectively, where
Making an approximation of what happens during the tactile interaction of a point probe with a rigid surface, we considered the one-dimensional case (
where
we use a PID-like controller for the virtual reality system. Consider that
By defining
as the desired force trajectory where if
The force tracking errors are
and the corresponding integral, the momenta tracking error, is
Note that we use the standard notation for momenta
respectively, where
In contrast with the holonomic case, when the constraints are non-holonomic, we cannot define them as a function of a set of generalized coordinates, as stated by the Frobenius theorem. As a result, we cannot compute the Lagrange multipliers as in (58). We define these constraints in the form (31) or equivalently (34). One problem arising from these constraints is how to compute the Lagrangian multipliers to satisfy (36). These multipliers represent the forces required to maintain such constraints. Unfortunately, most of the methods used to calculate the lagrange multipliers are designed for systems with holonomic constraints [30, 49, 50] and, therefore, these methods require a position-level definition of the Pfaffian constraints as in (25) or (27). As stated in (45), the calculation presented in [42] can be used for this case. However, it is well known that this solution is unstable since its underlying mechanism is a second-order integrator with zero input. In this work, a modification of the approach used in [50] is proposed as follows. For simplicity, we define
Then, the Lagrange multipliers can be computed as
where the constraints are forced to satisfy
with
Note that the constraint function
Therefore, the initial condition of the integral term on the left-hand side of (72) can be set to zero. Each element
By substituting (71) in the motion Eq. (72), a complete description of the dynamics of the system is gotten. Regarding force, sensor measurements
By defining
as the desired force trajectory in joint space. The corresponding integral is
Finally, instead of (56) and (57), for the master and virtual robot the proposed position-force control for a virtual dynamic system subject to non-holonomic constraints is
Note that the novelty of the approach is not the control scheme because very well-known techniques are employed, but the novelty lies in the effective use of non-holonomic constraints to describe penetrable virtual surfaces. Therefore, a technical stability proof is not provided, but it shows a set of reliable experiments in the next section with the aim of validating the proposed approach.
A fundamental part of the developed virtual reality system is visual feedback. In dynamic systems and control research, there is no interest in including such elements but in real-world applications, as surgery simulators, it is essential. Nowadays, in those developments, we compose the virtual environments by merging several numeric techniques that, combined with the fast velocity of today’s processors, give the virtual objects and surfaces a realism that before would seem impossible to reach., since the goal of this dissertation is to show how a teleoperation control scheme can be used in a virtual reality system, we design the environment by using the fundamentals of graphic computing. The tool used to design the virtual environment was the graphic standard OpenGL 2.0 which is an API, which is a software library for accessing features in graphics hardware. It contains different commands that are used to specify objects, images, and operations needed to produce interactive three-dimensional graphic applications, [51]. Among those operations, the possibility to give texture1 and lighting to the virtual objects is possible, besides proportioning position and orientation changes to the scene’s camera, i.e., the way the operator sees the images on the computer screen regarding height, deep, viewing angles as pitch, roll, and yaw, etc. As we can see in Figure 11, the environment of the developed application comprises a motionless floating sphere and the virtual avatar of the system.
Virtual environment developed in OpenGL 2.0.
For simplicity’s sake, there are no changes in the camera’s position and orientation, but we gave lighting and texture to the scene. We appreciate a notable difference in Figure 12, where the avatar has no lighting, the quality of its texture is less and the background color changes.
Virtual avatar of the system.
Here, a set of aligned cylinders becomes the avatar, which directly related position and orientation to those of the end-effector of the haptic interface. Since OpenGL has the instructions to create elements from primitives, the generation of such cylinders and the floating sphere was straightforward.
It is important to remember that, from a haptic rendering approach, we established the classification of nonpenetrable and penetrable objects for rigid and deformable objects, respectively. With the rigid object, the Open GL instruction
Sectors and stacks of a solid sphere.
We give the effect of rigidity because that vertex’s position is not changed when contact with the virtual avatar occurs. However, giving the haptic effect of highly rigid objects to the operator was difficult since an impedance device was used. For such reason, it is important to establish the control scheme (63) and (64) that compensates, as possible, the limitations of hardware and make feel it produced contact with a rigid object.
