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1. Introduction
The plants can produce certain bioactive compounds that are mostly affected by the chemical and physical environments in which they develop. Some searches announced that plant growth regulators and light are important factors stimulating the growth, development (organogenesis), and production of plant compounds, including both primary and secondary products. In addition, plant growth regulators were applied for callus induction, and adjusting the metabolite content, carbon sources, suspension culture, temperature, pH, medium type and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) concentrations plays an important role in the formation of plant primary and secondary products [1, 2, 3]. This chapter elicits the role of endogenous and exogenous hormones are active for enhancing the following stages–cellular division stage, cell enlargement stage, exponential stage, steady stage, and reduce biomass as well as secondary products content in medicinal plant.
2. Secondary products
The natural compounds produced in plants are classified into two major groups. The first group includes compounds that enter into primary reactions or primary metabolic compounds. This name refers mostly to the metabolic processes that produce simple basic carboxylic acids, amino acids, sugars, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These compounds are the precursor materials for the compounds of the second group, which are represented by secondary metabolites, most of which produce from three main compounds: shikimic acid, acetate, and fatty acids. Primary metabolites are the basic units in the metabolism of secondary compounds, which are divided into several different groups and generally include terpenes, phenols, alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, resins, and others [3, 4].
2.1 Glycosides
These compounds are bioactive and important substances in the defense and metabolic system of medicinal plants. These compounds are helped by these plants to complete their life cycle by protecting them from biotic stresses (defense against infection with bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, rodents, etc.). As well as its important role in the treatment of many diseases that affect humans and animals [3, 5, 6]. Glycosides consist of two molecules, one of which is a sugar called the glycon, which is monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. This part of the sugar works to transport the glycoside molecule across the cell membranes, so it has the properties of pharmacokinetics. As for the other part, it is called an aglycon, which may be an alcohol, an aldehyde, a ketone, or an ester, and it is attributed to this part of the physiochemical effectiveness (Figure 1). The glycon is attached to the aglycon part by several chemical bonds, which may be an oxygen, sulfur, or carbon bond. Glycoside compounds include steroids, anthraquinones, tannins, and saponins [4, 5, 6].
Figure 1.
Glycosides compound.
2.2 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are a group of low-molecular-weight basic organic compounds, whose molecule contains one or more nitrogen atoms linked to heterogeneous rings, so the alkaloids do not share a specific chemical composition. The human knew plants containing alkaloid compounds 3000 years ago and used their extracts to heal from diseases, treat wounds, or make poisons used in hunting, defending him, or religious rituals. The first process of isolation of alkaloid compounds was the isolation of alkaloid morphine from the papaver plant by the German scientist Derosnein in 1803 AD. Then it was followed by the isolation of many alkaloid compounds that saved the lives of millions of people from incurable diseases or those that contributed to alleviating the pain of surgical operations [4, 6]. Alkaloids are usually found free or in the form of salts of some organic acids such as citric acid, tannic acid, and tartaric acid. Alkaloids are produced by bacteria, fungi, and higher plants and are found in all parts of the plant, such as hyoscine alkaloid in tobacco, in seeds, such as strychnine alkaloid in emetic walnut, in the roots, such as glycyrrhizin alkaloid in licorice, in the bark, such as cinchonine alkaloid in cinchona, in the fruits are like capsaicin alkaloid in the black pepper plant, or in Latex like the papaverine alkaloid in the poppy plant. Alkaloids are divided into several groups according to the chemical structure of the basic ring in the alkaloid molecule into the group of amine alkaloids, pyridine and piperidine, tropane alkaloids, quinoline alkaloids, purine alkaloids, isoquinoline alkaloids, indole alkaloids, phenolic alkaloids, tropolone alkaloids and tropolone alkaloids (Figure 2) [3, 4].
Figure 2.
Alkaloid compounds.
2.3 Phenols
Phenolic compounds are the second largest group of secondary metabolites in plants after the alkaloid group. A simple phenolic molecule contains a benzene ring to which one or more hydroxyl groups are attached. These compounds are found in both higher and lower plants (such as ferns, mosses, and many microorganisms). Phenols are also called aromatic compounds because of their distinctive smell, and they are sometimes called closed ring compounds because they contain a benzene ring (Figure 3). These compounds are characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl group (OH) directly attached to the aromatic ring. Sometimes several different groups are attached to the phenolic compound, such as the hydroxyl group OH, the carboxyl COOH, and the methyl CH3 [3, 6]. The phenolic compounds may exist in the form of an open chain or aliphatic (noncyclic) compounds. Most of the phenolic compounds are not found free inside plant cells but are bound with one or several molecules of sugars to be in the form of glycosidic compounds. There are also some phenolic compounds linked with lipopolysaccharides by a glycoester with one of the OH or COOH groups to form glycolipids that are stored in the cell vacuoles. Some amino acids, such as Tryptophan, Tyrosine, and Phenylalanine, are classified as closed ring organic phenolic compounds, due to the similarity of the method of metabolism of these acids with phenolic compounds [4, 6].
Figure 3.
Phenolic compounds.
2.3.1 Simple phenols
Phenols are the basic material in the biosynthesis of lignin. Phenols also play an important role in regulating plant growth and development by affecting the effectiveness of hormones and their control over the effectiveness of the formation of some enzymes. They represent one of the forms of energy compounds stored by the plant and nutrients that can be utilized when needed. It acts as an antioxidant that hinders the oxidation of chlorophyll and hormones and stabilization in the stabilization of some vital compounds. It also participates in the oxidation and respiration processes. The most important groups of phenolic compounds in higher plants are groups of cinnamic acid, coumarin, lignin, phenolic carboxylic acids, and flavonoids derivatives [4, 7].
