Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It describes the fundamental concepts and practical aspects of QKD from a viewpoint of information security and quantum channel efficiency improvement. The purpose of this book is to extend and update the knowledge of the readers in the dynamically changing field of QKD. The authors attempt to present in detail their results of scientific research, which is divided into two sections - Modern QKD Technologies and Quantum Channel Construction. It will be useful for researchers, engineers, graduates, and doctoral students working in quantum cryptography and information security-related areas.",isbn:"978-1-78923-197-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-196-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-243-0",doi:"10.5772/65232",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-technologies-of-quantum-key-distribution",numberOfPages:212,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bbeb8c7e3693b933e97f28fec8d23be5",bookSignature:"Sergiy Gnatyuk",publishedDate:"May 30th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5779.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8476,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 31st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 15th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 15th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"119839",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Sergiy",middleName:"O.",surname:"Gnatyuk",slug:"sergiy-gnatyuk",fullName:"Sergiy Gnatyuk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/119839/images/340_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Aviation University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"531",title:"Cryptography",slug:"cryptography"}],chapters:[{id:"59491",title:"Security of Quantum Key Distribution Protocols",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74234",slug:"security-of-quantum-key-distribution-protocols",totalDownloads:1136,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum key distribution (QKD), another name for quantum cryptography, is the most advanced subfield of quantum information and communication technology (QICT). The first QKD protocol was proposed in 1984, and since then, more protocols have been proposed. It uses quantum mechanics to enable secure exchange of cryptographic keys. In order to have high confidence in the security of the QKD protocols, such protocols must be proven to be secure against any arbitrary attacks. In this chapter, we discuss and demonstrate security proofs for QKD protocols. Security analysis of QKD protocols can be categorised into two techniques, namely infinite-key and finite-key analyses. Finite-key analysis offers more realistic results than the infinite-key one, while infinite-key analysis provides more simplicity. We briefly provide the background of QKD and also define the basic notion of security in QKD protocols. The cryptographic key is shared between Alice and Bob. Since the key is random and unknown to an eavesdropper, Eve, she is unable to learn anything about the message simply by intercepting the ciphertext. This phenomenon is beyond the ability of classical information processing. We then study some tools that are used in the derivation of security proofs for the infinite- and finite-length key limits.",signatures:"Mhlambululi Mafu and Makhamisa Senekane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59491",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59491",authors:[{id:"196378",title:"Dr.",name:"Mhlambululi",surname:"Mafu",slug:"mhlambululi-mafu",fullName:"Mhlambululi Mafu"},{id:"210180",title:"Dr.",name:"Makhamisa",surname:"Senekane",slug:"makhamisa-senekane",fullName:"Makhamisa Senekane"}],corrections:null},{id:"56986",title:"On Quantum Fingerprinting and Quantum Cryptographic Hashing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70692",slug:"on-quantum-fingerprinting-and-quantum-cryptographic-hashing",totalDownloads:980,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fingerprinting and cryptographic hashing have quite different usages in computer science, but have similar properties. Interpretation of their properties is determined by the area of their usage: fingerprinting methods are methods for constructing efficient randomized and quantum algorithms for computational problems, whereas hashing methods are one of the central cryptographical primitives. Fingerprinting and hashing methods are being developed from the mid of the previous century, whereas quantum fingerprinting and quantum hashing have a short history. In this chapter, we investigate quantum fingerprinting and quantum hashing. We present computational aspects of quantum fingerprinting and quantum hashing and discuss cryptographical properties of quantum hashing.",signatures:"Farid Ablayev and Marat Ablayev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56986",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56986",authors:[{id:"204964",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",surname:"Ablayev",slug:"farid-ablayev",fullName:"Farid Ablayev"},{id:"211699",title:"MSc.",name:"Marat",surname:"Ablayev",slug:"marat-ablayev",fullName:"Marat Ablayev"}],corrections:null},{id:"61275",title:"Quantum Flows for Secret Key Distribution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75964",slug:"quantum-flows-for-secret-key-distribution",totalDownloads:961,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Despite the unconditionally secure theory of quantum key distribution (QKD), several attacks have been successfully implemented against commercial QKD systems. Those systems have exhibited some flaws, as the secret key rate of corresponding protocols remains unaltered, while the eavesdropper obtains the entire secret key. We propose a new theoretical approach called quantum flows to be able to detect the eavesdropping activity in the channel without requiring additional optical components different from the BB84 protocol because the system can be implemented as a high software module. In this approach, the transmitter interleaves pairs of quantum states, referred to here as parallel and orthogonal (non-orthogonal) states, while the receiver uses active basis selection.",signatures:"Luis A. Lizama-Pérez, J. Mauricio López and Eduardo de Carlos\nLopez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61275",authors:[{id:"219089",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Lizama",slug:"luis-lizama",fullName:"Luis Lizama"},{id:"219098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",surname:"López",slug:"mauricio-lopez",fullName:"Mauricio López"},{id:"234940",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"De Carlos Lopez",slug:"eduardo-de-carlos-lopez",fullName:"Eduardo De Carlos Lopez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56738",title:"The Role of Quantumness of Correlations in Entanglement Resource Theory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70396",slug:"the-role-of-quantumness-of-correlations-in-entanglement-resource-theory",totalDownloads:1010,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum correlations: entanglement and quantumness of correlations are main resource for quantum information theory. In this chapter, the scenarios which quantumness of correlations plays an interesting role in entanglement distillation protocol are presented. By means of Koashi-Winter relation, it is discussed that quantumness of correlations are related to the irreversibility of the entanglement distillation protocol. The activation protocol is introduced, and it is proved that quantumness of correlations can create distillable entanglement between the system and the measurement apparatus during a local measurement process.",signatures:"Tiago Debarba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56738",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56738",authors:[{id:"204949",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago",surname:"Debarba",slug:"tiago-debarba",fullName:"Tiago Debarba"}],corrections:null},{id:"56640",title:"Information Loss in Quantum Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70395",slug:"information-loss-in-quantum-dynamics",totalDownloads:915,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The way data is lost from the wavefunction in quantum dynamics is analyzed. The main results are (A) Quantum dynamics is a dispersive process in which any data initially encoded in the wavefunction is gradually lost. The ratio between the distortion’s variance and the mean probability density increases in a simple form. (B) For any given amount of information encoded in the wavefunction, there is a time period, beyond which it is impossible to decode the data. (C) The temporal decline of the maximum information density in the wavefunction has an exact analytical expression. (D) For any given time period there is a specific detector resolution, with which the maximum information can be decoded. (E) For this optimal detector size the amount of information is inversely proportional to the square root of the time elapsed.",signatures:"Er'el Granot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56640",authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",surname:"Granot",slug:"er'el-granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot"}],corrections:null},{id:"58201",title:"Universal