The comparison between ACE and ACE2 is given in Table 1 [22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5879",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Chemical Reactions in Inorganic Chemistry",title:"Chemical Reactions in Inorganic Chemistry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Chemical Reactions in Inorganic Chemistry" describes an overview of chemical reagents used in inorganic chemical reactions for the synthesis of different compounds including coordination, transition metal, organometallic, cluster, bioinorganic, and solid-state compounds. This book will be helpful for the graduate students, teachers, and researchers, and chemistry professionals who are interested to fortify and expand their knowledge about sol-gel preparation and application, porphyrin and phthalocyanine, carbon nanotube nanohybrids, triple bond between arsenic and group 13 elements, and N-heterocyclic carbene and its heavier analogues. 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She has experience in fields of Coordination Chemistry and Bioinorganic Chemistry. Her current research focus is on metal complexes synthesis, structural characterization and their utility in Pharmacological and biological applications. She has published 20 research papers and two books on Chemical Reagents and Reactions in Inorganic Chemistry, InTech Publisher, Transition metal Complexes: Biological activity, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. 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Many functional materials have been widely investigated with the view to realize practical passive optical limiting application. However, preparation of the required nonlinear optical active materials for optical limiters still presents a significant chemical challenge. In particular, this chapter gives emphasis to the nonlinear properties modulation of porphyrin and phthalocyanine covalently functionalized graphene and carbon nanotubes nanohybrids for the function of optical power limiting aiming the achievement of effective systems through the appropriate combination and modulation of several structural components. The nonlinear optical mechanisms observed in inorganic-organic nanohybrids, i.e., nonlinear scattering, nonlinear absorption, nonlinear refraction, and others, are discussed in conjunction with the influence of the materials properties and the laser source on the optical limiting performances.",signatures:"Aijian Wang and Wei Zhao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55926",authors:[{id:"200850",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aijian",surname:"Wang",slug:"aijian-wang",fullName:"Aijian Wang"},{id:"205674",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Zhao",slug:"wei-zhao",fullName:"Wei Zhao"}],corrections:null},{id:"55951",title:"Sol-Gel Processes of Functional Powders and Films",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69588",slug:"sol-gel-processes-of-functional-powders-and-films",totalDownloads:1719,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The key principles of sol-gel process and its characteristics are outlined and its major control parameters are summarized. Different samples of functional powders and films with magnetic, optical, and dielectric properties prepared by the sol-gel method are described. To determine the relationship between microstructure and properties, the effects of preparation conditions on the size and microstructure and electric properties, dielectric properties, optical properties, and magnetic properties are analyzed.",signatures:"Chao-Qun Ye",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55951",authors:[{id:"198716",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaoqun",surname:"Ye",slug:"chaoqun-ye",fullName:"Chaoqun Ye"}],corrections:null},{id:"56178",title:"The Effect of Substituent on Molecules That Contain a Triple Bond Between Arsenic and Group 13 Elements: Theoretical Designs and Characterizations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69586",slug:"the-effect-of-substituent-on-molecules-that-contain-a-triple-bond-between-arsenic-and-group-13-eleme",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The effect of substitution on the potential energy surfaces of RE13≡AsR (E13 = group 13 elements; R = F, OH, H, CH3, and SiH3) is determined using density functional theory (M06‐2X/Def2‐TZVP, B3PW91/Def2‐TZVP, and B3LYP/LANL2DZ+dp). The computational studies demonstrate that all triply bonded RE13≡AsR species prefer to adopt a bent geometry that is consistent with the valence electron model. The theoretical studies also demonstrate that RE13≡AsR molecules with smaller substituents are kinetically unstable, with respect to the intramolecular rearrangements. However, triply bonded R′E13≡AsR′ species with bulkier substituents (R′ = SiMe(SitBu3)2, SiiPrDis2, and NHC) are found to occupy the lowest minimum on the singlet potential energy surface, and they are both kinetically and thermodynamically stable. That is to say, the electronic and steric effects of bulky substituents play an important role in making molecules that feature an E13≡As triple