The real challenge comes when the
Surface mesh generated using different values for
As mentioned before, the more the resolution of the sphere, the more the realism of the application. However, the computational processing when using the resolution of the last case did not allow a correct performance of the graphic or haptic part. For this reason, a resolution
where
Every vertex
where
Algorithm 1 shows the part of the pseudocode where the modification of the adjacent planes takes place. This does not occur at the same time as the modification of the contact plane, since the code has not yet created these. Figure 15 shows the visual effect that the motion, both of the contact plane and adjacent planes produce. It is important to note that the code implemented needs to be optimized and, above all, to be adapted to the force rendering algorithm through non-holonomic constraints.
Deformation effect of the sphere. (a) Contact. (b) Deformation effect.
The experimental platform comprises a Geomagic Touch haptic robot with six revolute joints, having only the first three of them actuated. An ATI Nano–17 six-axis force sensor is adapted at the last link, as shown in Figure 16. A PC executes the control loop with a sample time of
Experimental platform.
As mentioned in Section 3, the virtual environment comprises a sphere developed using the graphic standard OpenGL 2.0. We should note that both the control algorithm and the graphic simulation run in the same application developed in Visual Studio/C++.
A practical limitation of the Geomagic Touch robot is that it actuated only the first three joints. Therefore, a projection of both the force reflection and the controller torques is necessary, i.e., the contribution of the last two joint torques is neglected. The virtual robot does not have this limitation, and therefore is considered to be fully actuated. The master robot limitation is not so restrictive, since the virtual environment considers only force but not end-effector torque feedback, avoiding the problem of sensor/actuators asymmetry haptic interfaces [53]. The contribution of the last two joints to the force reflection is much less in magnitude when compared with the contribution of the first three joints.
A detailed description of the interaction process between the virtual tool and the virtual environment is presented, simulating separately a rigid and a penetrable sphere. Since the goal of this research was to extend the use of the control scheme to medical training applications, we adopted the shape of the avatar as a
While on a rigid surface, the force does not let the needle penetrate the tissue, in a penetrable surface this is possible. The force behaviors are different, as in the first case, there is a major contribution in the normal direction, which would allow the operator to move the needle laterally over the surface. In the second case, the normal force contribution is smaller and the surrounding tissue would not allow moving the needle in the lateral directions.
In the approach presented, we assume we attach the virtual tool to the end-effector of a five degrees-of-freedom manipulator, which is not visible in the graphic simulation. It may seem counterintuitive because, evidently in real life, a needle does not have such dynamics. We use the robot model as a demonstrative example of other medical tools such as an endoscope, resectoscope, forceps. Attached to teleoperated surgical robot arm have such complex dynamics that must be modeled. The graphic simulations in those cases include pulling, gripping, clamping, and cutting, and therefore it is convenient to have a complete description of both the kinematics and the dynamics of the tool-tissue interaction, [3]. The task starts with the Geomagic Touch robot in its home position. The operator grasps the master robot stylus using the force sensor adapter tip to later gently bring it closer to the virtual surface. We imposed the desired trajectory in free motion in this way. The virtual robot moves following such a trajectory in the virtual environment, with no scaling between the virtual and the real workspaces. It perceived visually both the avatar movement and the virtual surface through a computer screen. When the collision-detection algorithm detects contact with the surface, the force-response algorithm generates a virtual force trajectory by computing the corresponding Lagrangian multipliers, either by employing (58) or (70). The operator perceives an interaction force exerted by the master robot and registered by the Nano-17 force sensor until the contact is over. Finally, the operator returns the sensor adapter to its initial position, thus completing the task.
For simplicity’s sake, the surface used to test the validity of the proposed approach is a sphere described by
where
Variable (control law) | Value | Variable (virtual manipulator) | Value |
---|---|---|---|
0.0550 | 0.20 | ||
0.0055 | |||
10.050 | 0.20 | ||
0.2500 | 20.0 | ||
0.0100 | 1.00 | ||
0.0150 | 0.20 |
Gains from the control law and the virtual manipulator (Holonomic constraint experiment).
