\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
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In 1955, John Lawson, working at Harwell, defined a condition for fusion power depending on plasma density
Their method in [3] was to write a “system code,” in their case a simple spreadsheet, to incorporate the key input parameters and equations to calculate key output parameters. Innovations were to use the fusion gain
Some example results using their code are shown in Figure 1. The fusion power with these scan conditions is seen to be almost independent of tokamak size, while key engineering conditions, such as the radial compressive stress at the top of tokamak, the magnetic field at the HTS conductors, and the wall loading power are all satisfactory. The purple open squares show the thickness of the shield, rising rapidly from 0.55 m major radius.
Some example results from the 2017 Costley system code scanning as a function of major radius for a constant fusion gain
Figure 1 describes how an integration of tokamak physics, HTS design, neutronics and computational fluid dynamics, and magnetohydrodynamic stress codes could help predict optimal tokamak design. To these, we must add codes for tritium breeding, heat transfer, design, construction, and decommissioning costs to produce a suite of codes that must be put together to predict a new spherical tokamak power plant design. It is with this aim that Tokamak Energy has invested in high-performance computational (HPC) capabilities.
The “system codes” which used to be implemented on Excel spreadsheets are greatly expanded and are verified by fitting experimental data from actual tokamaks like ST40. Future system codes are envisaged to use a single-design geometry to perform calculations automatically on a suite of tools involving physics, HTS magnet design, neutronics, heat flow, and engineering to obtain the parameters required to optimize a tokamak. The integration of system codes and tools used by multiple departments allows for an automated, iterative optimization of the tokamak design. HTS magnet codes need to consider quench protection and be compared to actual demo magnet experiments to verify their performance. The analytic stress equations, once commonly used, are now replaced by finite element codes whose performance can be judged by experimental data from the ST40 tokamak. The neutronics of HTS and biological shields is now rather straightforwardly assessed by activation foils under actual conditions and actual measurements of dose rates during shots. A major part of the successful operation of tokamak power plants depends on being able to breed tritium from the fusion neutrons interacting with lithium in a “blanket” within the biological shield. These are being designed using neutronics codes but to date have not been tested. “Process” codes have the particularly difficult job of computing the “cost of electricity” for given costs of capital borrowing and materials. They are not easy to check and can so easily be outdated by unforeseen world events. The integration of system codes and tools used by multiple departments allows for an automated, iterative, optimization of the tokamak design.
All these aspects of physics, engineering, heat flow, magnet design, neutronics, radiation damage, shielding, tritium breeding, and cost estimates are possible with separate codes, and the objective is to integrate them into a suite of codes using the same computer-aided design (CAD) geometry on the same hardware. For this purpose, a high-performance computer was purchased by Tokamak Energy. The Tokamak Energy HPC currently has over 600 cores and over 3 TB of RAM available to use and continuously uses thousands of CPU hours daily to resolve physics and neutronics problems. Figure 2 illustrates some of the principal applications and their codes used, with illustrations of the results they have given in hours by the high-performance computer illustrated at the center.
The Tokamak Energy high-performance computer and examples of some of its applications and widely used code. Clockwise from the top left; the design “FREECAD” computer-aided design code of ST40, an “ABAQUS “code image of the mesh representation of the design, “MCNP” the Monte Carlo Neutral Particle code showing the neutronics fluence of a possible power plant, “FISPACT” the fusion activation code plot of the ST40 inner vacuum vessel, the in-house “PFIT” code plots of the ST40 field line fits to ST40 image, heat transfer in the ST40 divertor, the “HEAT” heat transfer code plots of the temperature in the HTS coils of a power plant, the “ANSYS” code plot of the mechanical stresses in the ST40 tokamak, and the “RACOON” in-house code for calculating HTS performance. In the center is the Tokamak Energy high-performance computer with author GK.
Key technological advancements needed to complete integration of CAD geometry between the suite of codes is in mesh generators. Currently, all tools have their own meshing methods with outputs in various formats. Geometrical information required to build successful inputs to the system tools are envisaged to be integrated into the CAD data. For example, neutronics heat deposition calculations require material compositions and densities for input and can output maximum heat deposition per CAD part which can then be stored as part of the CAD data for input for heat flow tools. Upgrades to the system code will utilize this data and perform meshing to the required resolution for each CAD part which are required for the system tools.