Microwave Photonics Approach to Frequency-Coded Quantum Key Distribution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71974",slug:"universal-microwave-photonics-approach-to-frequency-coded-quantum-key-distribution",totalDownloads:1020,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Design principles of universal microwave photonics system (MPS) for quantum key distribution (QKD) with frequency coding are concerned. Its main modulation concept lies in single photon generation on sidebands of optical carrier and determination of photons ground state through its registration and the amplitude value of its carrier frequency as reference channel. So, it is necessary to solve problems of signal-to-carrier ratio of single photon detector (SPD) and aspects of photon number splitting (PNS) attack, nonlinear phase modulation (NPM) between carrier and sidebands in fiber, and finally, spectral selection of carrier in receiver. The technologies, based on the modulation conversion of an optical carrier, are widely used in microwave photonics. Due to the natural symmetry of modulated signals and the highest achievable ratio of the modulation conversions, amplitude-phase modulation with complete or partial suppression of the optical carrier has found a particularly wide application in MPS. The characteristics of advanced MPS for QKD with frequency coding and carrier suppression based on tandem amplitude modulation and phase commutation are presented. New systems can have classical symmetric or non-classical asymmetric structure for QKD based only on spectral selection of carrier and subcarriers without re-modulation.",signatures:"Oleg G. Morozov, Airat J. Sakhabutdinov, Gennady A. Morozov and\nIl’daris M. Gabdulkhakov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58201",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58201",authors:[{id:"69648",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",surname:"Morozov",slug:"oleg-morozov",fullName:"Oleg Morozov"},{id:"171722",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennady",surname:"Morozov",slug:"gennady-morozov",fullName:"Gennady Morozov"},{id:"196444",title:"Dr.",name:"Airat",surname:"Sakhabutdinov",slug:"airat-sakhabutdinov",fullName:"Airat Sakhabutdinov"},{id:"196445",title:"BSc.",name:"Il'Daris",surname:"Gabdulkhakov",slug:"il'daris-gabdulkhakov",fullName:"Il'Daris Gabdulkhakov"}],corrections:null},{id:"60617",title:"Stochastic Quantum Potential Noise and Quantum Measurement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74253",slug:"stochastic-quantum-potential-noise-and-quantum-measurement",totalDownloads:841,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum measurement is the greatest problem in quantum theory. In fact, different views for the quantum measurement cause different schools of thought in quantum theory. The quandaries of quantum measurement are mainly concentrated in “stochastic measurement space”, “instantaneous measurement process” and “basis-preferred measurement space.” These quandaries are incompatible with classical physical laws and discussed many years but still unsolved. In this chapter, we introduce a new theory that provided a new scope to interpret the quantum measurement. This theory tells us the quandaries of quantum measurement are due to the nonlocal correlation and stochastic quantum potential noise. The quantum collapse had been completed by the noised world before we looked, and the moon is here independent of our observations.",signatures:"Wei Wen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60617",authors:[{id:"213863",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen",surname:"Wei",slug:"wen-wei",fullName:"Wen Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"60704",title:"The Concept of Mass Based on Accelerated Conservation of Energy within Asymmetric Space-Time Phases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75988",slug:"the-concept-of-mass-based-on-accelerated-conservation-of-energy-within-asymmetric-space-time-phases",totalDownloads:863,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a new look to the conservation laws and suggests a model for discrete non-uniform localization of energy portions (quanta?s) within conjugated space and time phases. The model connects electromagnetism with the space-time and shows that electromagnetic energy is the Planck?s scale product of the generation of asymmetric space and time phases. In the reverse order, at the Black Hole?s scale with complete consumption of electromagnetic energy, decay of space-time frame takes place with accumulation of energy in virtual space phase, which translates energy to the background in the form of gravitation. Huge amounts of negative energy accumulated within background space leads to the generation of elementary space-time unit, which carries non-uniform energy conservation in the form of electromagnetic energy. Translation of background uniform energy, accumulated within minimum space, to the non-uniform energy conservation phase generates a non-baryonic heavy particle, which is the precursor of the ingredients of elementary space-time frame of matter. The background spontaneous symmetry break is a phenomenon, related to the discrete translation of uniform energy conservation phase to the phase of non-uniform conservation, carried by electromagnetic field within asymmetric space-time unit.",signatures:"Agaddin Khanlar Mamedov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60704",authors:[{id:"219617",title:"Dr.",name:"Aghaddin",surname:"Mamedov",slug:"aghaddin-mamedov",fullName:"Aghaddin Mamedov"}],corrections:null},{id:"59878",title:"Quantum Calculus with the Notion δ±-Periodicity and Its Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74952",slug:"quantum-calculus-with-the-notion-periodicity-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The relation between the time scale calculus and quantum calculus and the \n\n\nδ\n±\n\n\n-periodicity in quantum calculus with the notion is considered. As an application, in two-dimensional predator–prey system with Beddington-DeAngelis-type functional response on periodic time scales in shifts is used.",signatures:"Neslihan Nesliye Pelen, Ayşe Feza Güvenilir and Billur Kaymakçalan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59878",authors:[{id:"210516",title:"Dr.",name:"Neslihan Nesliye",surname:"Pelen",slug:"neslihan-nesliye-pelen",fullName:"Neslihan Nesliye Pelen"},{id:"228400",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe Feza",surname:"Güvenilir",slug:"ayse-feza-guvenilir",fullName:"Ayşe Feza Güvenilir"},{id:"228401",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaymakçalan",surname:"Billur",slug:"kaymakcalan-billur",fullName:"Kaymakçalan Billur"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6309",title:"Partition-Based Trapdoor Ciphers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9fa14a4dcb2918d8ba14feea0888e76",slug:"partition-based-trapdoor-ciphers",bookSignature:"Arnaud Bannier and Eric Filiol",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6309.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"205215",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Arnaud",surname:"Bannier",slug:"arnaud-bannier",fullName:"Arnaud Bannier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8140",title:"Modern Cryptography",subtitle:"Current Challenges and Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0278340394333d416e5860e5b1e1c69",slug:"modern-cryptography-current-challenges-and-solutions",bookSignature:"Menachem Domb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8140.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"222778",title:"Prof.",name:"Menachem",surname:"Domb",slug:"menachem-domb",fullName:"Menachem Domb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9875",title:"Cryptography",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"098a4a48ec67febadf70a5f705b66824",slug:"cryptography-recent-advances-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Riccardo Bernardini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9875.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219317",title:"Prof.",name:"Riccardo",surname:"Bernardini",slug:"riccardo-bernardini",fullName:"Riccardo Bernardini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7376",title:"Quantum Cryptography in Advanced Networks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2573ae2df9a0043aa7faca1ce4ed3fb7",slug:"quantum-cryptography-in-advanced-networks",bookSignature:"Oleg G. 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1. Introduction
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive sub-surface imaging technique that has experienced significant growth in biomedical applications [1, 2]. OCT systems could be implemented with a low-coherence light source and a mechanical scanning sub-system (time-domain OCT). More advanced systems use a low-coherence light source with a spectrometer or a wavelength-swept source (frequency-domain OCT). OCT has an imaging depth that could reach up to 3 mm, depending on the optical properties of the tissue, and it also has one to two orders of magnitude higher resolution than ultrasound imaging. OCT could also produce images inside the body when it is implemented using optical fiber probes. Unlike X-ray or gamma-ray imaging, OCT is safe for biological tissues because it utilizes non-ionizing radiation mainly in the infrared spectrum.
