Example of crop intensification and their advantages.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
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\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Their major breakthroughs resulted from successful developments of complementary technologies to overcome the challenges associated with autonomous operation in harsh environments. Most of these advances aimed at reaching new application scenarios and decreasing the cost of ocean data collection, by reducing ship time and automating the process of data gathering with accurate geo location. With the present capabilities, some novel paradigms are already being employed to further exploit the on board intelligence, by making decisions on line based on real time interpretation of sensor data. This book collects a set of self contained chapters covering different aspects of AUV technology and applications in more detail than is commonly found in journal and conference papers. They are divided into three main sections, addressing innovative vehicle design, navigation and control techniques, and mission preparation and analysis. The progress conveyed in these chapters is inspiring, providing glimpses into what might be the future for vehicle technology and applications.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-432-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5559-1",doi:"10.5772/923",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"autonomous-underwater-vehicles",numberOfPages:272,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6b3c74b37939669fd64099072cd00a46",bookSignature:"Nuno A. 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Cruz received a graduate degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Porto, Portugal, in 1993, and an M.Sc. in Digital Systems Engineering from UMIST, U.K., in 1994. He is currently a senior researcher with the robotics and intelligent systems group at INESC Porto - Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering of Porto. During the last 15 years he has been involved the design, development and operation of small-size Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and AUV navigation systems based on acoustics, both in Portugal and abroad. He has designed the mechanical structure and the onboard electronics of the MARES AUV, a hovering type vehicle that is being routinely used in environmental missions since 2007. 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Ballandras",authors:[{id:"31933",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvain",middleName:null,surname:"Ballandras",fullName:"Sylvain Ballandras",slug:"sylvain-ballandras"},{id:"44765",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Laroche",fullName:"Thierry Laroche",slug:"thierry-laroche"}]},{id:"45585",title:"Precise Analysis and Design of Multi-Layered Acoustic Wave Devices with Bragg Cell",slug:"precise-analysis-and-design-of-multi-layered-acoustic-wave-devices-with-bragg-cell",signatures:"Yongqiang Guo and Weiqiu Chen",authors:[{id:"11654",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Yongqiang Guo",slug:"yongqiang-guo"},{id:"125695",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Weiqiu Chen",slug:"weiqiu-chen"}]},{id:"45583",title:"High-Overtone Bulk Acoustic Resonator",slug:"high-overtone-bulk-acoustic-resonator",signatures:"T. Baron, E. Lebrasseur, F. Bassignot, G. Martin,\nV. Pétrini and S. Ballandras",authors:[{id:"149751",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Baron",fullName:"Thomas Baron",slug:"thomas-baron"}]},{id:"45580",title:"Modeling and Design of BAW Resonators and Filters for Integration in a UMTS Transmitter",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-baw-resonators-and-filters-for-integration-in-a-umts-transmitter",signatures:"Matthieu Chatras , Stéphane Bila, Sylvain Giraud, Lise Catherinot,\nJi Fan, Dominique Cros, Michel Aubourg, Axel Flament,\nAntoine Frappé, Bruno Stefanelli, Andreas Kaiser, Andreia Cathelin,\nJean Baptiste David, Alexandre Reinhardt, Laurent Leyssenne and\nEric Kerhervé",authors:[{id:"149671",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthieu",middleName:null,surname:"Chatras",fullName:"Matthieu Chatras",slug:"matthieu-chatras"}]},{id:"45586",title:"Surface Acoustic Wave Based Magnetic Sensors",slug:"surface-acoustic-wave-based-magnetic-sensors",signatures:"Bodong Li, Hommood Al Rowais and Jürgen Kosel",authors:[{id:"141848",title:"Prof.",name:"Jurgen",middleName:null,surname:"Kosel",fullName:"Jurgen Kosel",slug:"jurgen-kosel"},{id:"143722",title:"MSc.",name:"Bodong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Bodong Li",slug:"bodong-li"},{id:"146392",title:"MSc.",name:"Hommood",middleName:null,surname:"Al Rowais",fullName:"Hommood Al Rowais",slug:"hommood-al-rowais"}]},{id:"45577",title:"Electromagnetic and Acoustic Transformation of Surface Acoustic Waves and Its Application in Various Tasks",slug:"electromagnetic-and-acoustic-transformation-of-surface-acoustic-waves-and-its-application-in-various",signatures:"Sergey E. Babkin",authors:[{id:"150021",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Babkin",fullName:"Babkin",slug:"babkin"}]},{id:"45573",title:"Acoustics in Optical Fiber",slug:"acoustics-in-optical-fiber",signatures:"Abhilash Mandloi and Vivekanand Mishra",authors:[{id:"143426",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivekanand",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",fullName:"Vivekanand Mishra",slug:"vivekanand-mishra"},{id:"146960",title:"Mr.",name:"Abhilash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandloi",fullName:"Abhilash Mandloi",slug:"abhilash-mandloi"}]},{id:"45570",title:"Techniques for Tuning BAW-SMR Resonators for the 4th Generation of Mobile Communications",slug:"techniques-for-tuning-baw-smr-resonators-for-the-4th-generation-of-mobile-communications",signatures:"M. El Hassan, E. Kerherve, Y. Deval, K. Baraka,\nJ.B. David and D. Belot",authors:[{id:"61815",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Baptiste",middleName:null,surname:"David",fullName:"Jean-Baptiste David",slug:"jean-baptiste-david"},{id:"143096",title:"Dr.",name:"Moustapha",middleName:null,surname:"El Hassan",fullName:"Moustapha El Hassan",slug:"moustapha-el-hassan"},{id:"146675",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Kerherve",fullName:"Eric