2.3.2 Polyphenols (flavonoids)
Polyphenols or flavonoids are heterocyclic oxygen compounds of essential importance in plant life and are sometimes called Anthoxanthins. Flavonoids are distinguished by their crystalline form and yellow color, which derives from the Latin word flavus. These compounds are found in higher plants, especially some families such as Compositae, Cucurbitaceae, and Umbelliferae, in plant parts such as roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Flavonoids are used as an antiviral, general anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and increase the level of immunomodulation. They act as antioxidants, relieve pain, swelling and bruising, stimulate blood circulation, and reduce cholesterol levels in the blood. Flavonoids are divided into several groups: Flavone, Flavonol, Flavonone, Isoflavone, Chalcone, Aurone, Anthocyanin, and Betacyanins [3, 4, 7].
2.4 Oils
2.4.1 Volatile oils
Volatile oils are organic compounds characterized by their volatility or evaporation without decomposing when exposed to heating or at room temperature. They are also called ethereal oils because of their solubility in alcohols, especially ether. Essential oils are so named for their pleasant aromas, and essential oils are so named because they are included in the basic human diet, and the cellular enzyme system in the human body cannot produce it. These oils are spread in more than 2000 plants represented by sixty families, the most important of which are Lauraceae, Labiatae, Umbelliferae, Rutaceae, Compositae, Myrtaceae, Pinaceae, and Oleaceae [3, 8]. The volatile oils in the plant act as pleasant aromas to attract insects to complete the pollination process and at the same time work to exclude other insects. Some of these oils are poisonous and others have a pungent taste that is unpalatable to insects and rodents, meaning that these oils act as an open immune system to defend the plant itself. Volatile oils have an important role in allelochemicals to reduce competition from other plants for light, water, and soil nutrients. These oils are used in the treatment of many diseases, such as eucalyptus oil, which treats inhalation shortness of breath, and bronchitis, which is Antispasmodic. Peppermint oil is used as a mouthwash and antiseptic gargle, Thymol oil is used to treat skin problems, and clove and thyme oil are used as antiseptics because they contain a high percentage of phenolic compounds. Dill oil is used as a carminative, castor oil is used as a laxative, and watercress oil is used as a cholesterol reducer. The volatile oils are divided into groups: Alcoholic, Aldehyde, Ketone, Phenolic, Nitrogenic, and Sulfuric oils [4, 8].
2.4.2 Fixed oils
Vegetable fixed oils are less dense liquids than water and do not mix with water. It is biologically built in the places of its production and is not transmitted from one plant member to another. It is often produced and stored in seeds and fruits, and a small percentage is produced in the bark and leaves. The most important fixed vegetable oils are corn, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, sesame, soybean, linseed, archies, and olive oil. There are other fixed oils consisting of esters of unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid with triglyceride alcohol, and others [4, 9]. Fixed oils are distinguished by their high nutritional value, which are used in weight gain programs and in the manufacture of food and energy drinks, among others. The increasing demand for its use in every home is due to its lack of contribution to raising the level of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood that causes atherosclerosis and heart disease. Fixed oils are also used in the treatment of some diseases, especially spasms, muscle pain, and rheumatism, or as sterilizers or moisturizers for skin cracks resulting from infection with some fungi or bacteria, burns, or sunburn. It is also used as carriers or organic solvents for active compounds in the manufacture of some creams and ointments. These oils are also used in the manufacture of washing and cosmetics, among others. These oils are characterized by being odorless, tasteless, slightly yellowish, hydrophobic, and non-polar compounds that do not dissolve in water but dissolve in organic solvents such as chloroform, benzene, and ether. Fixed oils are divided according to the fatty acids that bind to glycerol into monoglyceride, diglyceride, and triglyceride groups [3, 4].
2.5 Resins
Resins are solid or semi-solid organic compounds of different and chemically complex compositions that result from the oxidation of volatile oils. Resins are defined as plant exudate produced by plants either naturally or when the plant is exposed to physiological damage as a result of a pathogenic condition or mechanical damage as a result of the influence of environmental factors or pest infestation. Resins can be made synthetically by freezing formaldehyde or freezing the resin after mixing it with glycerin such as Colophony resin. In general, the most common plant families that produce resins are Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, Araucariaceae, and Podocarpaceae [3, 4, 9]. The benefits of resins are their use in therapeutic recipes in eastern civilizations, especially in treating burns and superficial and deep wounds, such as Balsam resin, as well as its use in religious rituals, weddings, and astrology. Resins are also used in the manufacture of incense, such as Amber resin, soaps, and cosmetics, such as Myrrh resin. Scientific research has proven that resins have high anti-microbial, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and anti-skin perfusion efficacy. Resins are one of the plant’s defenses against insects, as some resins are formed when they are absorbed by insects to turn this formed sap into a sticky resin that prevents the insect from moving and then eliminates it, such as Shellac resin. The resins are divided into several groups; the oleo-resin group is composed of the resin and the volatile oil such as Copaiba resin, which includes in its composition diterpenes or sesquiterpenes. The second group is gum-resin which is a mixture of resin and gum-like gamboge. The third group is the oleo-gum resins, which consist of resin, gum, and volatile oil, such as asafoetida resin extracted from the rhizomes of the roots of the plant Ferula asafoetida, which consists of ferulic acid and the compound Umbelliferone and volatile oils such as sesquiterpenes such as foetidine, saradaferin, methoxy courmarin, and polysaccharides. The fourth group is glycoresin is a mixture of resin and sugar such as jalapin and podophyllin resin. The fifth group is Balsams, which are resinous materials that contain in their composition aromatic acids such as cinnamic acid and benzoic acid or both, or esters of these acids such as Peru balsam, Tolu balsam and Storax balsam, which contain a high percentage of Aromatic balsamic acids [4, 6].