Finally, by using the Generic Penalty Method, the surface parameters are
As mentioned before, we cannot express a deformable surface implicitly, even when the operator perceives it as a sphere both visually and haptically. We use a discrete representation similar to that presented in [52], where we assume the surface to comprise many neighboring planes defined by shared nodes. We propose a technique that comprises iteratively choosing a small neighborhood of planes where the contact will occur, depending on the position of the virtual tool. Subsequently, we associate the Lagrange multipliers in Eq. (70) with a pair of planes using the impulse-based technique for multiple rigid body simulations, [55]. The micro-collisions with this technique occur only in the chosen vicinity of the sphere and Lagrange multipliers replace the impulses preventing body interpenetration. In the collision’s case detection algorithm, the implicit surface representation replaces the convex polyhedra decomposition, [56], using the Eq. (84). We did this for ease and to reduce the computational cost of the application, otherwise, the control algorithm sample time would increase. Considering the case where the needle is inside the sphere, but it may not move laterally. However, it may pivot to change orientation.
We adequately describe this kind of scenario by employing non-holonomic constraints. As mentioned in Section 1, non-holonomic constraints have been little exploited to represent the interaction with penetrable surfaces. For example, in [57] it is claimed that to model a surgeon’s scalpel both holonomic and non-holonomic constraints could be employed by limiting the depth of its incision and the direction of its motion, respectively. However, there is not any analysis or modeling of this process in such work.
The most representative proposal is the derivation of the non-holonomic generalized unicycle model presented in [58], where a coordinate-free representation is used to model the insertion of a flexible needle into soft tissue. We employed a similar approach by using the homogeneous matrix representation, but taking into consideration both the kinematic and the dynamic model of the virtual robot and the fact that non-holonomic constraints are more intuitively got if we define them in task space coordinates. The computation of the Lagrangian multipliers for non-holonomic constraints, which is proposed in (71), is an important improvement regarding the cited works. The experiment comprised five degrees of freedom virtual manipulator interacting with a deformable sphere. Once in contact, the end-effector may not move laterally, i.e., along the
The experiment has four steps, as shown in Figure 17. First, the virtual robot is in free motion and only the teleoperation part of the controller (77) is active. In the second part, we insert the needle into the sphere. Next, in the third part, approximately 45 degrees rotate the needle without changing its position. Finally, we insert the needle deeper into the sphere with a new orientation.
Interaction sequence between the avatar and the non-holonomic virtual surface. (a) Free motion. (b) Insertion. (c) Pivoting. (d) Insertion.
The force of the human operator in the lateral directions of the needle is difficult to measure directly with the force sensor. Instead, we take advantage of the projection of such forces on the torque of the master manipulator joint, we calculate
The gains of the master manipulator, described in (76), and the virtual manipulator, are shown in Table 2.
Variable (control law) | Value | Variable (virtual manipulator) | Value |
---|---|---|---|
0.0550 | 0.20 | ||
0.0550 | |||
0.010 | 2.00 | ||
0.2500 | 20.0 | ||
0.0150 | 1.00 | ||
0.0150 | 0.20 |
Gains from the control law and the virtual manipulator (Non-holonomic constraint experiment).
We present a proposal on chaptic interaction with holonomic and non-holonomic virtual constraints. Since extensive research on haptic interaction with rigid surfaces has been presented in the literature, the principal aim was to reproduce the forces generated by the interaction with soft surfaces from a force feedback approach.
Throughout the document, we introduced the theory to establish an optimal relationship between the visual and haptic interaction for the virtual reality system developed. The key lies in adapting the mathematical properties of the holonomic and non-holonomic constraints to the tool’s kinematics in contact with a nonpenetrable and penetrable virtual surface, respectively. However, it is important to note that we made this adaptation to achieve haptic feedback purposes only and consider the basic contact properties of simulated rigid and soft tissues.