Kerherve",slug:"eric-kerherve"},{id:"146676",title:"Prof.",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Deval",fullName:"Yann Deval",slug:"yann-deval"},{id:"146679",title:"Mr.",name:"Didier",middleName:null,surname:"Belot",fullName:"Didier Belot",slug:"didier-belot"},{id:"156246",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Baraka",fullName:"Kamal Baraka",slug:"kamal-baraka"}]},{id:"45581",title:"Seismic Vibration Sensor with Acoustic Surface Wave",slug:"seismic-vibration-sensor-with-acoustic-surface-wave",signatures:"Jerzy Filipiak and Grzegorz Steczko",authors:[{id:"146520",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",middleName:null,surname:"Fllipiak",fullName:"Jerzy Fllipiak",slug:"jerzy-fllipiak"},{id:"146533",title:"Dr.",name:"Grzegorz",middleName:null,surname:"Steczko",fullName:"Grzegorz Steczko",slug:"grzegorz-steczko"}]},{id:"45571",title:"Acoustics and Vibro-Acoustics Applied in Space Industry",slug:"acoustics-and-vibro-acoustics-applied-in-space-industry",signatures:"Rogério Pirk, Carlos d´Andrade Souto,\nGustavo Paulinelli Guimarães and Luiz Carlos Sandoval Góes",authors:[{id:"143133",title:"Dr.",name:"Rogerio",middleName:null,surname:"Pirk",fullName:"Rogerio Pirk",slug:"rogerio-pirk"},{id:"169101",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"d´Andrade Souto",fullName:"Carlos d´Andrade Souto",slug:"carlos-dandrade-souto"},{id:"169102",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Paulinelli Guimarães",fullName:"Gustavo Paulinelli Guimarães",slug:"gustavo-paulinelli-guimaraes"},{id:"169103",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Sandoval Góes",fullName:"Luiz Carlos Sandoval Góes",slug:"luiz-carlos-sandoval-goes"}]},{id:"45575",title:"Acoustic Wave Based Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-Chip",slug:"acoustic-wave-based-microfluidics-and-lab-on-a-chip",signatures:"J. K. Luo, Y. Q. Fu and W. I. Milne",authors:[{id:"145624",title:"Prof.",name:"Jack",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",fullName:"Jack Luo",slug:"jack-luo"},{id:"146419",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",fullName:"Richard Fu",slug:"richard-fu"},{id:"146420",title:"Prof.",name:"Williams I",middleName:null,surname:"Milne",fullName:"Williams I Milne",slug:"williams-i-milne"}]},{id:"45579",title:"Underwater Acoustics Modeling in Finite Depth Shallow Waters",slug:"underwater-acoustics-modeling-in-finite-depth-shallow-waters",signatures:"Emerson de Sousa Costa, Eduardo Bauzer Medeiros\nand João Batista Carvalho Filardi",authors:[{id:"149966",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"De Sousa",surname:"Costa",fullName:"Emerson Costa",slug:"emerson-costa"},{id:"149967",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Bauzer Medeiros",fullName:"Eduardo Bauzer Medeiros",slug:"eduardo-bauzer-medeiros"},{id:"168716",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Batista Carvalho Filardi",fullName:"João Batista Carvalho Filardi",slug:"joao-batista-carvalho-filardi"}]},{id:"45578",title:"Ray Trace Modeling of Underwater Sound Propagation",slug:"ray-trace-modeling-of-underwater-sound-propagation",signatures:"Jens M. Hovem",authors:[{id:"46063",title:"Prof.",name:"Jens",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Hovem",fullName:"Jens Hovem",slug:"jens-hovem"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"521",title:"Acoustic Waves",subtitle:"From Microdevices to Helioseismology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54432e5ff2c93e574f225da232e79c8c",slug:"acoustic-waves-from-microdevices-to-helioseismology",bookSignature:"Marco G. Beghi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41947",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco G.",surname:"Beghi",slug:"marco-g.-beghi",fullName:"Marco G. Beghi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10042",title:"Noise and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11e8fca2f0f623d87dfbc3cf2b185e0d",slug:"noise-and-environment",bookSignature:"Daniela Siano and Alice Elizabeth González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10042.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9960",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Siano",slug:"daniela-siano",fullName:"Daniela Siano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10966",title:"Acoustic Emission",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4cbf5fe77dcf581393247bd9ac4277a",slug:"acoustic-emission-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10966.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8679",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a994b17ac471c6d414d63c74a7ab74de",slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",bookSignature:"Suvanjan Bhattacharya, Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani, Ranjib Biswas and R. C. Mehta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8679.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"56358",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakhab",surname:"Mehta",slug:"rakhab-mehta",fullName:"Rakhab Mehta"},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"521",title:"Acoustic Waves",subtitle:"From Microdevices to Helioseismology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54432e5ff2c93e574f225da232e79c8c",slug:"acoustic-waves-from-microdevices-to-helioseismology",bookSignature:"Marco G. Beghi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41947",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco G.",surname:"Beghi",slug:"marco-g.