3. Plant hormones
Plant hormones are chemical runners that are created in one tissue and regulate cellular actions in another tissue by linking with certain proteins that role as receptors associate to cellular transduction pathways. The plant hormones are synthesized in one tissue and react on specific target sites in another tissue at very low concentrations. Plant hormones that are transferred to sites of activity in tissues far away from their site of biosynthesis are indicated as endocrine hormones. Those that react on cells of tissue close by the source of biosynthesis are indicated as paracrine hormones. Plant growth and development are modulated by six major groups of hormones: auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, ethylene, and brassinosteroids [3, 10]. A diversity of other signaling compounds that play roles in impedance to pathogens and protection against herbivores have also been specified in plants, including combined and uncombined forms of jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and small polypeptides. Another compound, strigolactone, has lately been shown to be an intendable signaling compound that regulates the growth of lateral buds [10, 11]; this compound may also be a valid plant hormone. Other groups of compounds, such as flavonoids, work as both intracellular and extracellular regulators of signal transduction pathways [12]. Indeed, the list of signaling factors and growth regulators continues to expand.
3.1 Auxins
The first signaling compound is the hormone auxin. Auxin was the first growth regulator to be calculated in plants, and a lot of the early physiological reports on the mechanism of plant cell extension were executed about auxin action. Auxin signaling has been begun to purpose in nearly every feature of plant growth and development. Moreover, auxin and cytokinin differ from the other plant growth regulators and signaling compounds in one important subject: they are desired for plant embryo viability. Whereas other plant growth regulators seem to work as regulators of separate development processes, auxin and cytokinin seem to be desired at several levels less or more continuously. The various growth and development processes that are controlled by auxin are apical dominance, stem elongation, fruit development, root initiation, oriented or topic growth, and meristem development [3, 10]. The Went’s studies with gelatin and agar blocks demonstrated unequivocally that growth-promoting influence diffusing from coleoptile tip was chemical substance. The fact that it was produced at one location and transported in minute amounts to its site of action qualified it as an authentic plant hormone. In the mid-1930s it was determined that the principal natural auxin is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), (Figure 4) [3, 13, 14].
Figure 4.
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) structure.
3.2 Gibberellins
The second group of plant growth regulators to be recognized is the gibberellins (GAs). At least 136 natural types of GAs was produced in plants have been identified [15]. Opposite of the auxins, which are identified by their biological characters, the gibberellins all share a homogenous chemical structure but relatively few of them have essential biological activity (Figure 5). Many of the gibberellins that do not have base biological activity are either precursor compounds of the bioactive gibberellins or their destruction products. Gibberellins also play main roles in a variety of other physiological processes, such as the transition to flowering, seed germination, and pollen growth and development. The biosynthesis of gibberellins is under rigid genetic, environmental, and developmental control [13, 14]. Gibberellins are best known for their enhancement of stem elongation, and gibberellin-deficient mutants that have dwarf phenotypes have been separated. Gibberellins first came to the observation of Western scientists in the 1950s; they had been discovered much earlier in Japan. Rice farmers had long known the fungal disease termed ‘foolish seedling’ that caused rice plants to grow too tall and discarded seed production. The pathologists of plants found that these symptoms of infection in rice were caused by Gibberella fujikuroi, which had infected the plants. The cultures of this fungus and chemical analysis in the laboratory enabled Japanese scientists in the 1930s to obtain impure substances with plant growth-enhancing activity. They named this combination of compounds gibberellin A. Gibberellins to represent a large family of tetracyclic diterpene acids biosynthesized via a terpenoid pathway. Knowledge of gibberellin synthesis and deactivation is important to understanding gibberellin homeostasis. Homeostasis depends upon the regulation of gibberellin biosynthesis, transport, and deactivation [3, 14].
Figure 5.
Gibberellin (GA) structure.
3.3 Cytokinins
The cytokinins are reverses of auxins, being biosynthesized in roots but with the most spectacular effects on shoot formation. However, shoot tissues can also synthesize cytokinins, as can germinate seeds. A traditional example of cytokinins is coconut milk, the profuse liquid endosperm of the coconut fruit, which is still a common cytokinin origin in the plant cell, tissue, and organ culture media. Cytokinins were at first named for their ability to stimulate cell division, but they also purpose in the induction of shoots, retardation of senescence, and dormancy release [3, 16]. Cytokinins are imitative of adenine, one of the purine bases create in all RNA and DNA. The four main groups of natural cytokinins each have a different five-carbon side-chain linked to the N6 position. The major free cytokinin groups, dihydro-zeatin and trans-zeatin are more biologically active than the two groups found in tRNA (isopentenyl adenine and cis-zeatin) [13, 16]. The side chains of naturally revolving cytokinins are chemically related to carotenoid pigments, rubber, the plant hormones abscisic acid and gibberellin, and the plant defense substances known as phytoalexins. All of these compounds are created from isoprene units. Isoprene is alike in structure to the side chains of iP and zeatin. These cytokinin side chains are biosynthesized from isoprene imitative. Large molecules of the carotenoids and rubber are initiated by the polymerization of many isoprene units; cytokinins consist of fair one of these units. The precursor for the initiation of these isoprene units in cytokinins is dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), which is derived from either the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway (primary for DHZ, trans-zeatin, and iP) or the mevalonate pathway (primary for ciz-zeatin) (Figure 6) [3].