bond as viable synthetic target.",signatures:"Jia‐Syun Lu, Ming‐Chung Yang, Shih‐Hao Su and Ming‐Der Su",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56178",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56178",authors:[{id:"199202",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Der",surname:"Su",slug:"ming-der-su",fullName:"Ming-Der Su"}],corrections:null},{id:"60095",title:"Theoretical Investigations of Mechanisms for the Reactions of Seven-Member Ring N-Heterocyclic Carbene and Its Heavier Analogues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75227",slug:"theoretical-investigations-of-mechanisms-for-the-reactions-of-seven-member-ring-n-heterocyclic-carbe",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The potential energy surfaces for the chemical reactions of group 14 carbenes were studied using density functional theory (B3LYP/LANL2DZ + dp). Five group 14 carbene species containing a seven-member ring, 7-Rea-E, where E = C, Si, Ge, Sn and Pb, were chosen as model reactants for this work. Three types of chemical reactions (water addition, imine cycloaddition and dimerization) were used to study the reactivity of these 7-Rea-E molecules. Present theoretical investigations suggest that the relative reactivity of carbenes decreases in the order: 7-Rea-C > 7-Rea-Si > 7-Rea-Ge > 7-Rea-Sn > 7-Rea-Pb. That is, the heavier the group 14 atom (E), the more stable its corresponding 7-Rea-E compound to chemical reaction. This study’s theoretical findings suggest that all of the seven-member 7-Rea-E should be readily synthesized and isolated at room temperature, since they are quite inert to chemical reaction, except for reaction with moisture. Furthermore, the group 14 7-Rea-E singlet-triplet energy splitting, as described in the configuration-mixing model of Pross and Shaik, can be used as a diagnostic tool to predict their reactivity. 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The last two decades have seen epidemic outbreaks by novel viruses including SARS, MERS, and influenza which shared certain commonalities such as a likely zoonotic origin, high mortality rates, and less available therapeutic methods to counteract them. The COVID-19 pandemic shows no signs of slowing down with affecting 223 countries, with 224,811,910 cases, and 4,633,797 death tolls till date [1]. With what history on earlier pandemics has made us understand and with the rapidly mutating nature of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, it is not unreasonable to say that the pandemic is here to stay, and the world must learn to co-exist with it. The first reported case of COVID-19 was found in Wuhan, China in December 2019. By March 2020, the disease had spread across the globe and had become a public health emergency. The WHO declared a pandemic state to the disease spread on March 11, 2020 [2]. With more than a year since the declaration of the pandemic, the scientific community has yet not developed a definitive anti-viral drug to combat the disease spread. Even though the advent of vaccination has set the pace in favour of global health, we have a long way to go to eradicate if at all suppress the disease spread.
SARS-CoV-2 is highly virulent and highly contagious with the R0 value of 3.77 [3]. Though it predominantly affects the respiratory system, other organ systems like the gastrointestinal system, heart, kidney, and central nervous system are also targeted by the virus. Fever, chills, cough, shortness of breath or breathing difficulty, sore throat, nasal congestion, diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, generalised body aches are some of the common symptoms noted in patients infected with COVID-19 [4].
Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 include non-specific symptoms like headache, dizziness, fatigue, and myopathy and more specific symptoms like anosmia, ageusia, impaired consciousness, stroke, meningitis, acute transverse myelitis, and Guillian-Barre syndrome [5, 6]. More than one third of the individuals with COVID-19 were found to present with neurological symptoms [7, 8]. The presence of viral RNA in cerebrospinal fluid and the brain was observed in COVID-19 patients [9]. Preliminary
Coronaviruses are the largest among RNA viruses. They have a crown-like spikes on their surface and hence the name. SARS-CoV-2 is the latest/seventh coronavirus to become pathogenic to humans. It belongs to the Coronaviridae family which includes four genera; α−, β−, γ−, and δ-CoV. Out of these human pathogens include HCoV- 229E, HCoV- NL63 [α − CoV] and OC43, and HKU1 [β − CoV] that in most cases cause mild self-limiting respiratory disease. γ − and δ-CoV strains mainly affect avian species [13]. SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, causatives of SARS and MERS, are beta coronaviruses that caused up to 9.6% and 34.3% mortality rates which were responsible for earlier pandemics that resulted in a death toll of 812 and 866, respectively [14]. SARS-CoV-2 is more similar to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV while being far more pathogenic and transmissible than the earlier known coronaviruses.