-beghi",fullName:"Marco G. Beghi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81179",title:"Crop Diversification an Effective Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102635",slug:"crop-diversification-an-effective-strategy-for-sustainable-agriculture-development",body:'An ever-increasing worldwide population, especially in many developing nations, necessitates additional food, fiber, and oil supplies, posing a serious challenge to agricultural scientists to produce more and more from limited, diminishing, and degraded land and water resources. By 2050, it is expected that the global population will have increased by 50%, and global grain demand would have doubled [1]. The stress from climate change, accompanying extreme weather and urbanization also creates the burden. Global agriculture in the present status points to a formidable challenge to agricultural sustainability. The most important danger to food security and the environment is dwindling per capita natural resources, as well as resource depletion and degradation. Existing intensification technologies are showing symptoms of wear and tear. The loss of biodiversity, groundwater shortages, fossil water extraction, groundwater contamination, and rising atmospheric CO2 levels are all severe risks to sustainability. A variety of methodologies are used in sustainable production practises. Specific strategies must take into account the site specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture. Reduced dependency on monocultures can give better resilience and reduce the chance of total system failure, which is critical for attaining long-term sustainable agricultural development. It can be a dynamic and continuous process to adjust in changing circumstances. Diversification is the process of utilization of the various emerging opportunities created by new market, technology, changes in governmental policies, higher profitability and also stability in the production system [2]. It is a useful strategy for reducing the risk in farming [3]. Crop diversification is generally viewed as shift from a traditionally grown less remunerative crops to more remunerative crops. Crop diversification is recognized as one of the most environmentally feasible, cost-effective, and reasonable approaches to reduce uncertainty in agriculture, particularly in the face of climate change. Crop diversification helps in minimizing the alleviating second generations problem such as soil degradation, soil salinity, insect-pest and disease insurgence, environmental pollution, decline in farm profit, nutrient imbalance, climate change etc. Crop diversification promotes farm resilience, or the ability of an agroecosystem to return to its former productive state after being perturbed, by increasing geographical and temporal biodiversity. Although crop diversification is not a new concept to many rural people in developing and emerging economies, there has been little research on the subject to date. However, there is increasing global interest in the area, owing to current worries about biodiversity loss, as well as human and environmental health. Thus, in this book chapter we are trying to give some understanding about the topic Crop diversification an effective strategy for sustainable agriculture development.
Crop diversification, as opposed to specialized farming, can be defined as an attempt to promote crop diversity by crop rotation, multiple cropping, or intercropping, with the goal of improving productivity, sustainability, and supply of ecological systems [4, 5, 6]. It could be one step toward more sustainable production systems, value chains for minor crops [7], and socioeconomic benefits [8]. Enhanced agricultural diversity, better diverse crop rotations, mixed cropping [9, 10], cultivation of grain legumes in generally cereal-dominated systems [11], perennial leys or grassland [12], and regionally adapted varieties or variety combinations are all examples of agricultural diversification strategies. In developing countries, crop diversification is defined as the substitution of one or more agricultural products for another. Diversification in agriculture can be defined as the reinvestment of some farm productive resources, such as land, capital, farm equipment, and labour, into new enterprises [13]. A shift from less profitable cropping system to more profitable cropping system is also known as diversification. Diversification of agriculture, in general, refers to transitioning from a single crop’s regional or temporal dominance to the production of a variety of crops in order to meet the ever-increasing need for cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibers, fuel, and feed. Crop diversification is a demand-driven, need-based situation specific and national goal seeking dynamic and iterative concept that incorporates spatial, temporal, value addition, and resource-complementary techniques, as well as a move from traditional and less-remunerative crops (Figure 1).
Basic concept of crop diversification.
South Asia has a long history of intensive agriculture, particularly irrigated rice cultivation techniques. Sector strategies in the region are mostly based on food self-sufficiency policies [14]. Throughout the last 30 years, the system’s research and agricultural support services have increased food production faster than population expansion and diminished the percentage of people living in poverty. There has been significant income increase, diet diversification, and decreases in per capita grain intake throughout the comparable time span. South Asian countries are actively diversifying their economies in favor of high-value commodities such as fruits, vegetables, livestock, and fisheries, with some inter-country variation. Price policy, infrastructure development (particularly markets and highways), urbanization, and technical advancements all have a significant impact on agricultural diversification. Agricultural diversification in favor of high-value crops by substituting inferior coarse grains has helped rainfed areas more [15]. Agricultural diversification is also helping to increase export markets and create new job possibilities. Using appropriate institutions, it is necessary to properly coordinate the production and selling of high-value commodities. Market reforms in the form of building and strengthening desired institutions through necessary legal changes might go a long way toward encouraging agricultural growth, increasing small farm income, and boosting exports. Diversifying rural production is the process by which families create several livelihoods utilizing different variations of resources and assets in order to be less influenced by changes in the marketplace (such as price decreases) and to secure market stability [16]. So, if a region has high demographic pressure but minimal diversification, low-profit traditional commodities cultivation will increase and the farming frontier will spread, causing deforestation and soil erosion [17, 18]. As a result, investing in agricultural diversification can help to prevent environmental degradation by allowing for the production of a wider range of commercially feasible and productive crops [19]. Various options of crop diversification in South Asian countries are presented in the below Figure 2.