Figure 6.
Cytokininin (Zeatin) structure.
3.4 Abscisic acid
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a growth retardant name because this hormone is related to abscission layer formation (Figure 7). ABA does promote fruit drop, growth retardant, and closing stomata in plant leaves [17, 18]. ABA is a 15-carbon molecule and its biosynthesis occurs from the malfunction of carotenoid pigments, especially violaxanthin, a 40-carbon molecule. Formerly, mevalonic acid was believed to be the major precursor, with soon steps in similar with gibberellin biosynthesis. This other pathway may utilize in tissues such as in tomato seedlings and avocado mesocarp [19, 20]. ABA is synthesized in large quantities in water-stressed plant tissues, especially leaves and roots, but also has a role in seed ripening, senescence, and dormancy. ABA concentrations are decreased by oxidative suppression to phaseic acid or by the synthesis of glucosides [3, 13].
Figure 7.
Abscisic acid (ABA) structure.
3.5 Ethylene
Ethylene (C2H4) is a unique gaseous hormone that diffuses rapidly out of plant tissues. Its direct precursor is 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) which in turn produced from S-adenosyl methionine, an imitative of another common amino acid (methionine). Ethylene is synthesized in response to cell injury and other stresses such as deficient oxygen (Figure 8). It cumulates rapidly during fruit ripening and senescence stages, but all living cells synthesize ethylene. Oxidation and conjugation can happen, but dispersion into the atmosphere is probably the main elimination pathway [3, 13, 21].
Figure 8.
Ethylene (C2H4) structure.
3.6 Brassinosteroid
Steroid hormones have extended been recognized in animals, but they have only lately been revealed in plants. Animal steroid hormones involve the sex hormones (androgens, estrogens, and progestins) and the adrenal cortex hormones (mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids). The brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of steroid hormones that play more important roles in a wide domain of developmental processes in plants, including cell division and elongation in roots and stems, reproductive development, photomorphogenesis, stress responses, and leaf senescence (Figure 9) [22]. Studies by Mitchell et al. [23] showed that the utmost growth-promoting activity was found in the organic extract of pollen from the rape plant (Brassica napus L.). Such as abscisic acid and gibberellin, brassinosteroids are biosynthesized as a section of two farnesyl diphosphates to produce the C30 triterpene squalene. Squalene then succumbs to a series of ring closures to produce the pentacyclic triterpenoid (sterol) precursor cycloartenol. All steroids in plants are obtained from cycloartenol by other modifications and a series of oxidation reactions [3, 24].
Figure 9.
Brassinosteroid (BR) structure.
4. Production of secondary metabolites in plant tissue cultures
Tissue cultures of plants are used to produce large quantities of secondary metabolic products, although cultures of callus and cell suspensions often do not produce higher levels of the whole plant. Therefore, some technologies were used to increase the production of secondary metabolites by plant tissue culture techniques through the selection of high-production cells. This is done after separating the high-production cells from their low-production counterparts, and the latter are usually excluded by visual methods [2]. The separation process of produced cells from others is carried out using cell cloning technology, which is an easy and simple method in which single cells are taken from mostly cell suspensions that are cultured on a suitable medium. After the formation of cell masses from single cells, each cell mass is sieved separately and the types and quantities of secondary metabolites it contains are determined. The process of selecting high-producing plant cells for secondary metabolites begins with the selection of a plant with a high production for the desired secondary compound or compounds by selecting the suitable explant, it’s surface sterilization, and in vitro culture on a medium prepared for the initiation of callus cells. Then the formed callus masses are culture in cell suspension cultures, from which the inoculums are transferred and spread on a solid medium [2, 25, 26].
5. The effect of the components of the medium on the production of secondary metabolites
The growth of plant cells in tissue cultures occurs when the requirements for division and growth are available for them from nutrients, growth regulators, and any other additives that all affect the metabolic activities within the cells. To achieve optimal productivity of secondary metabolites, it is preferable to produce cells in a medium that is optimal for increasing biomass. Then the cells are transferred to the production medium that achieves the highest yield of the desired compound. Note that it is not necessary for the callus medium or the perpetuation medium to be ideal for the production of secondary products. Therefore, many growth regulators and other additives are being tested to obtain an optimal medium for production. The components of the nutrient medium in general, such as carbon source, nitrogen, phosphate, growth regulators, precursors, stimulants, vitamins, additives, and others, affect the fluctuation of the production of secondary metabolites [2, 26, 27].