SARS-CoV-2 is a beta coronavirus that is positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus with 29–30 kb in size. It has four structural proteins and 16 non-structural proteins. Nucleocapsid protein [N], membrane protein [M], spike protein [S], and envelope protein [E] are the four structural proteins (Figure 1). The capsid of the genome is formed by N protein and the genome is further surrounded by an envelope that is made up of M, E, and S proteins. Like other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 has enveloped with a crown-like spikes on its surface. It is the spike protein that is responsible for the variations in host specificity and tissue tropism of the different coronavirus. Spike protein is a type-I membrane glycoprotein and has two functional subunits S1 and S2 with different functional domains in the amino and carboxy terminal. S1 subunit contains the receptor-binding domain [RBD] and binds with the receptor in the host cells. S2 subunit fuses the membranes of the host cells and the virus. The entry of the virus into the host cell involves binding of the S protein [S1 subunit] to a specific cell receptor followed by priming of the S protein by proteases in the host cell. This leads to the fusion of the spike protein to the cell membrane which is mediated by the S2 subunit [15]. The specific cell receptor through which SARS-CoV-2 enters the host cell is the ACE2 receptor and the protease in the host cell that processes the spike protein to reveal the fusion peptide between S1 and S2 subunits facilitating its entry, is a TMPRSS2 serine protease, member of the hepsin/TMPRSS subfamily [16]. Another protein named furin or paired basic amino acid cleaving enzyme [PACE], a member of the subtilisin-like proprotein convertase family, mediates proteolytic cut of the S protein at S1-S2 boundary, is required for TMPRSS2 processing of S protein. Both TMPRSS2 and furin are essential for the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cell. The furin cleavage site in the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 is not found in SARS-CoV and other beta coronaviruses [17].
ACE2 is a cell surface protein, a metalloproteinase and an ectoenzyme which is an obligatory receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. The affinity of SARS-CoV-2 to ACE2 is ten times higher than that of SARS-CoV which partly explains its higher pathogenicity [18]. It was discovered in 2000 by two independent groups of researchers while searching for human ACE homologues [19, 20]. The gene for ACE2 in humans is located in Xp22 and has 18 exons, a majority of which are similar to the exons of the ACE gene [21]. Despite ACE2 exhibiting 42% sequence identify and 61% sequence similarity with ACE, the two enzymes show enormous variations (Table 1) [27].
ACE | ACE2 | |
---|---|---|
Forms | Exists as a 2-domain somatic form and a one domain testicular form | Exists as a single form |
Structure | Transmembrane ectoenzyme with two active sites | Transmembrane ectoenzyme with one active site |
Enzymatic action | Removes C-terminal dipeptide – peptidyl-dipeptidase | Removes single amino acid from C-terminus – carboxypeptidase |
Substrate specificity | Converts Ang I to Ang II | Converts Ang I to Ang (1-9) |
Does not cleave Ang II | Converts Ang II to Ang (1-7) | |
Converts Ang (1-9) to Ang (1-7) | Does not cleave Ang (1-9) | |
Converts Ang (1-7) to Ang (1-5) | Does not cleave Ang (1-7) | |
Does not cleave Ang A | Converts Ang A to Alamandine | |
Hydrolyses bradykinin | Does not cleave bradykinin | |
Does not cleave des-Arg9-bradykinin | Hydrolyses des-Arg9-bradykinin | |
Action on amyloid protein | Hydrolyses Aβ-43 to Aβ41 | Hydrolyses Aβ43 to Aβ42 |
Hydrolyses Aβ-42 to Aβ40 | Does not cleave Aβ-42 | |
Localisation within cells | Equal distribution between apical and basolateral membranes | Localised on the apical membrane |
Transports intestinal amino acids | No | Transports intestinal neutral amino acids |
Shedding into plasma | Unidentified. May involve metalloproteinase and A Disintegrin | By A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease 17 (ADAM 17) |
Response to ACE inhibitor | Inhibited | Resistant, gets upregulated |
Acts as a receptor to virus | No | Receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 |
Since the 20 years of its discovery, ACE2 was found to have a multitude of physiological and pathological functions based on its three fundamental actions viz. negative regulation of renin-angiotensin system [RAS], facilitation of amino acid transport in the intestine, and surface receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. ACE2 is mainly expressed in the lungs, intestine, liver, heart, kidneys, testes, and brain. In the brain, it is expressed in neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and in ventricles, substantia nigra, hypothalamus, hippocampus, middle temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, nuclei in pons—the nucleus of tractus solitarius and pre-Bötzinger complex and olfactory bulb [21, 28]. ACE2 expression is higher in astrocytes, astrocytic foot processes, pericytes, and endothelial cells which form the key components of the blood–brain barrier [29]. In the olfactory epithelium, its expression is higher in the supporting sustentacular cells than in olfactory sensory neurons [30]. The sites of ACE2 expression are given in Table 2 [31].