Adapting a teleoperation control scheme to a virtual reality system was the strategy to follow since it allowed embedding a robot’s dynamic model into the virtual environment. By doing this, we addressed the teleoperated slave system as a problem of a virtual robot in constrained motion and either holonomic or non-holonomic constraints gave whose contact force.
We studied the differences between one or another representation, both mathematically and intuitively, and the particularities of each one. Among them, there is the fact that they could render forces using the
The principal use detected is that such a method can render similar forces to those arising from contact between a tool and a penetrable surface. We can see, non-holonomic constraints have been used to reproduce the operator’s tactile sensations with practical meaning. We can eventually use this approach in virtual reality medical simulators, and it presented the fundamentals to do that throughout this document. However, adapting the developed method to complex virtual environments, such as those found in the medical field, requires more research both in control and computer graphics. In the first case, adapting more accurately the teleoperation controller presented is necessary and makes it fit with the current methods of graphic computing. Finding more optimal ways to model force using non-holonomic constraints is essential to heighten the realism of the applications. Regarding graphic computing, it is necessary to design numerical methods that adapt more efficiently to the control algorithms designed and that are capable of running with continuum mechanics models.
Naturally, this will increase computational processing and require more analysis to establish the compensation between real-time processing and control performance, without sacrificing application realism. All this requires a wide range of knowledge that does not belong to control or computer graphics.
The authors are grateful for the support provided by PRODEP-BUAP ID90934 and the DGAPA-UNAM under grant IN117820.
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Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. The values of our business are based on the same ones that all good scientists apply to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly, and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nPlease check out our job board for open positions.
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\\n\\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\\n\\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Exploration of energy metabolism heterogeneity benefits the discovery of the effective biomarkers for ovarian cancers. The integrative analysis of transcriptomics (20,115 genes in 419 ovarian cancer samples), proteomics (205 differentially expressed proteins), and mitochondrial proteomics (1198 mitochondrial differentially expressed proteins) revealed (i) the upregulations of rate-limiting enzymes PKM2 in glycolysis, IDH2 in Krebs cycle, and UQCRH in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathways, (ii) the upregulation of PDHB that converts pyruvate from glycolysis into acetyl-CoA in Krebs cycle, and (iii) that miRNA (hsa-miR-186-5p) and RNA-binding protein (EIF4AIII) had target sites in those key proteins in energy metabolism pathways. Furthermore, lncRNA SNHG3 interacted with miRNA (hsa-miR-186-5p) and RNA-binding protein (EIF4AIII). Those results were confirmed in the ovarian cancer cell model and tissues. It clearly concluded that lncRNA SNHG3 regulates energy metabolism through miRNA (hsa-miR-186-5p) and RNA-binding protein (EIF4AIII) to regulate the key proteins in the energy metabolism pathways. SNHG3 inhibitor might interfere with the energy metabolism to treat ovarian cancers. These findings provide more accurate understanding of molecular mechanisms of ovarian cancers and discovery of effective energy-metabolism-heterogeneity therapeutic drug for ovarian cancers.",book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Na Li, Xiaohan Zhan and Xianquan Zhan",authors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"},{id:"250748",title:"Ms.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"},{id:"267817",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaohan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xiaohan-zhan",fullName:"Xiaohan Zhan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67272",title:"Introductory Chapter: Insight into the OMICS Technologies and Molecular Medicine",slug:"introductory-chapter-insight-into-the-omics-technologies-and-molecular-medicine",totalDownloads:1513,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Sinem Nalbantoglu and Abdullah Karadag",authors:[{id:"147712",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Nalbantoglu",slug:"sinem-nalbantoglu",fullName:"Sinem Nalbantoglu"}]},{id:"68486",title:"Metabolomics: Basic Principles and Strategies",slug:"metabolomics-basic-principles-and-strategies",totalDownloads:2693,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Metabolomics is the study of metabolome within cells, biofluids, tissues, or organisms to comprehensively identify and quantify all endogenous and exogenous low-molecular-weight (<1 kDa) small molecules/metabolites in a biological system in a high-throughput manner. 