Various options of crop diversification.
The next sections examine the many techniques to crop diversification depending on land appropriateness, water availability, and market demand viz. regional, seasonal, and temporal [20]. The different approaches of crop diversifications are presented in Figure 3.
Different approaches of crop diversifications.
It is done by basically two approaches, through crop substitution and crop intensification. These two approaches have been the two main process of crop diversification. Crop substitution means replacing any crop which is continuously growing as a monoculture crop or gain a tendency of specialization. For example, during green revolution era there was a tendency to growing cereals crops only. Now a days the trend has change a lot in developing countries. Farmers are shifting from monoculture cereals based staple food to high value crops like vegetable, spices etc. There are several advantages of crop substitution which could be higher net returns, improve resource use efficiency (land and labour), break in cycle of pest and disease etc. On the other hand, crop intensification is adding of new value crops to existing cropping system to increase the farm’s overall productivity. To reap the benefits of agricultural diversification, we must move away from simple crop rotation and toward intensive systems such as multiple cropping, intercropping, relay cropping, and so on. Crop intensification helps in job opportunity, profitability and energy use efficiency [21]. Some examples of crop intensification and their advantages are discussed in Table 1.
Conventional cropping system | Crop intensification | Advantages | References |
---|---|---|---|
Maize-fallow | Maize–rajmash Maize–toria Maize–buckwheat Maize–buckwheat Maize (green cobs)-urdbean–buckwheat | Increased the grain equivalent yield, system production efficiency, relative production efficiency and land use efficiency. | Babu et al. [21] |
Transplanted boro-transplanted aman | Wheat-mungbean-T. aman with full tillage Wheat-mungbean- dry seeded aman with strip tillage | Increased land and water productivity, system productivity. | Alam et al. [22] |
Example of crop intensification and their advantages.
Vertical crop diversification, on the other hand, represents the degree and level of industrialization of agricultural production. In this approach famers and others add value to products through packaging, processing, regional branding, merchandizing to improve the marketable value of crops. Food crop vertical diversification is also described as the extension of post-harvest activities, such as processing and transformation industries, to allow food crops to be sorted, graded, processed into both food and industrial products, packed, stored, and transported to domestic or export markets [23]. The rise of processing and transformation industries appears to be the most important factor in rural areas in terms of creating revenue and jobs. To boost crop yields and income creation at the local, regional, and national levels, both types of diversification (
Options of vertical diversification.
Land based approach
Water-based approach
Varietal diversification
Diversification for nutritional security
Diversification for nutrient management
Diversification for pes management
Diversification for mitigation and adaption of climate change
Different measurements of crop diversification and their characterization are depicted in the Table 2 [24].
Measure of crop diversification | Characterization |
---|---|
1. Temporal crop diversification | |
Crop rotation | Growing of two or more different crops by one after another in consecutive ways |
Catch crop | Growing of crops to in between the space of two main crop or when no main crops are being grown |
Double or multiple cropping | Growing two or more crops in one growing season |
Relay cropping | In relay cropping second crop is grown in standing crop before the first crop is harvested |
2. Spatial crop diversification | |
Alley cropping | It is an agroforestry system in which food crops are grown in alleys formed by trees |
Intercropping | Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same land with definite pattern |
Mixed cropping | Growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field |
Variety mixture | Growing two or more varieties of a same species |
Trap | Growing commercial and non-commercial crop simultaneously in the same land |
Measure of crop diversification and its characterization.
Extent of crop diversification pattern, Sympson index and sources of crop diversification is presented in Table 3 [15].
Country | Sympson index of diversification in triennium ending | Sources of diversification (%) (1991–1992 to 1999–2001) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1981–1982 | 1991–1992 | 1999–2000 | Cropping intensity | Crop substitution | |
Bangladesh | 0.39 | 0.36 | 0.35 | 64.67 | 35.33 |
Bhutan | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0.44 | 97.82 | 2.18 |
India | 0.61 | 0.65 | 0.66 | 36.63 | 63.37 |
Maldives | 0.77 | 0.77 | 0.77 | 83.22 | 16.78 |
Nepal | 0.39 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 84.79 | 15.21 |
Pakistan | 0.54 | 0.56 | 0.57 | 76.56 | 23.44 |
Sri Lanka | 0.76 | 0.77 | 0.75 | 78.90 | 21.10 |
South Asia | 0.59 | 0.63 | 0.64 | 42.98 | 57.02 |
Extent of diversification and sources of diversification in South Asian countries.
High-value commodity production is driven by demand, which is primarily determined by rising income and urbanization. The major drivers of crop diversifications are discussed in Figure 5.
Rapid urbanization of developing countries is one of the biggest reasons of crop diversification. Urbanization puts pressure on land resources, a small number of farmers requires to produce for a larger number of consumers.
Change in consumers demand due to shifting from a diet-based staple to nutrient rich animal products, fruits and vegetables.