5.1 Effect of carbon source
The carbon source generally affects the production of secondary metabolic compounds. For example, an increase in sucrose in the production medium from 4 to 10% led to an increase in the production of alkaloids in tissue cultures of Catharanthus roseus. It was also found that the addition of sucrose as a carbon source was better than fructose and galactose when producing diosgenin from tissue cultures of Dioscorea deltoidea and Dalanites aegyptica. An increase in Ubiquinone-10 was also recorded in tobacco tissue cultures when low levels of sucrose were added to the production medium. In another study, it was found that adding 40 g L−1 of sucrose to the medium in tissue cultures in the dark led to an increase in the accumulation of the proanthocyanin compound in the plant Hypericum perforatum. While the accumulation of kaempferol compound when adding 50 g L−1 sucrose to the medium in tissue cultures of the same plant exposed to light [2].
5.2 The effect of a nitrogen source
Adding high concentrations of nitrogen sources to the media in tissue cultures stimulates cells to synthesize amino acids and proteins, including enzymes and nucleic acids. The primary products of metabolism contain nitrogen, which directly affects the formation of secondary metabolic products. In general, high concentrations of nitrogen added to the medium lead to inhibition of the synthesis of secondary metabolites. The addition of potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate in high concentrations to the medium prepared for tissue cultures leads to inhibition of the production of anthocyanins by 90% and alkaloids by 80% [2].
5.3 Effect of phosphate
Many secondary metabolites are produced from phosphorylated intermediates, which in turn release phosphate. Inorganic phosphates are essential in photosynthesis and respiration. Generally, high levels of phosphate stimulate cells to divide, grow, and synthesize primary metabolites. When the concentration of phosphate in the tissue cultures increases, it leads to an increase in the production of alkaloids in the plant C. roseus, the anthraquinone compound in the Morinda citrifolia plant, and the diosgenin compound in the D. deltoidea plant. Other studies found that decreasing the concentration of phosphate in tissue cultures led to an increase in anthocyanins and phenols in C. roseus and an increase in alkaloids and solasodine in Solanum laciniatum. While increasing or decreasing the phosphate concentration did not affect the production of the protoberberine alkaloid in the tissue cultures of Berberis sp. [2].
5.4 Effect of precursors
Precursors are called substrate molecules that can be incorporated into secondary metabolites and added to the medium prepared to produce the desired secondary compounds. In general, the addition of precursors stimulates the production of secondary metabolites, although it inhibits the growth of tissue cultures in several cases. For example, the addition of precursors to the medium prepared for tissue cultures of the Datura spp. plant led to a noticeable increase in the production of alkaloids, but this was occurred opposite by inhibition in the growth of cultures after the addition of ornithine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, or sodium phenylpyruvate. It was proven that there was a significant increase in the accumulation of ajmalicine in the cultures of the callus of Coleus blumei plant when the medium was enriched with the precursor tryptamine and rosmarininc acid accumulation when the medium was enriched with tryptamine compound and 50 g L−1 sucrose. Also, rosmarinic acid accumulated in high concentrations in the stem segment explants of the same plant when the liquid medium was included with a concentration of 10 or 20 mg L−1 of proline acid [2, 28].
5.5 Effect of plant growth regulators
Plant growth regulators such as auxins and cytokinins affect cell division, various metabolic processes, and plant growth in tissue cultures. Several scientific articles indicated that the type of growth regulator and its concentration affected the productivity of tissue cultures from secondary metabolites. It was found that the addition of auxin indole acetic acid, indole pyruvic acid, or naphthalene acetic acid to the medium prepared for tissue cultures of Balanites aegyptica increased the production of diosgenin. The addition of auxin in some cases inhibited the production of some secondary metabolites, such as inhibiting anthocyanin synthesis in carrot plant tissue cultures after enhancing the medium with naphthalene acetic acid and indole acetic acid [2, 29]. The addition of auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) to the tissue cultures of tobacco led to the inhibition of the production of alkaloids as well as shikonin in the tissue cultures of Lithospermum erythrorshizon. Another study also found that the addition of cytokinins to the cultures of C. roseus stimulated the production of ajmalicine, and the tissue cultures of tobacco led to the production of scopolamine and scopoletin compounds, and the tissue cultures of Ricinus sp. led to the production of carotenoids. Cytokinins inhibited the production of secondary metabolites in some tissue cultures, such as anthropoquinines in M. citrifolia plant cultures, nicotine in tobacco plant cultures, and Chicoine in Lithospermum erythrorshizon cultures. It is noted from previous studies that the addition of auxins and cytokinins to the medium separately did not give positive results in stimulating the production of secondary metabolic compounds in most cases. In general, many studies showed that the addition of combinations of auxins and cytokinins stimulated the increase in the production of secondary metabolites [2, 26].
6. Effect of some growth regulators on the production of secondary metabolites in some medicinal plants
6.1 Stevia rebaudiana
The leaves of shoots that cultured on Woody Plant Medium (WPM) supplemented with 2.27 mM thidiazuron (TDZ), 4.54 mM TDZ, 2.22 mM benzyl adenine (BA) + 2.69 mM naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 2.22 mM BA +5.37 mM NAA, 2.32 mM kinetin (Kn) +5.71 mM indole acetic acid (IAA), or 2.32 mM Kn + 2.69 mM NAA led to stimulate steviolbioside, rubusoside, and dulcoside compounds by in vitro culture technique [30].
The 4.6 pH of the medium was the main factor for increasing concentrations of secondary metabolite compounds in stevia leaves by in vitro culture technique. The phenols and flavonoids were increased when cultured on a medium supplied with the combination of BA and GA3 or IAA compared to separately applied growth regulators appearing synergistic effects of plant growth regulators (especially of auxins and cytokinins). A positive correlation was found between the flavonoids, phenols, and the antioxidant activity in the S. rebaudiana extracts [31].