1.1 OCT signal simulation using a Monte Carlo method
The signal obtained by an OCT imaging system consists of ballistic and quasi-ballistic (Class I diffuse reflectance) photons, in addition to multiply scattered photons (Class II diffuse reflectance), that are reflected from tissue [3]. However, multiply scattered photons do not carry practically useful information about the imaged tissue; therefore, they result in a degradation of the OCT signal [4]. In addition, it has been shown that Class II diffuse reflectance represents a fundamental limit related to the imaging depth of OCT in tissue [5]. Therefore, it is important to account for both Class I and Class II diffusive reflectance in any practical simulation of OCT signals.
Since it is not practical to simulate light transport in turbid media, for example, tissue, using electromagnetic waves, especially due to diffusive scattering, a Monte Carlo (MC) method of simulating light transport in tissue has been typically used [6, 7, 8, 9]. However, the computational cost of this MC-based simulation of OCT systems could be very high, as the probability of detecting diffusively reflected photons from tissue is very low [4, 5].
To reduce the computational cost, thereby accelerate, this MC simulation, importance sampling could be used to speed up simulations by orders of magnitude. Importance sampling has been applied earlier to optical communications [10, 11], confocal microscopy [12], atmospheric optics [13], and diffuse optical tomography [8].
To improve the computational efficiency of the MC-based simulation of OCT systems [6], Yao and Wang proposed the first importance sampling technique to simulate OCT signals from a multilayered turbid medium [3]. However, their method only enabled the simulation of OCT signals from a thin shallow layer in tissue, as the results obtained from deeper tissue regions were underestimated. In [14], we, the authors of this chapter, developed another more advanced importance sampling technique by implementing multiple biased scatterings per photon packet, and by developing a photon splitting procedure. Our advanced importance sampling resulted in more accurate and computationally efficient simulations of OCT signals due to ballistic and quasi-ballistic photons. However, it still underestimated OCT signals due to multiply scattered photons. To enable accurate simulation of OCT signals due to both Class I and Class II diffusive reflectances, we further developed our importance sampling technique to accurately and efficiently simulate diffusive reflectance due to photons that undergo multiple scattering [15]. In this method, additional biased scatterings were randomly applied, which enabled accurate simulation of both Class I and Class II diffusive reflectances, with a speed-up of three orders of magnitude compared to the standard MC method.
Our advanced importance sampling techniques above were implemented to simulate OCT of tissues with planar geometry [6]. To enable simulation of OCT of arbitrarily shaped turbid media, we used the mesh-based MC method of light transport in tissue proposed by Fang [16]. This method uses a Plücker coordinate system to efficiently calculate intersections between paths of light propagation with interfaces of the object regions that are modeled using tetrahedrons. We combined this mesh-based MC method with our importance sampling techniques to simulate OCT signals from tissue with arbitrarily shaped regions. However, since it was still computationally costly to simulate a full OCT B-scan using this method, we also developed a parallel implementation of this simulator that exploited the massively parallel computing capabilities of Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) to accelerate this simulator by two additional orders of magnitude [17, 18]. This GPU-based implementation enabled simulation of OCT B-scans of arbitrarily shaped turbid media in a few minutes using commonly available workstations.
In Section 2 of this chapter, we present a standard MC method for simulating OCT signals. In Section 3, we present our first importance sampling implementation that enables the simulation of OCT signals from higher depths inside turbid media. In Section 4, we present our more advanced importance sampling implementation that accurately calculates both Class I and Class II diffusive reflectances, and is three orders of magnitude faster than the standard MC simulation.
2. Standard MC method for simulating OCT signals
Our implementation of the MC method to simulate OCT signals is based on Monte Carlo simulation of light transport in multilayered tissues (MCML) [6]. MCML simulates an ensemble of photon packets that are launched as a steady-state pencil beam, normal to the top surface of the medium. Within the tissue, each such photon packet undergoes a random walk whose step size is determined by an exponentially distributed random variable that is parameterized by the interaction coefficient of this tissue. This interaction coefficient is equal to the sum of the absorption μa and the scattering μs coefficients of this tissue. The scattering events that take place at the end of the random steps are characterized by two random angles that determine the next direction of the photon packet. To account for the photon packet scattering, given an anisotropy factor, g, of the tissue, MCML uses the Henyey-Greenstein probability density function that is given by
fHGcosθS=1−g221+g2−2g·cosθS3/2,E1
where θS is the angle between the propagation direction of the photon packet û before the current scattering and û′ is the direction of the photon packet after the current scattering. The angle between the previous propagation direction and the new propagation direction is θS. Therefore, cos(θS) = û⋅û′. To ensure that the new propagation direction is statistically correct, the provisional scattering direction û′ is rotated around û by an angle ϕ, which is randomly selected from a uniform probability density function with a range from 0 to 2π to generate the propagation direction û′ after the current scattering. At the end of each scattering event, the photon packet weight W is reduced according to the step size and the local absorption coefficient μa. The weight W, which is initially set at 1, is proportional to the number of photons in the photon packet. The photon packet is either removed with probability 1/m or is allowed to continue propagating with probability 1−1/m and a new weight equal to m⋅W once the weight reaches Wth=10−4. We use the value m = 10 in this work. This procedure, denoted Russian roulette, is an unbiased technique to end simulation of photon packets that have a negligibly low contribution to the Monte Carlo simulation, so that a new photon packet can be initiated and simulated.
The Class I diffuse reflectance at depth equal to z is obtained by calculating the mean value of an indicator function I1 that represents a spatial and temporal filter of Class I diffuse reflectance for all simulated photon packets. The indicator function I1 of such spatial and temporal filter for the ith photon packet is defined as
I1zi=1,ri<dmax,θz,i<θmax,ΔSi−2z<lc0,othwerise,E2
where lc is the optical source’s coherence length; ri is the distance to the origin of the ith reflected photon packet; dmax and θmax are the maximum photon packet collecting diameter and angle, respectively; θz,i is the angle with the z-axis (normal to the tissue interface); Δsi is the optical path; and z is the photon packet’s maximum depth.
At any depth, the diffuse reflectance R1 is the expected value of I1 at this depth, and its standard deviation σR,1 could be estimated by
R1z=1N∑i=1NI1ziWiE3
and
σR,12z=1NN−1∑i=1NI1ziWi−R12E4
where N is the number of photons packets used in MC-based simulations.
3. Importance sampling for simulation of Class I OCT signal
Our first importance sampling technique to simulate OCT signals aimed at increasing the number of photons collected at the detector. This algorithm uses the same method described in Section 2, where we also use the same square time gating given by [3].