Vascular system | Endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, and migratory angiogenic cells |
Heart | Cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, pericytes, and epicardial adipose cells, and cardiofibroblasts |
Skin | sebaceous gland cells and basal epidermal layer |
Kidneys | glomerular endothelial cells, proximal tubule epithelial cells, bladder urothelial cells, luminal surface of tubular epithelial cells, and podocytes |
Reproductive system | Ovary, oocyte, uterus, vagina, and placenta of the female reproductive system Adult Leydig cells and cells in the seminiferous ducts in the testis of the male reproductive system |
Liver | Perinuclear hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, epithelial cells of the bile duct |
Gut | Stratified epithelial cells of oesophagus, stomach, Intestinal epithelial cells, enterocytes of small intestine, absorptive enterocytes from the ileum, colon and rectum, and endothelial cells |
Pancreas | Acinar cells and duct cells of the exocrine gland and alpha, beta, delta, and PP cells of islets of Langerhans |
Thyroid | Glandular cells |
Oral cavity | Tongue, buccal mucosa, gingiva, leucocytes within the oral mucosa, non-keratinising squamous epithelium of the oral cavity – basal layer |
Upper airway | Ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells |
Lungs | Pulmonary vasculature, type I and II alveolar epithelial cells, bronchiolar epithelial cells |
Eyes | Pigmented epithelial cells, photoreceptor cells, Müller glial cells |
Central nervous system | Neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes, and in ventricles, substantia nigra, hypothalamus, hippocampus, middle temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, nuclei in pons – nucleus of tractus solitarius and pre-Bötzinger complex and olfactory bulb and cerebral vasculature and components of blood–brain barrier (astrocytes, astrocytic foot processes, pericytes, and endothelial cells) |
Sites of ACE2 expression.
ACE2 is a type 1 integral membrane protein that includes a short cytoplasmic C-terminus, a transmembrane region, collectrin, and N-terminal ectodomain. Zinc-binding motifs, HEMGH forms the active site of the enzyme. N-terminal domain has a claw-shaped protease domain which is the binding site of receptor-binding domain [RBD] of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. N terminus is homologous to ACE and is a carboxypeptidase that metabolises peptides like angiotensin II, kinins, apelin-13, apelin-36, neurotensin 1–13, kinetensin, and morphins, and C terminus is homologous to collectrin which is involved in the trafficking of neutral amino acid transporter [B[o]AT1] in the intestinal epithelium [32].
Both ACE and ACE2 play a major role in maintaining renin-angiotensin system [RAS] homeostasis. ACE2 acts like a negative regulator of ACE in RAS. RAS involves a variety of proteins and enzymes. Angiotensinogen is an inactive precursor that gets cleaved by renin to form angiotensin I. ACE acts on angiotensin I to convert into angiotensin II [Ang II] while ACE2 converts Ang II to Ang [1-7]. Ang [1-7] then binds to Mas receptors and causes attenuation of the signal cascade that was activated by Ang II (Figure 2). Thus, ACE2 not only inactivates Ang II but also generates the antagonistic peptide Ang [1-7] [33]. Ang [1-7] can also be formed from Ang I by neutral endopeptidases and neprilysin, but the most effective pathway of Ang [1-7] generation is through ACE2 [34]. The conversion of Ang II to Ang [1-7] by ACE2 is 70 folds more efficient than the conversion of Ang I to Ang [1-9] by ACE2. Thus, under physiological conditions, ACE2 mainly forms Ang [1-7] than Ang [1-9] [34].