The highest callus-induction frequency and callus-mass increase were obtained from MS medium supplemented with 2.0 μM NAA. The leaf explants that cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2.0 μM NAA led to the highest concentration of steviol glycosides, flavonoids, and phenols, and higher antioxidant activity was determined in the secondary metabolite compounds of callus from leaf segments. Proline acid reduced the concentration of flavonoids and steviol glycosides. The callus from leaf explants that cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2.0 μM NAA and 2.0 μM proline acid recorded the highest concentration of total phenolic compounds [32].
6.2 Pimpinella alpeno
The results of one study showed that adding 200 mg L−1 IAA and 25 mg L−1 gibberellic acid (GA3) to the medium prepared for tissue cultures of Pimpinella alpino leaves increased the production of saponin. While when adding 100 mg L−1 IAA and 25 mg L−1 GA3 to the medium, it led to a decrease in the production of saponin compound in the leaves and it reached the lowest value [33]. GA3 affects metabolism and nucleic acid which plays an important role in protein biosynthesis and enhanced the activity of enzymes for plant growth and development. Increased protein biosynthesis as crude material essential enzymes in plant metabolism and increase the production of the secondary metabolite compounds, including saponins at the final stages [34].
6.3 Crysanthemum cinerariefolium
The leaf segments of Crysanthemum cinerariefolium plant that cultured on MS medium supplemented with 4 mg L−1 2, 4-D and 0 mg L−1 kinetin recorded the best-produced callus by in vitro culture technique. The callus contains the secondary metabolite compounds such as some of the flavonoid quercetin precursors such as tetrahydroxy chalcone and acetic acid and some other secondary products [35].
7. Conclusions
* There are factors that affect the increase in the induction and production of secondary metabolites from plants that can be applied and utilized in extracting effective compounds from medicinal plants that are used in the industry of medicines and pharmaceuticals.
* The levels of bioactive compounds in medicinal plants vary depending on the type of plant tissue.
* The possibility of using the plant tissue culture technique in the production of secondary metabolites from the explants of medicinal plants.
* Increasing the concentrations of plant growth regulators such as auxins or cytokinins or adding them in ideal combinations leads to an increase in the induction of secondary metabolites in tissue cultures of medicinal plants.
\n',keywords:"auxin, cytokinin, in vitro culture, plant hormones, secondary metabolites",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81108.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81108.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81108",totalDownloads:29,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 13th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 21st 2022",datePrePublished:"April 5th 2022",datePublished:"May 25th 2022",dateFinished:"April 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The natural compounds produced in plants are classified into two major groups (Primary and secondary metabolic compounds). These compounds are the precursor materials for thecompounds of the second group, which are represented by secondary metabolites, most of which produce from three main compounds: shikimic acid, acetate, and fatty acids. Primary metabolites are the basic units in the metabolism of secondary compounds. Tissue cultures of plants are used to produce large quantities of secondary metabolic products, although cultures of callus and cell suspensions often do not produce higher levels of the whole plant. Therefore, some technologies were used to increase the production of secondary metabolites by plant tissue culture techniques through the selection of high-production cells. The growth of plant cells in tissue cultures occurs when the requirements for division and growth are available for them from nutrients, growth regulators, and any other additives that all affect the metabolic activities within the cells. To achieve optimal productivity of secondary metabolites, it is preferable to produce cells in a medium that is optimal for increasing biomass. Plant growth regulators such as auxins and cytokinins affect cell division, various metabolic processes, and plant growth in tissue cultures.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81108",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81108",signatures:"Majid Ibrahim",book:{id:"10940",type:"book",title:"Plant Hormones",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Plant Hormones - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"plant-hormones-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10940.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-80355-028-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-027-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-029-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"426043",title:"Prof.",name:"Majid",middleName:"Abdulhameed",surname:"Ibrahim",fullName:"Majid Ibrahim",slug:"majid-ibrahim",email:"majid.abdulhameedl@uobasrah.edu.iq",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/426043/images/20900_n.jpeg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Secondary products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Glycosides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Alkaloids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Phenols",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Simple phenols",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Polyphenols (flavonoids)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4 Oils",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.4.1 Volatile oils",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.4.2 Fixed oils",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.5 Resins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Plant hormones",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Auxins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Gibberellins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 Cytokinins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4 Abscisic acid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.5 Ethylene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.6 Brassinosteroid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. Production of secondary metabolites in plant tissue cultures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. The effect of the components of the medium on the production of secondary metabolites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.1 Effect of carbon source",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.2 The effect of a nitrogen source",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.3 Effect of phosphate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.4 Effect of precursors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"5.5 Effect of plant growth regulators",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"6. Effect of some growth regulators on the production of secondary metabolites in some medicinal plants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"6.1 Stevia rebaudiana",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"6.2 Pimpinella alpeno",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.3 Crysanthemum cinerariefolium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dewick PM. Medicinal Natural Products: A Biosynthetic Approach. 