Since most tissues are highly forward-scattering, their anisotropy factor is close to 1. Therefore, there is a very small probability that a simulated photon packet at any given depth in the tissue would undergo scattering in the backward direction toward the OCT probe. The probability of collecting Class I photons drops rapidly with depth in the tissue from which the photon is scattered in the backward direction. To allow faster simulation of Class I photons, we designed an importance sampling method that biases the direction û′ of a scattered photon toward the tip of the light-collecting optical fiber, v̂, as the photon packet reaches the depth range of interest. By defining the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system at the center of the tip of the light-collecting optical fiber, the bias direction in which this fiber is located is defined as v̂=−R/R, where R=xx̂+yŷ+zẑ is the position vector of the scattering location in the tissue.
All photon packets propagating in a direction close to v̂ will contribute to the simulated Class I diffuse reflectance with a higher probability. Therefore, this bias direction is more efficient than biasing only in the backward direction, which may not be consistent with the direction of the light-collecting optical fiber. This choice of the bias direction is particularly effective for photon packets propagating deep in the tissue, where such photon packets experience one or more scattering events before they are diffusively reflected.
3.1 Scattering angle due to first event of backscattering
As the photon packet reaches the depth range targeted, the propagation direction û′ of the scattered photon packet is biased toward the bias direction v̂, as opposed to being most likely scattered close to the previous propagation direction û as in the practical case with anisotropy g close to 1 and different from the bias toward −û, the opposite of the direction of propagation, as it is done in [3]. To randomly select the biased angle θB between the new scattering direction û′ and the biased direction v̂, we use the same probability density function in Eq. (1). However, the bias coefficient does not have to correspond to the anisotropy factor g. Therefore, the probability density function of the biased angle is given by
fBcosθB=1−a221+a2−2a·cosθB3/2,E5
where a is a bias coefficient. After randomly sampling a biased angle θB away from the biased direction v̂, so that cos(θB) = v̂⋅û′, the provisional scattering direction û′ is rotated around v̂ by an angle ϕ, which is randomly selected from a uniform probability density function with a range from 0 to 2π to generate the propagation direction û′ after the current scattering. This procedure ensures a more accurate model of the light scattering in tissue. The difference in the rotation by ϕ between the model with importance sampling and the standard model is that the rotation in the model with importance sampling is done around the biased direction v̂, while the rotation in the standard model in is done around the direction û prior to the current scattering. After the first biased scattering, this procedure produces the new propagation direction û′ of the photon packet. Afterward, the scattered photon packet is associated with a likelihood ratio as discussed in other applications of this method [10, 11]. Using our biased angle’s probability density function, the likelihood ratio of the photon packet, Eq. (5), is given by
where cos(θS) = û⋅û′ is determined, after the biased scattering, from the randomly sampled values of θB and ϕ. The ratio of the probability of the scattering angle appearing in the biased case with the standard case is the likelihood ratio that is shown in Eq. (6). In addition to depending on θB, the likelihood ratio also depends also on θS. Figure 1 shows a schematic drawing of these vectors and the angles used in this direction biasing procedure. Note that the choice of bias distribution only affects the speed of convergence of the simulation. Therefore, other biased probability function could also be used to randomly generate the biased scattering toward the bias direction v̂.
3.2 Scattering angles of additional events of backscattering
As a photon packet is biased toward the apparent position of the collecting optical fiber, at any given depth in the tissue, the photon packet becomes more likely to be collected at the tip of the fiber. However, the photon packet could be scattered several times after the first backscatter bias before reaching the optical collection system. These additional scatterings, according to Eq. (1), reduce the correlation between the biased direction and the event in which the photon packet is collected. We overcome this reduction in correlation by continuing to bias the scattering direction û′ toward the direction v̂, pointing to the apparent position of the optical collection system, at every scattering point until the photon packet is removed. These additional biases still use both Eqs. (7) and (8). Since the random values drawn for the angle between the scattering direction and the biased direction are independent of each other and are also independent of the previous scattering events, the overall likelihood ratio of a collected photon packet results from the multiplication of all the likelihood ratios of all the biased scattering in that particular simulation.
Once a photon packet experiences the first biased scattering, that photon packet is biased at all additional scattering points until it is removed from the simulation, which can occur when the photon packet is removed by Russian roulette, as described in Section 2, or it leaves the tissue. After simulating N launched photon packets using importance sampling, the diffuse reflectance R1 and its standard deviation σR,1 could be calculated with
R1z=1N∑i=1NI1ziLiWiE7
and
σR,12z=1NN−1∑i=1NI1ziLiWi−R12.E8
Eqs. (7) and (8) are similar to Eqs. (3) and (4), except that the indicator function is multiplied by its corresponding likelihood ratio. Using this method, a significantly larger number of photon packets are scattered from a specific depth range toward the collecting optical system than the number obtained using a standard MCML implementation. At the end of this biased simulation, each photon packet is weighted by its likelihood ratio, which adjusts the contribution of each packet to the estimation of the Class I diffuse reflectance. The estimated diffuse reflectance converges toward its true value faster, by several orders of magnitude, when compared to the standard Monte Carlo method.
3.3 Importance sampling effectiveness and depth of tissue
One drawback of previously existing bias methods, for example, [3, 7, 8] is an underestimation of the diffuse reflectance beyond the targeted depth range. The application of the first backward bias reduces the probability that this photon packet would propagate beyond that portion of the tissue. This would lead to a statistical bias to this importance sampling method similar to that in the angle biasing procedure used in [3] and the method used in [7, 8], which limits the effectiveness of those methods to a thin target layer.
We make sure we obtain correct statistics by splitting the photon packet into two photon packets before the first biased scattering [14]. The first of these two photon packets is the one biased toward the collecting optical system. The second photon packet starts propagating from the location in which the biased backscattering occurred, where its initial direction calculated by applying the standard procedure to the previous direction û as shown in Section 3.1. To ensure that there is no statistical bias associated with the forward-propagating photon packet that was split, it will be assigned a likelihood ratio L′i, which is a complement to the likelihood of the biased backward scattered photon packet Li such that L′i=1−Li to this second photon packet. This second photon packet, only generated if Li<1, also undergoes biased backscattering in the tissue at the end of the next step, which could result in another photon packet split, and successive additional biased scatterings toward the tip of the collecting optical fiber until the photon packet propagates beyond the simulation domain. In cases that we investigated, this procedure increased the computational time of each photon packet by five times when compared with a photon packet computed using the standard Monte Carlo method with the same number of launched photon packets N. The increase in the computational time of our importance sampling-based implementation, compared to the standard method with the same number of launched photon packets, depends on the average value of the mean free path, and on the width of the target depth range. We note that in our importance sampling implementation, we do not count split photon packets as additional photon packets when determining the value of N in Eqs. (7) and (8), as the use of their corresponding likelihood ratios will generate the correct result. As a photon packet propagates beyond the target region, the packet will propagate using the standard scattering procedure until it is terminated. Once this photon packet is terminated, a new photon packet will be simulated from the OCT probe, as it is the case in the standard MCML. Even though the splitting procedure implies that the cost of simulating a launched photon with this importance sampling method is higher than the computational cost of simulating launched photos using the standard MCML, the computation cost of the Class I diffuse reflectance in our Monte Carlo simulations with importance sampling required as little as one-thousandth of the computational cost required by the standard Monte Carlo method to achieve the same accuracy in the calculated diffuse reflectance.