While Ang II, which acts via angiotensin 1/AT1 [primary mediator] and angiotensin 2/AT2 receptors is a potent vasoconstrictor, a pro-fibrotic, and a pro-inflammatory agent, Ang [1-7] acts via Mas receptors and has vasodilator, anti-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effect. Mas receptors are G protein-coupled receptors and in the brain, they are highly expressed in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, a site-specific for adult neurogenesis and in blood vessels [35]. The ACE2/Ang [1-7]/Mas receptor axis of the RAS is considered to be the protective arm of the renin-angiotensin system. A balance in ACE/ACE2 is critical which implies a balance between the pro-inflammatory pro-oxidative arm and the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative arm of RAS. An increase in ACE/ACE2 ratio was observed in many pathological conditions including cardiovascular pathology, renal dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, in cigarette smokers, and Alzheimer’s disease [36, 37, 38, 39]. SARS-CoV-2 which enters the host cells via ACE2 also causes downregulation of ACE2 and the major targets of SARS-CoV-2 are those which express higher levels of ACE2 [26]. The fibrotic and inflammatory processes observed in various organs in COVID-19 patients could be attributed to the dysregulation of ACE2 and subsequently, RAS which is observed in endocrine, paracrine, and intracrine levels in several organs [40]. Dysregulation of RAS in the brain is associated with neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration [41].
The old dogma that the production of functional neurons does not occur in adult life was refuted when Altman and Das published evidence to support the continuation of neurogenesis in adult life in rodents [42]. Neurogenesis refers to the process of the generation of new neurons from neural stem cells. This process which plays a major role in brain development in embryonic life ceases to exist shortly after birth in the majority of brain areas except two. The subgranular zone [SGZ] of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and subventricular zone [SVZ], lining the lateral wall of the lateral ventricles are the two areas where neurogenesis persists well into adult life albeit declining slightly with ageing (Figure 3) [43, 44]. There is a complex microenvironment that nourishes and supports the neural progenitor cells and their progeny which is called the ‘neurogenic niche’. There are various trophic factors, blood vessels, supporting glial cells, and hormones in the neurogenic niche that help to control and enhance neurogenesis [45]. The newborn neurons mature and get integrated into neural circuits and are involved in a variety of functions including learning and memory like temporal and pattern separation, high-resolution memory, synaptic plasticity, fear conditioning and emotions, and olfaction [46]. Incidentally altered neurogenesis is implicated in several neuropsychiatric diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, depression, Huntington’s disease, and stroke, epilepsy, and demyelinating disease [46, 47].
(a) Structure of ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2; (b) Interaction of spike protein and ACE2; (c) Shedding of ACE2 and entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cell.
Renin-Angiotensin System.
Coronal section of the brain showing the sites of adult neurogenesis.
The process of adult neurogenesis occurs in stages viz. maintenance of neural stem/progenitor cells [NPC] and proliferation of NPC, fate specification/commitment, differentiation, maturation, survival of immature neurons, and integration into neural circuitry. The defining abilities of NPC are self-replication and multipotency, that is, the ability to differentiate into multiple lineages of cells and in this case neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes [48]. There are different types of neural progenitor cells in SGZ and SVZ. Type-1 cells in SGZ, B-cells in SVZ, and radial glia-like cells in SGZ and SVZ are largely quiescent cells, which are similar to radial glia cells found during embryonic development and have a morphology similar to mature astrocytes. Type-2 cells in SGZ and C-cells in SVZ are small roundish cells that are highly proliferative, and they give rise to type-3 cells in SGZ and A-cells in SVZ which represent committed neuroblasts. The type-1/B-cells are multipotent and have unlimited self-renewal capacity which get activated by various factors and multiply to form highly proliferative transient intermediate progenitor cells [TIP] in the SGZ. In SVZ, the transit-amplifying cells [TAC] [type-2/C-cells] has the ability to differentiate into neurons. These divide to form neuroblasts or immature neurons [type-3/A-cells] which proceed to neuronal differentiation and forms newborn neurons that mature and get integrated into neural circuitry in the brain. It is pertinent to know that many of the newborn neurons perish and only 15–30% of immature neurons survive the maturation process. There are various factors that regulate this step and thereby the process of adult neurogenesis [49, 50, 51].