The following sections will shed some light on how we are effectively using the HPC for streamlining the design process, with an emphasis here on shield design. The use of “tally tagging” with the neutronics code MCNP is to answer key questions on the performance of shields, such as where the neutrons and gammas responsible for core heating originate, and from what reactions.
Costley [4] showed that the triple product
The reduction in tokamak major radius (lines labeled in meters) which may be given by lower aspect ratios (X-axis) or by higher magnetic toroidal fields (Y-axis). The figure uses the equation shown from [
It is seen from Figure 3 that going to lower aspect ratios (leftward) or to higher toroidal fields (upward) gives similar triple products from smaller tokamaks with lower major radii. This result is important because tokamaks of ITER size may be defined as “megaprojects” (technically project over $1B: ITER is over $20B). Historical studies of megaprojects show that cost and time overruns are the norm rather than the exception [5]. The reasons are obvious enough: megaprojects tend to be too big for one company, or even one country. They become difficult to manage as the layers of management between boss and worker become longer. With smaller tokamak power plants, agility becomes possible when projects can adapt quickly to any design optimization. A breakthrough would be achieved when modular construction becomes possible with centralized manufacture remote from the construction site.
In the following sections, these two opportunities, spherical tokamaks and high-temperature superconductor magnets, will be explored in more detail. Figure 1 does also reveal the downside of spherical tokamaks. The purple open squares in Figure 1 show that the space available for shielding diminishes slowly at large major radii but eventually rather rapidly to zero at some smaller major radius. Much of the remainder of this chapter will explore the materials and mechanisms most appropriate to a fusion tokamak shield. Tungsten boride shields have proved one possible option for a fusion power plant, and their performance is examined and compared with other possibilities.
In 1983, Sykes, Turner and Patel [6] and later Peng and Strickler [7] predicted the high plasma pressures β possible with low aspect ratio spherical tokamaks. The theory showed that β could indeed be raised by a combination of low aspect ratio and high elongation. In 1998, the START spherical tokamak team at Culham Laboratory in the UK achieved a breakthrough by reaching β values of order 40% [8], compared to the 6% or so achieved in JET or the 4% or so expected in ITER.
A simple-minded explanation for these increases in efficiency is suggested by Figure 4 which shows the toroidal magnetic field
In a low aspect ratio, high elongation plasma (left in blue), the orbiting electrons spend more time close to the current carrying center column than in a conventional tokamak (right in red) from [
Bigger spherical tokamaks were soon built around the world, now upgraded to higher toroidal fields. These include MAST-UPRADE (0.55 Tesla) at Culham, UK [11], NSTX-U (1Tesla) at Princeton, USA [12], and GLOBUS M2 (0.82 Tesla) at St. Petersberg, Russia [13]. Most recently constructed with the highest design toroidal field of 3 Tesla is the ST40 at Tokamak Energy Ltd., Milton Park, UK. This company was started in 2009 and its founders included START pioneers Alan Sykes and Mikhail Gryaznevich [14]. Its aim was to exploit the twin technologies of spherical tokamaks and high-temperature superconductors. The ST40 design team was chaired by Alan Sykes in 2014. Engineer and draftsman John Ross rapidly iterated designs with pencil and drawing board which hardly changed when the design moved to computer-aided design. Figure 5 shows the design as of May 2019 when temperatures of 15x106 K were first achieved.
The ST40 tokamak in May 2019 when the milestone plasma temperature of 15x106 K was achieved. On the left is the engineering drawing along with the reconstruction of the plasma and optical image of the plasma.
Rapid development followed and ST40 moved to larger premises with space for a neutron shield and neutral beam injection to heat the plasma to the next milestone temperature of 100x106 K which was successfully achieved in February 2022. In designing the next generation of spherical tokamaks, HPC facilities will be important particularly in solving the gyro-kinetics used to predict the plasma turbulence and plasma confinement time.