3.4 Numerical results
We validate our importance sampling technique for simulation of OCT signals from multilayered tissue, with different refractive indices and scattering properties, by comparing its results with those obtained by the standard Monte Carlo method. As shown in Figure 2, light is emitted by an optical fiber probe that is reflected by a prism.
The shown optical system has a focusing lens with a numerical aperture (NA) that allows collecting light at an angle of up to 4° and a diameter of 0.5 mm. Similar to the setups in [5, 10, 11], we assume a point source that emits in the vertical direction. Air is present between the center of the probe and the first layer of tissue, which is placed 2.12 mm from the center of the fiber. We simulate a three-layer turbid medium with refractive-index mismatch at its interfaces. The first layer, extending from 2.12 to 2.22 mm from the tip of the fiber, has absorption coefficient μa = 1.5 cm−1, scattering coefficient μs = 60 cm−1, and refractive index n = 1. The second layer, extending from 2.32 to 2.42 mm from the tip of the fiber, has the same absorption and scattering coefficients as the first layer, but its refractive index is n = 1.33. The third layer, extending from 2.42 to 2.62 mm from the tip of the fiber, has the following parameters: μa = 1.5 cm−1, μs = 30 cm−1, and n = 1. After the third layer, the medium was assumed to be air: μa = 0 cm−1, μs = 0 cm−1, and n = 1. The anisotropy factor was assumed g = 0.9 for the three diffusive layers.
From Figure 3, we note an excellent correspondence between results obtained with our new importance sampling method and results obtained using MCML, that is, standard Monte Carlo simulations. However, our results were obtained in one-thousandth of the time required by the standard method.
4. Importance sampling for simulation of Class I and Class II OCT signals
In this section, we further improve the importance sampling technique that was described in Section 3, so we can simulate Class II OCT signals more accurately and more efficiently [19].
4.1 Scattering angle of first backscattering event
In the MC simulation described in Section 3, we note that the bias function in (5) produces large values of the likelihood ratio (>>1) when photon packets are scattered in the then unlikely forward direction. These photon packets contributed to a slow decrease in the relative variation, which corresponds to relative error, with the increase in the number of photon packets launched for the calculation of the OCT signal. Referring to Figure 1, we could reduce this relative variation by choosing a distribution function for the scattering angle that limits it to the backward direction. This modified distribution is given by:
where a is the bias coefficient that can be selected between 0 and 1. Once a biased angle θB is randomly selected, away from the direction of the center of the OCT probe v̂, where cosθB=v̂·û′, the provisional biased scattering direction û′ is rotated around v̂ by an angle ϕ randomly sampled from a uniform distribution in the range from 0 to 2π. These parameters are defined in the same manner as those used in the biased distribution presented in Section 3. The only difference is that the domain of cosθB is restricted to a maximum deviation from the biased angle by 90°. This ensures that there would not be packets with very large likelihood ratio that could reduce the efficiency of our importance sampling. The likelihood ratio of the photon packet that uses the biased probability density function in Eq. (9) is given by
where cosθS=û·û′ . We note that cosθB is obtained using the probability density function in Eq. (9), where it is used to obtain the new propagation direction û′.
To sample angles according to the biased probability density function in (8), one could use any uniform pseudo-random number generator that would be typically available in scientific software libraries. For example, if ui is a random number distributed uniformly between 0 and 1, a random value for cosθB that satisfies Eq. (9) with bias coefficient a could be generated with the following conversion formula
cosθB,i=12aa2+1−ui11−a−1a2+1+1a2+12.E11
This conversion formula was derived using probability theory [20].
4.2 Scattering angles of additional biased backscatterings
A second enhancement that could be made to the importance sampling technique, described in Section 3, is to bias the additional scatterings toward the center of the OCT probe v̂ with probability 0 ≤ p ≤ 1. That contrasts with the technique presented in Section 3, in which p = 1 (all the additional scatterings were biased). An unbiased scattering is performed in case a bias scattering is not applied in a given point where scattering takes place. The likelihood ratio associated with this scattering is calculated according to the formula
LcosθB=fHGcosθBp·fHGcosθB+1−p·fHGcosθS.E12
If the biased function fBcosθB is selected to sample a random value of cosθS, which is an event with probability p, cosθS=û·û′ is a function of cosθB that is statistically sampled from the probability density function in Eq. (9). Otherwise, in the case of the complementary event with probability 1 − p, the unbiased function fHGcosθS is used to sample a random value of cosθS and cosθB=v̂·û′ depends on the value of cosθS. Since the two random angles associated to each scattering do not depend on the random angles selected in the previous scatterings, the likelihood ratio of each collected photon packet results from the multiplication of all the likelihood ratios of all the biased scatterings in that simulated photon packet.
4.3 Numerical results
We validate our importance sampling technique for simulation of OCT signals from multilayered tissue, with different refractive indices and scattering properties, by comparing its results with those obtained by the standard Monte Carlo method. We consider a tissue model that consists of multiple layers that could be imaged with an OCT system, as shown schematically in Figure 4. The modeled tissue extends from 0 to 1 mm, and consists primarily of a turbid layer with absorption coefficient μa = 1.5 cm−1 and a scattering coefficient μs = 60 cm−1, and also contains five thin layers with absorption coefficient μa = 3 cm−1 and a scattering coefficient μs = 120 cm−1. These five thin layers with higher scattering coefficient are located from 200 to 215 μm, from 365 to 395 μm, from 645 to 660 μm, from 760 to 775 μm, and from 900 to 915 μm. We assume that this tissue has the same refractive index n = 1 and an anisotropy factor g = 0.9. We note that our method is robust in the presence of refractive index mismatch along layer boundaries of the tissue [19]. We simulate an OCT system where the light is delivered/collected by the tip of an optical fiber having a radius of 10 μm and an acceptance angle of 5°. For simplicity, the light source is assumed to be a one-dimensional light beam propagating along the vertical direction as in [3, 8], since the purpose of this example is to validate and demonstrate the effectiveness of our second importance sampling technique when it is applied to the standard MC simulation.
In Figures 5 and 6, we show results obtained with 108 Monte Carlo photon packets with importance sampling, which has a computational cost of simulating about 9 × 108 photon packets using standard Monte Carlo. The computational cost of applying this importance sampling technique depends on the target depth range, and on the average photon mean free path in the given tissue. The target depths in the shown simulations were set from 0 to 1 mm. Therefore, every single photon scattering that occurs in the depth range from 0 to 1 mm would be biased. We used a bias coefficient a = 0.925, and an additional bias probability p = 0.5, to run the Monte Carlo simulations with importance sampling. The results shown in Figures 5 and 6 show that our new importance sampling technique reduces the computational cost for obtaining the Class I diffuse reflectance by approximately three orders of magnitude when compared to the standard Monte Carlo method. This algorithm is optimum when the additional bias probability is equal to p = 0.5. Since only half of the back-scatterings are biased, this choice contributes toward enabling an optimum number of Class II photons to be collected by the tip of the optical fiber.