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Here, in this review, we provide a brief overview of the current status of promising MS-based metabolomics strategies and their emerging roles, as well as possible challenges.",book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Sinem Nalbantoglu",authors:[{id:"147712",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Nalbantoglu",slug:"sinem-nalbantoglu",fullName:"Sinem Nalbantoglu"}]},{id:"65402",title:"Pharmacogenetics and Cancer Treatment: Progress and Prospects",slug:"pharmacogenetics-and-cancer-treatment-progress-and-prospects",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The response of cancer patients to chemotherapy follows a very heterogeneous pattern. Pharmacogenetics is the study of inherited differences in interindividual drug disposition and effects, with the goal of selecting the optimal drug therapy and dosage for each patient. Pharmacogenetics for cancer treatment is very significant, as cancer therapies exhibit severe systemic toxicity and unpredictable efficacy. There is presence of genetic polymorphisms in the genes which code for the metabolic enzymes and cellular targets for the majority of chemotherapy agents, but to predict the outcome of chemotherapy in patients is not currently possible for most treatments. A greater understanding of the genetic determinants of drug response can revolutionize the use of many medications. By identifying the patients at risk for severe toxicity, or those likely to benefit from a particular treatment, individualized cancer therapy can be achieved for most cancer patients. The prediction of cancer treatment outcome based on gene polymorphisms is becoming possible for many classes of chemotherapy agents, and the most clinically significant examples of chemotherapy agents are discussed in the chapter. However, further studies are needed in well characterized and larger cancer populations with proper validation of pharmacogenetic markers in experimental settings before application in clinical routine diagnostics.",book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Munindra Ruwali",authors:[{id:"245866",title:"Dr.",name:"Munindra",middleName:null,surname:"Ruwali",slug:"munindra-ruwali",fullName:"Munindra Ruwali"}]},{id:"72817",title:"Clinical Validation of a Whole Exome Sequencing Pipeline",slug:"clinical-validation-of-a-whole-exome-sequencing-pipeline",totalDownloads:769,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Establishing whole exome sequencing (WES) in an accredited clinical diagnostic space is challenging. The validation (as opposed to verification) of an approach that will lead to clinical reports requires adhering to international guidelines and recommendations and developing a robust analytical pipeline that can scale due to the increasing clinical demand for comprehensive gene screening. This chapter will present a step-wise approach to WES validation that any laboratory can follow. The focus will be on highlighting the pivotal technical issues that must be addressed in validating WES and the analytical tools and QC metrics that must be considered before implementing WES in a clinical environment.",book:{id:"9569",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Methods in Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Debra O. Prosser, Indu Raja, Kelly Kolkiewicz, Antonio Milano and Donald Roy Love",authors:[{id:"319362",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Love",slug:"donald-roy-love",fullName:"Donald Roy Love"},{id:"319363",title:"Mrs.",name:"Debra O.",middleName:null,surname:"Prosser",slug:"debra-o.-prosser",fullName:"Debra O. Prosser"}]},{id:"71751",title:"Molecular Medicines for Parasitic Diseases",slug:"molecular-medicines-for-parasitic-diseases",totalDownloads:630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Being the cause for significant amount of morbidities and mortalities, parasitic diseases remain the major challenge for the healthcare community due to the limitations associated with the current chemotherapeutics. Drug discovery/invention can be achieved by collaborative efforts of biotechnologists and pharmacists for identifying potential candidates and successfully turn them into medicine for improving the healthcare system. Although molecular medicine for disease intervention is still in its infancy, however, significant research works and successful trials in short span of time have made it broadly accepted among the scientific community. This chapter identifies different molecular medicine approaches for dealing with parasites that have been coming up on the horizon with the new technological advances in bioinformatics and in the field of omics. With the better understanding of the genomics, molecular medicine field has not only raised hopes to deal with parasitic infections but also accelerated the development of personalized medicine. This will provide a targeted approach for identifying the druggable targets and their pathophysiological importance for disease intervention.",book:{id:"9569",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Methods in Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Bhawana Singh",authors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"981",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. 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He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"435274",title:null,name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid Khan",slug:"muhammad-shahid-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Shahid Khan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Islamia University of Bahawalpur",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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