Bednorz and Müller discovered high-temperature superconductors (HTSs) back in 1986 [15]. The theory remains uncertain. The important fact is that by 2010 it was possible to buy kilometer lengths of HTS tape just 0.1 mm thick and 12 mm wide. Under the optimized manufacturing conditions, now readily achieved by commercial suppliers, YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) has a superconducting critical temperature of ~90 K. State-of-the-art commercial tapes are now exhibiting engineering critical current densities >1000 A/mm2 at 20 K and 20 Tesla field applied perpendicular to the tape which is the lowest performance configuration [16].
In 2015, Tokamak Energy demonstrated a simple 25 cm radius HTS tokamak operating continuously for 29 hours under a live demonstration during the Royal Society Summer Exhibition as illustrated in Figure 6.
The high-temperature superconducting tokamak ST25HTS in operation after for 29 hours.
The more difficult task was to create the HTS coils needed for an operational tokamak. A key problem is quench protection when any defect or heating anomaly can create a local temperature rise above the transition temperature. With an insulated conductor, the current has nowhere to go and so it heats up quickly. This can spread to nearby superconductors and so the magnet quenches and could be destroyed. The problem can be avoided by removing any insulation between the tapes. The current from any localized normal region of tape can then spread over to neighboring tapes and any quench is avoided, but then the time constant for energizing the coil becomes impractically long. In research in the David Hawksworth HTS Magnet Laboratory at Tokamak Energy, a middle way of partial insulation has been developed with a precise inter-turn resistance between each tape layer to allow current transfer but avoid the time-constant problems. Figure 7 shows “Demo2”, a stack of six REBCO non-insulated pancakes with a diameter of 300 mm. Cooled to 20 K it is able to take a current of 3000 A and produce a peak field of over 10 Tesla. The magnet proved difficult to quench. It could be quenched by turning off the current, but the stored energy was dissipated within the magnet in the inter-turn resistance, and there was no system degradation [18].
The DEMO2 magnet constructed at Tokamak Energy [
Under construction at Tokamak Energy is a demonstration tokamak “Demo4” designed to operate at fields in the region of 20 Tesla with a full set of partially insulated HTS toroidal field coils.
Figure 8 illustrates a well-known challenge of spherical tokamaks. For a given central HTS core radius
The increase of shield thickness
A related dependence was shown by the open purple squares in Figure 1 as a function of major radius for constant aspect ratio
The main disadvantages of large size are cost and construction time, which did not appear in Figure 1. In practice, deciding the optimal size of a spherical tokamak power plant will be an optimization including these as well as outputs from plasma physics, HTS core construction, neutronics calculations, heat flow calculations, and structural engineering constraints.
The fusion power plants envisaged to use the D-T reaction when a deuterium and tritium ions collide to produce an alpha particle and a neutron 2D + 3T = 4He + n + 17.6 MeV. The helium alphas, being charged, tend to stay within the plasma and sustain its temperature. The neutrons, with 14.1 MeV energy, interact little with the plasma and escape to the inner and outer shields where their energy can be used to generate electricity and also to replenish the tritium ions by reactions with lithium in “blanket” layers within the shields. There are fewer size limitations to the outer shield, so this discussion will center on the optimization of the inner shield.
14.1 MeV neutrons are not easy to shield. They can be slowed down by multiple elastic collisions, moderation, or more quickly by inelastic (e.g. n, gamma) collisions. The moderation method is only practical for hydrogen moderators as the average value of the decrease in the natural logarithm of the neutron energy per collision is unity for natural hydrogen, but only 0.158 for carbon. The shield studies made for the Costley system code [3] results of Figure 1 supposed a layered shield with thick layers of cemented tungsten carbide and thinner layers of water. The fast neutron flux through such a shield is shown in Figure 9 taken from [20]. The half-attenuation shield distance is 53 mm. This relatively poor attenuation is possibly because of the relatively high atomic fractions of carbon and oxygen which give little attenuation to either neutrons or gammas.
The attenuation of fast neutrons (E > 0.1 MeV) though a layered shield of tungsten carbide (including with a tungsten boride inner layer) with intervening water channels for coolant and neutron moderation. The inset shows a vertical section [
Water coolant is now seen to have serious problems in a fusion power plant. The activation of 16O to 16N which decays with a 7.1-s half-life is one issue, and another is the desire for heat production at higher temperatures where the water vapor pressure becomes serious. Helium gas cooling has none of these problems.