We note that the results obtained with the MCML have confidence intervals that are noticeably larger than those of the results obtained with importance sampling shown in Figure 6, even though the standard Monte Carlo simulations have a computational cost 113 times larger than those obtained with importance sampling. In Figure 6, we also note that our importance sampling technique reduces the computational cost of calculating the Class II reflectance by more than two orders of magnitude.
In Figure 7 we show the relationship between the relative error in calculating Class I and the Class II reflectances at two different depths: 400 and 670 μm and the bias coefficient a for p = 0.5. The depths at 400 and 670 μm correspond to tissue regions near the second and third regions with high local reflectance due to the higher local scattering coefficient. The relative variation in the results is the ratio between the square root of the variance, shown in Eq. (4), and the reflectance in Eq. (3).
We note that Class I reflectance has a minimum relative error at 400 μm with a = 0.925, but the minimum error at 670 μm occurs at a = 0.95 μm at 670 μm. The deeper the tissue region, the stronger the required bias because of the increase in the number of scatterings with the depth. However, as the bias coefficient is increased toward 1, larger variations in the likelihood ratio lead to an increase in the relative error. We also note that Class II reflectance has its minimum relative error at 400 μm with a = 0.91, while its minimum relative error at 670 μm increased to only about a = 0.925 μm. The optimum amount of bias required by the Classs II diffusive reflectance in both wavelengths is lower than the optimum bias coefficient observed in the Class I reflectance because the number of ballistic and quasi-ballistic photons increases with the bias, which leads to a decrease in the number of collected photon packets that undergo multiple scatterings. Figure 7 also shows that there is a range for the bias parameter a between 0.9 and 0.95 that enables fast calculation of both Class I and Class II reflectances using our importance sampling-based implementation.
5. Conclusions
We described two importance sampling techniques for a standard Monte Carlo (MC) method that could enable fast simulation of signals from optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging systems. These OCT signals are generated due to diffusive reflections from either multilayered or arbitrarily shaped, turbid media, for example, tissue. Such signals typically consist of ballistic and quasi-ballistic components, of scattered photons inside the medium, in addition to photons that undergo multiple scattering. We showed that MC simulation of these OCT signals using our importance sampling reduced its computation time on a serial processor by up to three orders of magnitude compared to its corresponding standard implementation. Therefore, our importance sampling techniques enable practical simulation of OCT B-scans of turbid media, for example, tissue, using commonly available workstations.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"optical coherence tomography, Monte Carlo simulation, light transport in turbid media, importance sampling",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69996.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69996.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69996",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69996",totalDownloads:709,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 8th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"November 27th 2019",datePublished:"December 18th 2019",dateFinished:"November 9th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"We describe two importance sampling techniques for a standard Monte Carlo (MC) method that could enable fast simulation of signals from optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging systems. These OCT signals are generated due to diffusive reflections from either multilayered or arbitrary shaped, turbid media, for example, tissue. Such signals typically consist of ballistic and quasi-ballistic components, of scattered photons inside the medium, in addition to photons that undergo multiple scattering. We show that MC simulation of these OCT signals using importance sampling reduces its computation time on a serial processor by up to three orders of magnitude compared to its corresponding standard implementation. Therefore, these importance sampling techniques enable practical simulation of OCT B-scans of turbid media, for example, tissue, using commonly available workstations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69996",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69996",signatures:"Ivan T. Lima Jr and Sherif S. 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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 OCT signal simulation using a Monte Carlo method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Standard MC method for simulating OCT signals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Importance sampling for simulation of Class I OCT signal",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Scattering angle due to first event of backscattering",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 Scattering angles of additional events of backscattering",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.3 Importance sampling effectiveness and depth of tissue",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.4 Numerical results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Importance sampling for simulation of Class I and Class II OCT signals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Scattering angle of first backscattering event",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Scattering angles of additional biased backscatterings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Numerical results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Brezinski M, Fujimoto J. Optical coherence tomography: High-resolution imaging in non transparent tissue. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 1999;5:1185-1192'},{id:"B2",body:'Drexler W, Fujimoto JG. Optical coherence tomography technology and applications. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2008. DOI: 10.1108/02640470510611517'},{id:"B3",body:'Yao G, Wang LV. Monte Carlo simulation of an optical coherence tomography signal in homogeneous turbid media. Physics in Medicine and Biology. 1999;44:2307-2320'},{id:"B4",body:'Sherif SS, Rosa CC, Flueraru C, et al. Statistics of the depth-scan photocurrent in time-domain optical coherence tomography. Journal of the Optical Society of America. A. 2008;25:16-20'},{id:"B5",body:'Yadlowsky MJ, Schmitt JM, Bonner RF. Multiple scattering in optical coherence microscopy. Applied Optics. 1995;34:5699-5707'},{id:"B6",body:'Jacques SL, Wang L. Monte Carlo modeling of light transport in tissues. Optical-Thermal Response of Laser-Irradiated Tissue. 2013;2607:73-100'},{id:"B7",body:'Chen NG, Bai J. Estimation of quasi-straightforward propagating light in tissues. Physics in Medicine and Biology. 1999;44:1669-1676'},{id:"B8",body:'Chen N. Controlled Monte Carlo method for light propagation in tissue of semi-infinite geometry. Applied Optics. 2007;46:1597'},{id:"B9",body:'Wilson BC, Adam G. A Monte Carlo model for the absorption and flux distributions of light in tissue. Medical Physics. 1983;10:824-830'},{id:"B10",body:'Biondini G, Kath WL, Menyuk CR. Importance sampling for polarization-mode dispersion. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters; 2002;14(3):310-312'},{id:"B11",body:'Lima IT et al. Efficient computation of outage probabilities due to polarization effects in a WDM system using a reduced stokes model and importance sampling. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. 2003;15(1):45-47'},{id:"B12",body:'Schmitt JM, Ben.-Letaief K. Efficient Monte Carlo simulation of confocal microscopy in biological tissue. Journal of the Optical Society of America. A. 1996;13:952-961'},{id:"B13",body:'Iwabuchi H. Efficient Monte Carlo method for radiative transfer modeling. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 2006;63:2324-2339'},{id:"B14",body:'Lima IT Jr, Kalra A, Sherif SS. Improved importance sampling for Monte Carlo simulation of time-domain optical coherence tomography. Biomedical Optics Express. 