2nd Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2002'},{id:"B2",body:'Ibrahim KM. Applications of Plant Biotechnology. Iraq: Universal House to Printing, University of Al-Nahrain, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research; 2017'},{id:"B3",body:'Taiz L, Zeiger E. Plant Physiology. 5th ed. Sunderland. MA: Sinauer Associates; 2010'},{id:"B4",body:'Alasady MHS. Basics of Medicinal Plants and their Active Constituents. Baghdad, Iraq: House of Books and Documents Printing; 2018'},{id:"B5",body:'Van Wyk BE, Wink M. Medicinal Plants of the World. Germany: CABI; 2018'},{id:"B6",body:'Hussein RA, El-Anssary AA. Plants secondary metabolites: The key drivers of the pharmacological actions of medicinal plants. Herbal Medicine. 2019;1:13'},{id:"B7",body:'Li Y, Kong D, Fu Y, Sussman MR, Wu H. The effect of developmental and environmental factors on secondary metabolites in medicinal plants. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 2020;148:80-89'},{id:"B8",body:'Namdeo AG. Plant cell elicitation for production of secondary metabolites: A review. 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Abscisic acid biosynthesis and catabolism. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 2005;56:165-185'},{id:"B19",body:'Milborrow BV. The reduction of (±)-(2− 14C) Abscisic acid to the 1′, 4′-trans-diol by pea seedlings and the formation of 4\'-Desoxy ABA as an artefact. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1983;34(3):303-308'},{id:"B20",body:'Willows RD, Netting AG, Milborrow BV. Endogenous biosynthetic precursors of (+)-abscisic acid. I. Incorporation of isotopes from 2H2O, 18O2 and [5-18O] mevalonic acid. Functional Plant Biology. 1994;21(3):327-343'},{id:"B21",body:'Robles L, Stepanova A, Alonso J. Molecular mechanisms of ethylene–auxin interaction. Molecular Plant. 2013;6(6):1734-1737'},{id:"B22",body:'Clouse SD, Sasse JM. Brassinosteroids: Essential regulators of plant growth and development. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 1998;49(1):427-451'},{id:"B23",body:'Mitchell JW, Mandava N, Worley JF, Plimmer JR, Smith MV. Brassins—A new family of plant hormones from rape pollen. Nature. 1970;225(5237):1065-1066'},{id:"B24",body:'Muthulakshmi S, Pandiyarajan V. Influence of Brassinosteroids (BRs) on the vincristine content of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. European Journal of Experimental Biology. 2015;5(10):54-56'},{id:"B25",body:'Yamamoto H, YATo A, Yazaki K, Hayashi H, Taguchi G, Inoue K. Increases of secondary metabolite production in various plant cell cultures by co-cultivation with cork. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 2001;65(4):853-860'},{id:"B26",body:'Smetanska I. Production of secondary metabolites using plant cell cultures. Food Biotechnology. 2008;111:187-228'},{id:"B27",body:'Ahsan T, Chen J, Wu Y, Irfan M. Application of response surface methodology for optimization of medium components for the production of secondary metabolites by Streptomyces diastatochromogenes KX852460. AMB Express. 2017;7(1):1-10'},{id:"B28",body:'Namdeo AG. Plant cell elicitation for production of secondary metabolites: A review. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2007;1(1):69-79'},{id:"B29",body:'Khan N, Bano A, Zandi P. Effects of exogenously applied plant growth regulators in combination with PGPR on the physiology and root growth of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and their role in drought tolerance. Journal of Plant Interactions. 2018;13(1):239-247'},{id:"B30",body:'Röck-Okuyucu B, Bayraktar M, Akgun IH, Gurel A. Plant growth regulator effects on in vitro propagation and stevioside production in Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. HortScience. 2016;51(12):1573-1580'},{id:"B31",body:'Radić S, Vujčić V, Glogoški M, Radić-Stojković M. Influence of pH and plant growth regulators on secondary metabolite production and antioxidant activity of Stevia rebaudiana (Bert). Periodicum Biologorum. 2016;118(1):9-19'},{id:"B32",body:'Blinstrubienė A, Burbulis N, Juškevičiūtė N, Vaitkevičienė N, Žūkienė R. Effect of growth regulators on Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni callus genesis and influence of auxin and proline to steviol glycosides, phenols, flavonoids accumulation, and antioxidant activity In vitro. Molecules. 2020;25(12):2759'},{id:"B33",body:'Fathonah D, SUGIYARTO S. Effect of IAA and GA3 toward the growing and saponin content of purwaceng (Pimpinella alpina). Nusantara Bioscience. 2009;1(1):17-22'},{id:"B34",body:'Martin R, editor. Protein Synthesis: Methods and Protocols. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 1998'},{id:"B35",body:'Purwianingsih W, Febri S, Kusdianti. Formation flavonoid secondary metabolites in callus culture of Chrysanthemum cinerariefolium as alternative provision medicine. In: AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1708, No. 1). Bandung, Indonesia: AIP Publishing LLC.; 2016. p. 030005. DOI: 10.1063/1.4941150'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Majid Ibrahim",address:"majid.abdulhameedl@uobasrah.edu.iq",affiliation:'
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“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
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All Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
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If you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
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Croatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
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“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
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“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
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“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
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All Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
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Any use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\n
2. License
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Unless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
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We employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
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In no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
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Intechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
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We reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
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If you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
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Without prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
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8. Modifications
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IntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
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9. Governing Law
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These Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