Monolithic shields with varying fractions of tungsten and boron were examined [21, 22] and shown to give half-attenuation coefficients as low as 40 mm as seen in Figure 10. The neutron cross sections of tungsten and boron are shown as a function of energy in Figure 11. Tungsten is a key element as its neutron cross section has significant inelastic neutron (n, 2n) and (n, n’ gamma) reactions around the 1 to 10 MeV energies which reduce the 14.1 MeV neutrons to around 0.1 MeV energy. The 10B isotope has an absorption cross section which rises inversely with neutron velocity giving a highly significant absorption below 0.1 MeV, not far above the energies where they are captured by 10B which makes up around 20% of natural boron. The principal reactions occurring in a tungsten boride shield are illustrated in Figure 12. Let us consider each of the numbered processes.
The attenuation of neutrons though monolithic shields at 1400 mm major radii of boron carbides of varying composition, including a cemented borocarbide, pure tungsten, and tungsten carbide.
The neutron cross sections for tungsten (left) and for boron (right). For tungsten, the total (black), elastic (green, dashed), inelastic (red, dash-dot), (n,2n) (blue, dotted), and (n, gamma) (yellow) cross sections are shown. For boron, the minority (20%) 10B isotope (black) and the majority 11B isotope cross section (blue dashed) are shown. Below 10 keV, the 10B cross section follows an inverse velocity increase with decreasing neutron energy as show in the curve labeled 10Babs. The cross sections are from the Brookhaven National Nuclear Data Centre [
Some of the processes involved in a tungsten boride shield protecting a high-temperature superconducting core from fusion neutrons generated by a plasma. Tungsten atoms are large, while boron atoms are small. Protons are red, neutrons green, electrons blue, and gammas violet. Fusion is fueled continuously by injecting tritium ions usually by pellet injection. These hit deuterium ions to produce helium ions and fast neutrons. The six scattering processes indicated are discussed in the text.
The attenuation of fluence through a W2B5 shield for neutrons created in the plasma (red direct) and neutrons and gammas created inelastically in the shield (blue). There are no direct gammas. Inset are shown the energy spectrum of the direct neutrons (red upper right) and the indirect neutrons and gammas (blue lower left).
Elastic scattering (i) of neutrons. Tungsten makes a good reflector as its cross section of ~3 barns of elastic cross section per atom at 14 MeV and its high mass compared to a neutron ensures little recoil energy. Most neutrons are not reflected but continue forward with slightly reduced energy. Moderation (ii) occurs when incident neutrons collide with lighter atoms, like boron. The collisions exchange, or moderate, the neutron energy, therby reducing the transmitted power. The best moderator is hydrogen since its mass is almost the same as the neutron and the maximum energy is lost on collision. Inelastic (n,2n) (iii) reactions produce a different isotope of the same element. A typical reaction would be 183W + n = 182W + 2n + γ, which is highly beneficial transforming each high energy neutron into two lower-energy neutrons of a few MeV which are easier to shield.
Inelastic (n, n’ gamma) neutron scattering (iv) means that the incident neutron forms a new compound nucleus which quickly decays to release the neutron with an appreciably lower energy and with the emission of the excess energy in the form of a gamma. These gammas must then be shielded. (n, gamma) capture (v) is common at lower neutron energies. The neutron is absorbed to form a tungsten isotope with one higher atomic weight with the emission of gammas of significant energy (vi). The lower-energy neutrons produced by moderation or inelastic scattering become increasingly likely to be absorbed by isotopes such as 10B with a high neutron absorption cross section. Gammas are shielded by scattering from electrons in the shield atoms and thus need high atomic number (number of electrons per atom) and high number density (atoms/m3). Tungsten is a comparatively good element for a gamma shield, while boron is not.