2011;2(5):1069-1081. DOI: 10.1364/BOE.2001069'},{id:"B15",body:'Lima IT, Kalra A, Hernández-Figueroa HE, Sherif SS. Fast calculation of multipath diffusive reflectance in optical coherence tomography.Biomedical Optics Express. 2012;3:692-700'},{id:"B16",body:'Fang Q. Mesh-based Monte Carlo method using fast ray-tracing in Plücker coordinates. Biomedical Optics Express. 2010;1:165-175'},{id:"B17",body:'Malektaji S, Lima IT Jr, Sherif SS. Monte Carlo simulation of optical coherence tomography for turbid media with arbitrary spatial distributions. Journal of Biomedical Optics. 2 April 2014;19(4):046001. DOI: 10.1117/1.JBO.19.4.046001'},{id:"B18",body:'Malektaji S, Lima IT, Escobar I, et al. Massively parallel simulator of optical coherence tomography of inhomogeneous turbid media. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine. 2017;150:97-105'},{id:"B19",body:'Lima IT, Kalra A, Hernández-Figueroa HE, et al. Fast calculation of multipath diffusive reflectance in optical coherence tomography. Biomedical Optics Express. 2012;3:692'},{id:"B20",body:'Papoulis A. Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1984'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ivan T. Lima Jr",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Dakota State University, USA
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The meshfree method can be easily simulated the fracture problems against the traditional numerical method because it is not dependent on mesh. Triangles technique in the process of numerical integration at regions of discontinuity, functions of enrichment, and as well as the appropriate support field to contain numerical points and nodes to from the shape functions are used in this study. In addition, incompatible interaction integration technique has used to determine the stress intensity factors (SIFs). Two study cases with different crack positions were studied and compared with the experimental works of the relevant reference literature, where accurate and identical results were obtained.",signatures:"Nathera A. Saleh and Haider Khazal",authors:[{id:"287253",title:"Dr.",name:"Haider",surname:"Khazal",fullName:"Haider Khazal",slug:"haider-khazal",email:"haider_khazal@yahoo.com"},{id:"295831",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathera",surname:"A. Saleh",fullName:"Nathera A. 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In the past, the improvement in the thermal conductivity of polym.rs with conductive fillers has been investigated by researchers. Carbon-based materials such as graphite, graphene and carbon nanotube, which feature excellent properties such as a high mechanical strength, a high thermal conductivity and a tailorable electronic configuration, have been added to different polymer matrices to enhance their thermal conductivity. Amongst others, graphite more especially expanded graphite merits special interest because of its abundant availability at a relatively low cost and lightweight when compared to other carbon allotropes. Herein, we describe the thermal conductivity of polymer/graphite composites and their applications.",book:{id:"6753",slug:"impact-of-thermal-conductivity-on-energy-technologies",title:"Impact of Thermal Conductivity on Energy Technologies",fullTitle:"Impact of Thermal Conductivity on Energy Technologies"},signatures:"Teboho Clement Mokhena, Mokgaotsa Jonas Mochane, Jeremia\nShale Sefadi, Setumo Victor Motloung and Dickson Mubera Andala",authors:[{id:"220962",title:"Dr.",name:"Teboho",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhena",slug:"teboho-mokhena",fullName:"Teboho Mokhena"},{id:"220963",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokgaotsa",middleName:null,surname:"Mochane",slug:"mokgaotsa-mochane",fullName:"Mokgaotsa Mochane"},{id:"245145",title:"Dr.",name:"Dickson Mubera",middleName:null,surname:"Andala",slug:"dickson-mubera-andala",fullName:"Dickson Mubera Andala"},{id:"245150",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremia Shale",middleName:null,surname:"Sefadi",slug:"jeremia-shale-sefadi",fullName:"Jeremia Shale Sefadi"},{id:"245152",title:"Dr.",name:"Setumo Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Motloung",slug:"setumo-victor-motloung",fullName:"Setumo Victor Motloung"}]},{id:"40692",doi:"10.5772/45626",title:"Microwave Hydrothermal and Solvothermal Processing of Materials and Compounds",slug:"microwave-hydrothermal-and-solvothermal-processing-of-materials-and-compounds",totalDownloads:13409,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"2226",slug:"the-development-and-application-of-microwave-heating",title:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating",fullTitle:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating"},signatures:"Boris I. Kharisov, Oxana V. Kharissova and Ubaldo Ortiz Méndez",authors:[{id:"13939",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Kharisov",slug:"boris-kharisov",fullName:"Boris Kharisov"},{id:"13941",title:"Dr.",name:"Oxana V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kharissova",slug:"oxana-v.-kharissova",fullName:"Oxana V. Kharissova"},{id:"13942",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz Mendez",slug:"ubaldo-ortiz-mendez",fullName:"Ubaldo Ortiz Mendez"}]},{id:"40744",doi:"10.5772/48716",title:"Microwave Applications in Thermal Food Processing",slug:"microwave-applications-in-thermal-food-processing",totalDownloads:12303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"2226",slug:"the-development-and-application-of-microwave-heating",title:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating",fullTitle:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Shaheen, Khaled F. El-Massry, Ahmed H. El-Ghorab and Faqir M. Anjum",authors:[{id:"65388",title:"Prof.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"El-Massry",slug:"khaled-el-massry",fullName:"Khaled El-Massry"},{id:"148329",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Shaheen",slug:"mohamed-shaheen",fullName:"Mohamed Shaheen"}]},{id:"40687",doi:"10.5772/45750",title:"Microwave Heating Applications in Mineral Processing",slug:"microwave-heating-applications-in-mineral-processing",totalDownloads:6789,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"2226",slug:"the-development-and-application-of-microwave-heating",title:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating",fullTitle:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating"},signatures:"S.M. Javad Koleini and Kianoush Barani",authors:[{id:"147155",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",middleName:null,surname:"Koleini",slug:"javad-koleini",fullName:"Javad Koleini"},{id:"149119",title:"Dr.",name:"Kianoush",middleName:null,surname:"Barani",slug:"kianoush-barani",fullName:"Kianoush Barani"}]},{id:"40690",doi:"10.5772/45919",title:"Applications of Microwave Heating in Agricultural and Forestry Related Industries",slug:"applications-of-microwave-heating-in-agricultural-and-forestry-related-industries",totalDownloads:5906,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"2226",slug:"the-development-and-application-of-microwave-heating",title:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating",fullTitle:"The Development and Application of Microwave Heating"},signatures:"Graham Brodie",authors:[{id:"14683",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:null,surname:"Brodie",slug:"graham-brodie",fullName:"Graham Brodie"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60616",title:"Thermal Conductivity of Graphite-Based Polymer Composites",slug:"thermal-conductivity-of-graphite-based-polymer-composites",totalDownloads:1960,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"It is well known that polymers are insulators, which limit their usage in other applications where thermal conductivity is essential for heat to be efficiently dissipated or stored. In the past, the improvement in the thermal conductivity of polym.rs with conductive fillers has been investigated by researchers. Carbon-based materials such as graphite, graphene and carbon nanotube, which feature excellent properties such as a high mechanical strength, a high thermal conductivity and a tailorable electronic configuration, have been