Improving nutritional benefits by diversifying the monoculture of traditional cereals crop.
Climate change
Value addition
Export potential
The key driver in altering production portfolios in favor of high-value commodities is road and market. They connect the producer and the consumer directly, reducing transportation and transaction costs. Mostly in case of perishable items, they lessen the danger of post-harvest loss [15].
Technology innovation may be a powerful driver for fostering agricultural diversification and accelerating agricultural growth. The fundamental driver of the ‘Green Revolution’ of the 1970s was biological technology [15].
Changing in governmental policy
Resilience and stability in production system.
Higher profitability
Factors determining crop diversification.
Nutritional food security and quality of life can be improved through diversification in food basket.
Food security
Poverty alleviation
Employment generation
Trade needs
Protecting the environmental degradation by reversing the decline trend in soil productivity and ground water table.
Income growth
Ecological balance
Sustainability of natural resources
Shifting from low yielding low value crops to high yielding high value crops.
Shifting toward higher water requirement crop to lower requirement crops.
Shifting toward low energy efficient crop to higher energy crop
Inclusion of legumes and oilseed crops
Inclusion of crop which has national and international market demand.
The domination of marginal and small farmers is one of the primary issues confronting India’s agricultural sector. These household makes up the majority of the rural population. Due to their low operating base, increasing the production of existing crops (staple food crops) may not be enough to boost their earnings. Therefore, diversifying the traditional cropping system is a best option to enhance income of small and marginal farmers.
Employment generation is a significant role of agriculture. But adopting the conventional cropping system like rice-wheat generally leads to lack of employment during off seasons. According to a number of studies, there is a serious problem of seasonal unemployment in different regions of our country, which leads to seasonal migration of labours/farmers to surrounding cities/towns in quest of contractual work [25]. Crop diversification helps rural households to have more opportunities of full-time employment.
Diversification is required to recover and enhance the value of the deteriorated natural resource base. Farmers in eastern India, particularly in West Bengal adopted wheat into a primarily rice system to take advantage of leftover moisture and so minimizes the need for wheat irrigation. In Punjab, on the other hand, an injudicious crop-mix, such as wheat-rice, has exacerbated the problem of water logging and salinity.
To increase export potential, it is very much essential to adopt diversification in cropping systems. Such factors have weighed heavily on the minds of farmers in eastern India, particularly in West Bengal, where wheat has been introduced into a primarily rice system to take advantage of leftover moisture and so minimizes the need for wheat irrigation.
Crop diversification is very much responsive to climatic and biotic vagaries, particularly in fragile ecosystems by expanding locally adapted or introducing novel varieties and related production systems will help resource-poor farmers improve their food security and income generation while also protecting the environment [26].
Crop diversification, which favors species combinations over monocultures, is one of the most cost-effective ways to combat pests and disease, and it has sparked a lot of attention in recent years [27].
One of the most important constraints for sustainable crop production is low soil fertility. In smallholder systems, poor farming practises, mostly continuous cropping with limited external inputs, have gradually depleted soil fertility. Interaction of crop species with beneficial soil biota helps in maintaining biogeochemical cycling of both organic and inorganic nutrients in the soil and maintaining soil quality [28].
Kasem and Thapa during 2011 conducted a study in Thailand, collecting primary data from 245 farm households using a structured questionnaire to examine the impact of crop diversification on income and input consumption. They discovered that the vast majority of farmers stated that crop diversification contributed to a significant rise in their revenue [29]. The results of their research findings are depicted in Table 4.
Opinion | Frequency (n = 81) | % |
---|---|---|
Increased income | 68 | 84 |
Enhanced food sufficiency | 54 | 66.7 |
Flow of income throughout the year | 43 | 53.1 |
Offers opportunity to produce crops according to market demand | 12 | 14.8 |
Smoothens the effect of price fluctuation | 10 | 12.3 |
Diversified farmers viewpoint about benefits of crop diversification.
Birthal et al. studied into the impact of crop diversification on India’s farm poverty. Data from a nationally representative survey was used. The dataset, according to them, contains information on the crops grown, as well as the costs and returns associated with each crop. This allows us to investigate the pattern and breadth of high value crop diversification across land sizes, as well as their profitability in comparison to other crops. In comparison to other crops, Table 5 shows the estimated net returns per hectare from high value crop cultivation. When compared to cereals, high value crop (HCVs) provided much higher returns to all types of farmers, including marginal farmers [30].
Crops | Marginal ≤1 ha | Small (1–2 ha) | Medium (2–4 ha) | Large >4 ha | All |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total cereal | 9044 (456) | 7099 (256) | 7518 (403) | 6164 (599) | 8301 (304) |
Fruits | 37,347 (9283) | 51,859 (19,187) | 36,726 (13,289) | 30,433 (13,585) | 39,523 (9566) |
Vegetable | 22,423 (3100) | 19,226 (1748) | 20,641 (2402) | 19,114 (4657) | 21,459 (1852) |
High value crops | 25,618 (2486) | 22,329 (2292) | 21,411 (2834) | 21,518 (4014) | 24,263 (2091) |
Comparison of net returns (Rs ha−1) from higher value crops with other crops by crop diversification.
One US$ = 47.62 in the survey year i.e., 2002–2003 [30].