More detailed information on the shield scattering process may be found by using the “tally tagging” feature of the MCNP code [24]. Fluence or energy deposition tallies generally total up all particles from all sources, reactions, atoms, and isotopes. Using tally tagging, the results can be broken down into any chosen set of these options. In order to limit the output file length, it is usually best to ask specific questions: “Did a neutron start in the plasma and survive all the way through the shield?” “Did a photon heating the HTS core get born in the core itself, or did it get born in the shield?” Each output contains a tally code of form CCCCCZZAAA.RRRRR where CCCCC optionally represents the origin tally cell number, ZZ the atom number, AAA the isotope number, and RRRRR the reaction type.
Another important refinement in fluence tallies is to separate them according to the angle the particle path makes with the normal to the tally surface. In the following examples, the angles were divided into six ranges 0o to 30o, 30o to 60o, 60o to 90o, 90o to 120o, 120o to 150o, and 150o to 180o. These subtend different solid angles, so these need to be corrected to give fluences per steradian.
Some results answering the question of where the neutrons originate from are given in Figure 13 which shows the fluences at angles <300 to the shield layers. The tally tagging distinguishes the tally volumes where each neutron originated. The red triangles show those neutrons originating in the plasma, although some elastic moderation will have occurred. The direct neutron energy spectrum at 100 mm into the shield shown inset in red at the bottom left of Figure 13 shows that this is a minor effect with elastic moderation caused by the tungsten and boron atoms giving the rapid half-attenuations of 0.24 and 0.8 MeV, respectively. The corresponding indirect neutron spectrum shown inset in blue at the bottom left of Figure 13 is from the tungsten (n, gamma) and (n, n’ gamma) reactions and is very broad and centered around 0.2 MeV. The corresponding gamma rays are seen to have a less broad distribution with some peaks centered around 1 MeV. The tally tagging feature can also identify the origin of the indirect fluence in more detail. It shows that most of the indirect neutrons come back from tungsten atoms further into the shield. The indirect gammas came equally from tungsten and boron atoms within a few centimeters of the fluence position.
An illustration of the energy dependence of the neutrons as they pass through a W2B5 shield is given in Figure 14. Neutrons incident on the shield make up a “pool” of 14 MeV neutrons which extends with decreasing fluence through the shield. At any shield position, a fraction “falls down the waterfall” to energies around 0.2 MeV. At the base of the “waterfall,” the neutrons lose further energy by moderation down a gently sloping riverbed. In W2B5 as their energy reaches 0.001 MeV energies, they soon become almost completely absorbed by 10B as in a porous sandy riverbed.
An illustration of the energy dependence of the neutrons passing through A W2B5 shield. Neutrons incident on the shield come from a “pool” at 14 MeV. This pool decreases in width through the shield as (n, n’ gamma) inelastic reactions produces an energy “waterfall” reducing the neutron energy to around 0.2 MeV. At the bottom of the waterfall, moderation reduces the energy gradually (the rocky riverbed) until energies are almost wholly absorbed by 10B (the sandy riverbed). The gammas produced by the inelastic scattering are absorbed in a few centimeters so that the diagram is valid throughout the bulk of the shield.
A simple model of the W2B5 shield is that the fluence of direct neutrons of around 14 MeV energy exists across the shield with around 30-mm half-attenuation distance. Inelastic (n, n’ gamma) reactions lower the neutron energy to around 0.2 MeV, but the resulting gamma rays are attenuated in only a few centimeters. Further moderation reduces the neutron energy to the level where they are absorbed by 10B. In a pure tungsten shield, the waterfall from 14 to 0.2 MeV is again present, but there is no 10B absorption, so once again low-energy neutrons build up steadily through the shield leading to an ever-increasing pool of low-energy neutrons.
W2B5 is exceptional in that its 10B absorption removes most neutrons within a localized region of the shield so that the energy spectrum is almost identical through the bulk of the shield.