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Croatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"16445",doi:"10.5772/20154",title:"Biosensor for Environmental Applications",slug:"biosensor-for-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:11232,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado, Lívia Maria Silva and Ariana Farias Melo",authors:[{id:"37632",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Medeiros Salgado",slug:"andrea-medeiros-salgado",fullName:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado"},{id:"37653",title:"Dr.",name:"Lívia Maria",middleName:"da Costa",surname:"Silva",slug:"livia-maria-silva",fullName:"Lívia Maria Silva"},{id:"37654",title:"Mr.",name:"Ariana",middleName:null,surname:"Farias Melo",slug:"ariana-farias-melo",fullName:"Ariana Farias Melo"}]},{id:"65873",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84220",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null},{id:"16449",doi:"10.5772/16250",title:"Biosensors Applications on Assessment of Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidants",slug:"biosensors-applications-on-assessment-of-reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2753,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Simona Carmen Litescu, Sandra A.V. Eremia, Mirela Diaconu, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu"},{id:"24427",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra A.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Eremia",slug:"sandra-a.v.-eremia",fullName:"Sandra A.V. Eremia"},{id:"24428",title:"BSc.",name:"Mirela",middleName:null,surname:"Diaconu",slug:"mirela-diaconu",fullName:"Mirela Diaconu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu"},{id:"47095",title:"Ms",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",slug:"andreia-tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66031",title:"Biosensors for Determination of Heavy Metals in Waters",slug:"biosensors-for-determination-of-heavy-metals-in-waters",totalDownloads:2692,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biosensors are nowadays a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques for controlling the quality of not only natural water but also process water used by the food industry during the production process, as well as wastewater prior to release into natural watercourses. The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"68700",title:"Principle and Development of Phage-Based Biosensors",slug:"principle-and-development-of-phage-based-biosensors",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria is important in the field of public health, medicine, food safety, environmental monitoring and security. Worldwide, the common cause of mortality and morbidity is bacterial infection often due to misdiagnosis or delay in diagnosis. Existing bacterial detection methods rely on conventional culture or microscopic techniques and molecular methods that often time consuming, laborious and expensive, or need trained users. In recent years, biosensor remained an interesting topic for bacterial detection and many biosensors involving different bio-probes have been reported. Compared to antibodies, nucleic acids and enzymes etc., based biosensors, bacteriophages can be cheaply produced and are relatively much stable to elevated temperature, extreme pH, and diverse ionic strength. Therefore, there is an urgent need for phage-based biosensor for bacterial pathogen detection. Furthermore, bearing high affinity and specificity, bacteriophages are perfect bio-recognition probes in biosensor development for bacterial detection. In this regard, active and oriented phages immobilization is the key step toward phage-based biosensor development. This chapter compares different bacterial detection techniques, and introduces the basic of biosensor and different bio-probes involved in biosensor development. Further we highlight the involvement and importance of phages in biosensor and finally we briefed different phage immobilization approaches used in development of phage-based biosensors.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Umer Farooq, Qiaoli Yang, Muhammad Wajid Ullah and Shenqi Wang",authors:null},{id:"69216",title:"Challenges and Applications of Impedance-Based Biosensors in Water Analysis",slug:"challenges-and-applications-of-impedance-based-biosensors-in-water-analysis",totalDownloads:1187,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Monitoring of the environment is a global priority due to the close connection between the environmental pollution and human health. Many analytical techniques using various methods have been developed to detect and monitor the levels of pollutants (pesticides, toxins, bacteria, drug residues, etc.) in natural water bodies. The latest trend in modern analysis is to measure pollutants in real-time in the field. For this purpose, biosensors have been employed as cost-effective and fast analytical techniques. Among biosensors, impedance biosensors have significant potential for use as simple and portable devices. These sensors involve application of a small amplitude AC voltage to the sensor electrode and measurement of the in-/out-of-phase current response as a function of frequency integrated with some biorecognition element on the sensing electrodes that can bind to the target, modifying the sensor electrical parameters. However, there are some drawbacks concerning their selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. The aim of this paper is to give a critical overview of literature published during the last decade based on the development issues of impedimetric biosensors and their applicability in water analysis.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Kairi Kivirand, Mart Min and Toonika Rinken",authors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"},{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"},{id:"174179",title:"Dr.",name:"Kairi",middleName:null,surname:"Kivirand",slug:"kairi-kivirand",fullName:"Kairi Kivirand"}]},{id:"63693",title:"The Modeling, Design, Fabrication, and Application of Biosensor Based on Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) Technique in Environmental Monitoring",slug:"the-modeling-design-fabrication-and-application-of-biosensor-based-on-electric-cell-substrate-impeda",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this research, the modeling, design, fabrication, and application of ECIS sensors in environmental monitoring are studied. The ECIS sensors are able to qualify the water toxicity through measuring the cell impedance. A novel mathematical model is proposed to analyze the distribution of electric potential and current of ECIS. This mathematical model is validated by experimental data and can be used to optimize the dimension of ECIS electrodes in order to satisfy environmental monitors. The detection sensitivity of ECIS sensors is analyzed by the mathematical model and experimental data. The simulated and experimental results show that ECIS sensors with smaller radius of working electrodes yield higher impedance values, which improves signal-to-noise ratio, which is more suitable in measuring the cell morphology change influenced by environments. Several ECIS sensors are used to detect the toxicant including, phenol, ammonia, nicotine, and aldicarb, and the decreasing cell impedance indicates the toxic effect. The gradient of measured impedance qualitatively indicates the concentration of toxicants in water.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Xudong Zhang, William Wang and Sunghoon Jang",authors:null},{id:"65873",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"137",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/22407",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"22407"},fullPath:"/chapters/22407",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()