added to different polymer matrices to enhance their thermal conductivity. Amongst others, graphite more especially expanded graphite merits special interest because of its abundant availability at a relatively low cost and lightweight when compared to other carbon allotropes. Herein, we describe the thermal conductivity of polymer/graphite composites and their applications.",book:{id:"6753",slug:"impact-of-thermal-conductivity-on-energy-technologies",title:"Impact of Thermal Conductivity on Energy Technologies",fullTitle:"Impact of Thermal Conductivity on Energy Technologies"},signatures:"Teboho Clement Mokhena, Mokgaotsa Jonas Mochane, Jeremia\nShale Sefadi, Setumo Victor Motloung and Dickson Mubera Andala",authors:[{id:"220962",title:"Dr.",name:"Teboho",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhena",slug:"teboho-mokhena",fullName:"Teboho Mokhena"},{id:"220963",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokgaotsa",middleName:null,surname:"Mochane",slug:"mokgaotsa-mochane",fullName:"Mokgaotsa Mochane"},{id:"245145",title:"Dr.",name:"Dickson Mubera",middleName:null,surname:"Andala",slug:"dickson-mubera-andala",fullName:"Dickson Mubera Andala"},{id:"245150",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremia Shale",middleName:null,surname:"Sefadi",slug:"jeremia-shale-sefadi",fullName:"Jeremia Shale Sefadi"},{id:"245152",title:"Dr.",name:"Setumo Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Motloung",slug:"setumo-victor-motloung",fullName:"Setumo Victor Motloung"}]},{id:"51159",title:"Combustion of Biomass Fuel and Residues: Emissions Production Perspective",slug:"combustion-of-biomass-fuel-and-residues-emissions-production-perspective",totalDownloads:2317,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This article provides possibilities for minimising the emissions from eight types of biomass combustion boilers given by virtue of continuous emission measurement. The measurements were carried out on various types of one‐ or two‐stage combustion devices. In all investigated modes of combustor operation, the concentration of nitrogen oxides in the whole cycle of fuel combustion was without marked deviations and far lower than the emission limit of 650 mg/mn3. Concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) and total organic carbon (TOC) are extremely variable at some operating schedules of combustion boilers. The variability of these concentrations indicates that there are unstable aerodynamic conditions in the combustion device. The causes of this aerodynamic instability have been studied. The mode with stable aerodynamic conditions, for which emission concentrations of CO and TOC are relatively stable, has been determined.",book:{id:"5157",slug:"developments-in-combustion-technology",title:"Developments in Combustion Technology",fullTitle:"Developments in Combustion Technology"},signatures:"Emília Hroncová, Juraj Ladomerský, Ján Valíček and Ladislav\nDzurenda",authors:[{id:"179910",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Emilia",middleName:null,surname:"Hroncova",slug:"emilia-hroncova",fullName:"Emilia Hroncova"},{id:"179964",title:"Prof.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Ladomerský",slug:"juraj-ladomersky",fullName:"Juraj Ladomerský"},{id:"184901",title:"Prof.",name:"Ján",middleName:null,surname:"Valíček",slug:"jan-valicek",fullName:"Ján Valíček"},{id:"184902",title:"Prof.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Dzuranda",slug:"ladislav-dzuranda",fullName:"Ladislav Dzuranda"}]},{id:"51957",title:"A Combustion Process Optimization and Numerical Analysis for the Low Emission Operation of Pulverized Coal-Fired Boiler",slug:"a-combustion-process-optimization-and-numerical-analysis-for-the-low-emission-operation-of-pulverize",totalDownloads:2475,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The paper presents experimental and numerical investigation of pulverized coal combustion process analysis and optimization. The research was conducted on the front-fired pulverized coal boiler with dedicated low-NOx furnace installation. In order to find optimal boiler operating conditions the acoustic gas temperature measurement system and mass flow rate of pulverized coal measurement system was applied. The uniform temperature distribution as a result of uniform coal and air flow provides the optimal combustion process with low level of NOx emission and total organic carbon content in ash. Experimental results confirm that the monitoring and control of fuel and air flow distribution allows to optimize combustion process by increasing thermal efficiency of the boiler. In the numerical part of investigation, the complex CFD model of pulverized coal boiler was made. The calculations of turbulent, reactive, and thermal flow processes were performed at different boiler operating conditions retrieved from power plant on-line monitoring system. The results of numerical simulations enable to identify the optimal boiler operating conditions.",book:{id:"5157",slug:"developments-in-combustion-technology",title:"Developments in Combustion Technology",fullTitle:"Developments in Combustion Technology"},signatures:"Paweł Madejski, Tomasz Janda, Norbert Modliński and Daniel\nNabagło",authors:[{id:"179645",title:"Dr.",name:"Paweł",middleName:null,surname:"Madejski",slug:"pawel-madejski",fullName:"Paweł Madejski"},{id:"179940",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Janda",slug:"tomasz-janda",fullName:"Tomasz Janda"},{id:"179941",title:"Dr.",name:"Norbert",middleName:null,surname:"Modliński",slug:"norbert-modlinski",fullName:"Norbert Modliński"},{id:"179942",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Nabagło",slug:"daniel-nabaglo",fullName:"Daniel Nabagło"}]},{id:"51796",title:"Phenomenological Modeling of Combustion Process in Diesel Engines Based on Stochastic Method",slug:"phenomenological-modeling-of-combustion-process-in-diesel-engines-based-on-stochastic-method",totalDownloads:1858,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In order to satisfy the growing demand for the reduction of fuel consumption and pollutant emissions, various technologies have been employed in diesel engines. Consequently, to determine the optimal combustion control strategy, many parameters such as injection pressure, nozzle diameter, injection timing, injection quantity, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate should be selected properly corresponding to the engine operating conditions. It is difficult to obtain the appropriate strategies without understanding the change in combustion process when varying these parameters. To realize parametric studies on combustion control strategy of modern diesel engines, a phenomenological combustion model based on stochastic method was developed. In this model, the modeling of the spray tip and tail penetration after the end of injection, and interaction between the sprays of sequent injection stages were focused on to modify the stochastic combustion model for combustion simulation with multiple injection. The effects of swirl, wall impingement, and adjacent spray interaction are formulated simply to make the combustion model more accurate and computationally efficient. The simulation results were compared with experimental data from a single-cylinder test engine for pilot/main two-stage injection. 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Substituting part of the coal feed by processed high calorific value waste could reduce the NOx, SO2, and CO2 emissions of coal power plants. However, the alkaline content of WDF and its potentially harmful interactions with the coal ash, as well as adverse effects from the presence of chlorine in the waste, are important drawbacks to waste-derived fuel use in large-scale power plants. This chapter reviews these points and gives a centralized review of co-combustion experiments reported in the literature. 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His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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Shaaban and Amr Farouk",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80777",title:"Starch: A Veritable Natural Polymer for Economic Revolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102941",signatures:"Obi P. 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