The HTS core of a tokamak power plant needs to be kept at temperatures of order 20 K. The heat deposition into the core determines the cryogenic power necessary to maintain this low temperature. The power deposition is also a determinant of the HTS radiation damage. The neutron and gamma power depositions into the core have been evaluated previously, but here the tally tagging option of MCNP has been used to investigate the processes by which this heat arrives at the HTS material. Figure 15 shows the neutron and gamma contributions to the heat deposition into a fully cooled core region which includes the central inconel sleeve, the copper cladding surrounding the HTS, and the 316 L stainless inner vacuum vessel. It was established that the total HTS gamma heating was some four times larger than the total neutron heating [21]. It is clear from the figure that the largest gamma contributions arise around the HTS tape layers and the surrounding materials, copper cladding, and the inner vacuum vessel. Contributions from the shield layers are around an order of magnitude less and fall of rapidly into the shield. Direct gammas from the plasma and outer wall are very low.
The origins of the heat deposition into the cooled core of the tokamak including the inconel sleeve, HTS coils, copper cladding, and stainless inner vacuum vessel and shield layers as shown inset at the top of the figure. The major gamma component arises from the core components with the shield component decreasing rapidly. The neutron component is dominated by the direct contribution from the plasma itself and the outer wall reflector.
In contrast, the major contribution to the neutron heat deposition is from the plasma itself out at 1400 mm radius (way off the scale of the figure!). As described earlier at each shield layer, some of these neutrons are inelastically scattered to give much lower-energy neutrons which are soon absorbed, and gammas which are rapidly attenuated within the shield. Some 14 MeV neutrons do persist all through the shield and provide the bulk of the heat deposition. Neutrons inelastically scattered by the HTS core volume, and the shield give contributions which are significant but around an order of magnitude lower.
Again, the tally tagging feature of MCNP can be used to explore in more detail the elements, isotopes, and reactions which give rise to the heat deposition. Figure 16 shows the neutron (left) and gamma (right) contributions to the heat deposition in the actual HTS materials within the core (excluding heat into the cold inconel center rod and the 316 L stainless steel inner pressure vessel included in Figure 16). The figure shows that the direct neutron energy deposition is still dominated by the “direct” contributions, principally from neutrons generated within the plasma itself, but also from neutrons scattered from the tungsten and water reflector layers beyond the plasma. The next highest contribution is around 20 times lower and come from n (n’, gamma) interactions in the HTS material itself. In contrast, the principal gamma heating arises from (n, gamma), (n, n’ gamma), (n,2n), and fluorescence reactions. These tend to be largest close to and fall off quite rapidly into the shield layers. Direct gamma heating is negligible.
The originating positions and reactions responsible for the neutron energy deposition into the HTS core volumes of a spherical tokamak power plant. The colored upper band and labels record the various tally volumes contributing to the energy deposition. The different symbols record the reaction method. “Direct” refers to neutrons originating in the plasma core itself, most from the plasma, some from the outer reflector, both off the scale of the neutron graph.
The effects of these results on radiation damage are clear. Fast neutron damage will arise from the 14-MeV neutron fluence component which penetrates the shield. Gamma damage in contrast can be identified as coming from (n, n’ gamma) reactions in 63Cu from the heat-sink material surrounding the HTS tapes and from 56Fe and 58Ni in the Hastalloy of the HTS tapes. (n, gamma) reactions from 184W and 182W in the shield are significant but reduce rapidly into the shield.
Spherical tokamaks with HTS magnets are one of few options for safe, abundant energy on a small footprint. This chapter addresses a key issue: finding a material that can shield the HTS core while maintaining small major radius and low aspect ratio. It explores the operational performance of tungsten boride tokamak shields particularly using the tally tagging option of MCNP to detail the locations, atoms, and reactions contributing to neutron and gamma fluence and energy depositions. These studies have revealed that the W2B5 shield operation is dominated by the slightly moderated near 14 MeV neutrons produced in the plasma. At all positions well within the shield, this fluence of neutrons is attenuated by inelastic (n, n’ gamma) reactions to produce lower-energy neutrons which can be absorbed by 10B and gammas which are absorbed by tungsten in a few centimeters. Our HPC capability has been instrumental in our design process. It will be increasingly used in our quest for faster fusion.
The authors are most grateful to their colleagues at Tokamak Energy, particularly Jack Astbury, Guy Morgan, Chris Wilson, Sandeep Irukuvarghula, Greg Brittles, Tony Langtry, Peter Buxton, Robert Slade and George Smith for their contributions to this work.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
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\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
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\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
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\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"70919",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. 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After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta 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