Figures in parentheses are standard errors. Total cereals include rice, wheat, maize, and coarse cereals like pearl millet, sorghum, and barley. High-value crops include vegetables, fruits, condiments and spices, flowers, aromatic and medicinal plants, and plantation crops like tea and coffee.
Despite differences between countries, rural households in the majority of countries tend to rotate a small number of crops. Two, three, or a maximum of four agricultural products are the most common combinations used by households. Few households grow more than six distinct crops, most likely due to the small size of their allotment and the inherent challenge of producing many goods viz. water requirements, necessity of sun exposition and type of soil, among others. An empirical evidenced from eight different countries were analyzed and presented in Table 6 [31].
Diversification of crop through intercropping system has significant advantage in land use efficiency, monetary returns and crop productivity as compared to monocropping. Intercropping results in more efficient use of solar energy and harnessing benefits of positive interactions of crop association. Benefits of some potential intercropping system are discussed in below Table 7 with regards to system productivity, net returns and B:C ratio.
Number of crops produced and share of households (% of total national sample) producing each number | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country and year | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ≥8 | Total |
Malawi, 2004 | 11 | 21 | 23 | 20 | 13 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 100 |
Nepal, 2003 | 3 | 25 | 8 | 18 | 8 | 10 | 3 | 25 | 100 |
Vietnam, 1998 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 8 | 46 | 100 |
Pakistan, 2001 | 22 | 61 | 15 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 |
Nicaragua, 2001 | 6 | 19 | 20 | 17 | 11 | 9 | 7 | 11 | 100 |
Indonesia, 2000 | 28 | 29 | 25 | 11 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 100 |
Albania, 2005 | 11 | 31 | 15 | 14 | 8 | 9 | 3 | 9 | 100 |
Panama, 2003 | 36 | 38 | 19 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 |
Share of household practicing different numbers of crops (an empirical evidence from eight developing countries) [31].
Economics of intercropping system for crop diversification.
These are primarily socioeconomic and institutional barriers, such as the lack of holding consolidation and group farming, geographic disadvantages (remote areas far from shops and supermarkets), farmer ‘lack of education, the outright failure of the agricultural extension system, and a lack of transportation and marketing facilities.
Lack of salt and excess moisture tolerant crops and cultivars.
Lack of skill and knowledge in choosing alternate crops in cropping system
Small and fragmented land holding creates difficulty to ensure that they participate more fully in crop diversification.
Agricultural output is used as a raw material in agro-based industries. When monoculture becomes unsustainable, a more sustainable and profitable crop must be substituted. Because of massive infrastructure expenditure, switching over becomes difficult by that time; for example, the rice industry in Punjab and Haryana, the sugarcane industry in Uttar Pradesh, and the soybean industry in Madhya Pradesh states in India.
The major causes of high cost of production are rising wage rates and declining factor productivity. The researchers are being challenged to reduce the cost of production and produce new adaptive cultivars that can capture high market prices.
Over use and sub optimal use of natural resources like water and land resources, may negative impact on environment and sustainability.
Weak research-extention and farmers linkage.
Lack of knowledge among the farmer
Though there are hundreds of scientific papers in the field of agronomy on agricultural diversity such as crop rotation or intercropping, only a small percentage of these studies are about diversification as a concept [21].
Diversification is one of the most effective ways to boost farm revenue, resulting in increased food, nutrition, and environmental security, as well as poverty reduction in developing countries. It creates a tremendous impact on agro-socio-economic gains.
It increased the flow of income throughout the year.
Offers opportunity to produce crops according to market demand
Smoothens the effect of price fluctuation
Increase the grain equivalent yield, system production efficiency, relative production efficiency and land use efficiency of maize-fallow system.
Overall potential of crop diversification is yet to be studied.
Impact of crop diversification on rural economics and poverty alleviation needs to be investigated in details.
Effect of crop diversification on soil health properties needs to be studied in details.
Social benefits of crop diversification are less well known.
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The chitosan used as soil amendment was shown to give many benefits to different plant species by reducing the pathogen attack and infection. 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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66424,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:88,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"68437",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch and Its Application in the Food Industry",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch-and-its-application-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:4730,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:"Starch is an important food product and a versatile biomaterial used world-wide for different purposes in many industrial sectors including foods, health, textile, chemical and engineering sector. Starch versatility in industrial applications is largely defined by its physicochemical properties and functionality. Starch in its native form has limited functionality and application. But advancements in biotechnology and chemical technological have led to wide-range modification of starch for different purposes. The objective of this chapter is to examine the different chemical reactions of starch and expose the food applications of the modification products. Several literatures on starch and reaction chemistry including online journals and books were analyzed, harmonized and rationalized. The reactions and mechanisms presented are explained based on the principles of reaction chemistry. Chemical modification of starch is based on the chemical reactivity of the constituent glucose monomers which are polyhydroxyl and can undergo several reactions. Starch can undergo reactions such as hydrolysis, esterification, etherification and oxidation. These reactions give modified starches which can be used in baked foods, confectionaries, soups and salad dressings. This chapter discusses the different chemical reactions of starch, the associated changes in functionality, as well as the applications of chemically modified starches in the food industry.",book:{id:"8170",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch",fullTitle:"Chemical Properties of Starch"},signatures:"Henry Omoregie Egharevba",authors:[{id:"300976",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Henry",middleName:"Omoregie",surname:"Egharevba",slug:"henry-egharevba",fullName:"Henry Egharevba"}]},{id:"63169",title:"The Dairy Industry: Process, Monitoring, Standards, and Quality",slug:"the-dairy-industry-process-monitoring-standards-and-quality",totalDownloads:9042,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Sampling and analysis occur along the milk processing train: from collection at farm level, to intake at the diary plant, the processing steps, and the end products. Milk has a short shelf life; however, products such as milk powders have allowed a global industry to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and food standards to meet regulatory and customer demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard analysis testing strategies are necessary, but some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify product optimization quality control strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy industry is a traditional industry with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries’ reply to Industry 4.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced by sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-time data management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Mark Southern, Paul Hogan,\nMichael P. Ryan and Catherine C. Adley",authors:[{id:"243276",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael P",middleName:null,surname:"Ryan",slug:"michael-p-ryan",fullName:"Michael P Ryan"},{id:"246153",title:"Prof.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Adley",slug:"catherine-adley",fullName:"Catherine Adley"},{id:"264302",title:"Ms.",name:"Niamh",middleName:null,surname:"Burke",slug:"niamh-burke",fullName:"Niamh Burke"},{id:"264304",title:"Mr.",name:"Krzysztof A",middleName:null,surname:"Zacharski",slug:"krzysztof-a-zacharski",fullName:"Krzysztof A Zacharski"},{id:"264305",title:"Mr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Hogan",slug:"paul-hogan",fullName:"Paul Hogan"},{id:"264306",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Southern",slug:"mark-southern",fullName:"Mark Southern"}]},{id:"40181",title:"Plant Tissue Culture Media",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-media",totalDownloads:104997,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Abobkar I.M. Saad and Ahmed M. Elshahed",authors:[{id:"144204",title:"Prof.",name:"Abobkar",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"abobkar-mohamed",fullName:"Abobkar Mohamed"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"33",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82066",title:"Chocolate: Health, Processing, and Food Safety",slug:"chocolate-health-processing-and-food-safety",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104819",abstract:"Chocolate is a popular food product internationally, and it is consumed daily. Consuming chocolate has been linked to many human health benefits such as lower cholesterol levels, but there are some negative impacts such as weight gain because of its sugar content. Moreover, food safety issues related to chocolate have existed, and it can be contaminated by any biological, chemical, or physical hazards, which lead to many health issues. Regarding that, this chapter will discuss the benefits and negative impacts of consuming chocolate and provide the process of manufacturing the product.",book:{id:"11025",title:"A Glance at Food Processing Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11025.jpg"},signatures:"Ahmed Albandary, Fatemah Albandary and Amit K. Jaiswal"},{id:"78140",title:"Thoughts for Foods: Imaging Technology Opportunities for Monitoring and Measuring Food Quality",slug:"thoughts-for-foods-imaging-technology-opportunities-for-monitoring-and-measuring-food-quality",totalDownloads:216,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99532",abstract:"In recent decades, the quality and safety of fruits, vegetables, cereals, meats, milk, and their derivatives from processed foods have become a serious issue for consumers in developed as well as developing countries. Undoubtedly, the traditional methods of inspecting and ensuring quality that depends on the human factor, some mechanical and chemical methods, have proven beyond any doubt their inability to achieve food quality and safety, and thus a failure to achieve food security. With growing attention on human health, the standards of food safety and quality are continuously being improved through advanced technology applications that depend on artificial intelligence tools to monitor the quality and safety of food. One of the most important of these applications is imaging technology. A brief discussion in this chapter on the utilize of multiple imaging systems based on all different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum as a principal source of various imaging systems. As well as methods of analyzing and reading images to build intelligence and non-destructive systems for monitoring and measuring the quality of foods.",book:{id:"11025",title:"A Glance at Food Processing Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11025.jpg"},signatures:"Ayman Eissa, Lajos Helyes, Elio Romano, Ahmed Albandary and Ayman Ibrahim"},{id:"78268",title:"Utilization of Agro-Industrial Wastes as Edible Coating and Films for Food Packaging Materials",slug:"utilization-of-agro-industrial-wastes-as-edible-coating-and-films-for-food-packaging-materials",totalDownloads:203,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99786",abstract:"Mostly, food packaging employs synthetic materials obtained from nonrenewable sources. These packaging materials are based on petrochemicals and cause substantial environmental problems by producing massive amounts of non-biodegradable solid wastes. Edible coatings and films are considered as the potential solution to these problems of non-biodegradable packaging solid wastes for maintaining food-environment interactions, retaining food quality, and extending shelf life. In addition, edible coatings and films offer prevention from microbial spoilage of packed foods by controlling moisture and gas barrier characteristics. Increasing environmental concerns and consumer demands for high-quality eco-friendly packaging have fueled the advancement of innovative packaging technologies, for instance, the development of biodegradable films from renewable agricultural and food processing industry wastes. Therefore, the current chapter presents the application of edible coatings and films as an alternative to conventional packaging, emphasizing the fundamental characterization that these biodegradable packaging should hold for specific applications such as food preservation and shelf life enhancement. The primary employed components (e.g., biopolymers, bioactive, and additives components), manufacturing processes (for edible films or coatings), and their application to specific foods have all been given special consideration in this chapter. Besides, a future vision for the use of edible films and coatings as quality indicators for perishable foods is presented.",book:{id:"11025",title:"A Glance at Food Processing Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11025.jpg"},signatures:"Urmila Choudhary, Basant Kumar Bhinchhar, Vinod Kumar Paswan, Sheela Kharkwal, Satya Prakash Yadav and Prity Singh"},{id:"78863",title:"Effects of the Incorporation of Arabinoxylans Derived from Selected Cereals (Rice Bran and Corn Fibre) and Sugarcane Bagasse on the Quality of Baked Foods: A Systematic Review",slug:"effects-of-the-incorporation-of-arabinoxylans-derived-from-selected-cereals-rice-bran-and-corn-fibre",totalDownloads:95,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99488",abstract:"The supplementation of baked foods, namely cookie/biscuits, bread and cakes with agricultural by-products from cereal based fibres (rice bran and corn fibre) and sugarcane bagasse at rates of 0% - 15%; 0% - 30% and 0% - 10% respectively can significantly improve its nutritive value and enhanced its physical and sensorial qualities. This chapter aims to review the role of dietary fibres derived from selected cereals (rice bran and corn fibre) and sugarcane bagasse in baked foods, namely cookies/biscuits, bread and cakes; evaluate their effects on the physical and sensory qualities of these baked food products and to critically assess their beneficial impacts in baked foods. These enriched food products can potentially be utilised in shaping health policies, contribute to the dietary fibre needs of consumers and facilitate the development of functional foods. Fibre enriched foods potentially can assist in improving various physiological functions of the human body. A Keyword-based search strategy was utilised to conduct a comprehensive search for articles catalogued in ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, Medline, CINAHL and Google Scholar that were published between January 1, 2010 and August 1, 2020. Applicable aspects of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines provided the framework of this review. Fourteen (14) studies met the inclusion/extraction criteria and was placed into sub-groups by food types and fibre used in supplementation. Only eleven (11) studies were suitable for statistical data analysis. The supplementation of sugarcane bagasse at both 5% and 10% and rice bran up to 15% into cookies/biscuits significantly undesirable acceptance (p < 0.05). Corn fibre enriched cookies/biscuits up to 20% showed a significantly (p < 0.05) favourable impact on the sensory qualities of the food product. The physical qualities of sugarcane bagasse supplemented cookies/biscuits were negatively affected. The incremental addition of sugarcane bagasse resulted in at 50% rise in the firmness of 10% enriched cookies/biscuits, from 5.7 ± 5.4 (Kg Force) to 13.0 ± 3.9 (Kg Force). Corn fibre cookies supplementation did not significantly affect its physical qualities. Rice bran incorporation of 15% in bread showed a significant (p < 0.05) undesirable effect on its sensory qualities. However, the was no significant adverse effect on its physical quality. Corn bran enriched cakes up to 20% fibre incorporation displayed a significant (p < 0.05) favourable effect on the sensory properties of cakes.",book:{id:"11025",title:"A Glance at Food Processing Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11025.jpg"},signatures:"Roy Orain Porter"},{id:"77920",title:"Honey Production Process",slug:"honey-production-process",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99439",abstract:"Honey has been considered as a very important and superior nutrient in human nutrition since ancient times due to its ability to be consumed by humans without processing, easy digestibility, nutritional properties and biological benefits. Although honey contains many desired bioactive and antibacterial substances, which may be sufficient for antimicrobial activity, it cannot be produced in sufficient quantities due to low water activity under normal conditions. This causes various food and bee-borne spores/non-spores pathogens going viral. Hence, it may cause the risk of parasitological and fungal agents to be found. In honey production, “Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)” must be applied meticulously and completely. Current technologies in honey production will be explained in this section.",book:{id:"11025",title:"A Glance at Food Processing Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11025.jpg"},signatures:"Emek Dümen, Nadide Gizem Tarakçı and Gözde Ekici"},{id:"78007",title:"Retracted: Applications of Phage-Based Biosensors in the Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases, Food Safety, and Environmental Monitoring",slug:"retracted-applications-of-phage-based-biosensors-in-the-diagnosis-of-infectious-diseases-food-safety",totalDownloads:73,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99537",abstract:"Bacteriophages are interesting entities that parasite bacteria. After infection, they gain new properties such as selectively binding proteins, thanks to genetic manipulation capability. Owing to this, they may be applied as recognition elements in different types of biosensors. Combining bacteriophages with various transducers can then result in the construction of innovative sensor designs that could improve the quality of food safety and environmental monitoring services. Contamination of foods by bacterial pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella typhimurium, results in human infection that can severely affect the immunocompromised, the elderly, and pregnant women. Therefore, this chapter discusses the use of bacteriophages, or their derived peptides, as new sensing elements for the recognition of biomarkers, and the development of highly effective diagnostics tools for early prevention of food-borne infections.",book:{id:"11025",title:"A Glance at Food Processing Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11025.jpg"},signatures:"Asmaa Missoum"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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