In SGZ, the NPCs form granule cells which are the principal excitatory cells of the dentate gyrus. Their axons form the mossy fibres extending to the CA3 region and their dendrites are in the molecular layer which receives connections from the entorhinal cortex. Immature neurons that are less than a week-old start to have neurite outgrowth and by one- or two-weeks axons can be observed in the hilus, and dendrites start to extend to the molecular layer without spines which being developed by around the 16th day. By 17 days, functional connections are formed by the axons [mossy fibres] with the CA3 pyramidal neurons [52]. They release glutamate as the neurotransmitter. After around 1 week of birth, the newborn granule cells receive GABAergic inputs and after 2 weeks receive glutamatergic inputs [53]. These immature neurons exhibit enhanced excitability by virtue of high input resistance and subthreshold calcium ion conductance which enables them to develop action potential with less excitatory currents. They also have a low threshold for induction of LTP [long-term potentiation] [54, 55]. Between 3 weeks and 2 months, there occurs a gradual increase in spine formation, dendritic arborisation and connection, boutons on CA3 neurons, and maturation of mossy fibres. By less than 2 months, the newborn neurons become functionally indistinguishable from fully mature granule cells [52].
In SVZ, restricted neural progenitor cells migrate along scaffolds maintained by specialised astrocytes via the rostral migratory stream [RMS] to reach the olfactory bulb. By 15–30 days, they differentiate into two types of interneurons, GABAergic granule neurons [95%] and GABA or dopaminergic periglomerular neurons [5%]. The newborn GABAergic granule neurons can become cells with dendrites that do not cross beyond the mitral cell layer and those with non-spiny dendrites that extend till the external plexiform layer. These interneurons mature and get integrated into olfactory network and start responding to olfactory signals [52].
There are various factors that regulate neurogenesis. These include intrinsic niche-derived intrinsic mechanisms and extrinsic systemic factors. The intrinsic factors that regulate adult neurogenesis are given in Table 3. There are extrinsic environmental cues and systemic factors that can positively and negatively affect adult neurogenesis like physical exercise, dietary intake, olfactory/hippocampal-dependent learning, environmental enrichment, ageing, stress, alcohol abuse, and certain inflammatory conditions [46, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Intrinsic factors | Examples |
---|---|
Neurotrophic factors | brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), nerve growth factor (NGF), glia-derived nerve factor (GDNF), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), epidermal growth factor (EGF) |
Morphogens | Notch, sonic hedgehog (Shh), wingless ligands (Wnts), and bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs). |
Inflammatory cytokines | tissue necrosis factors α (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1β IL-4 and IL-10 |
Neurotransmitters | gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine |
Hormones | Glucocorticoids, sex hormones, leptin, incretin |
Epigenetic factors | methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 1 (Mbd1), MYST family histone acetyltransferase Querkopf (Qkf), mixed-lineage leukaemia 1 (Mll1), polycomb complex protein (Bmi-1), histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2), and microRNAs (miR124, 137, 184, 185, and 491-3p) |
Transcriptional factors | sex-determining region Y-box 2 (Sox2), Orphan nuclear receptor TLX, forkhead box O proteins (FoxOs), prospero homeobox 1 (Prox1), neurogenic differentiation1 (NeuroD1), Kruppel-like factor 9, cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), paired box protein (Pax6), and neurogenin 2 (Neurog2) |
List of intrinsic factors that affect adult neurogenesis.
There are different ways that are the possible pathway for the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the brain. Some of the ways include olfactory transmucosal invasion, hematogenous dissemination, and neuronal retrograde dissemination [5]. The olfactory sensory neurons of the olfactory mucosa are bipolar neurons. The axons of the olfactory sensory neurons along the apical side project into the nasal cavity while that on the basal side merge into filia and protrudes into the olfactory bulb through the cribriform plate. Thus, the olfactory sensory neurons are in direct contact with the cerebrospinal fluid [60]. In the olfactory mucosa, ACE2 receptors are mainly found in the non-neuronal cells, sustentacular cells while their expression in the olfactory sensory neurons is less [30]. The blood vessels lining the olfactory mucosa express both ACE2 and TMPRSS2 protease receptors which help in the invasion of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and facilitate binding, replication, and accumulation of the virus [61, 62]. Studies have found that SARS-CoV-2 enters CNS through this neural-mucosal interface by infection of the olfactory neurons or by diffusion through channels formed by olfactory ensheathing cells in the olfactory mucosa [60, 63]. Following the olfactory transmucosal invasion, the virus passes along the olfactory tract via axonal transport, trans-synaptic transport, or microfusion to different areas of the brain linked with the olfactory tract [60, 64].
Recent studies have observed that SARS-CoV-2 RNA was found in brain regions that are not directly connected to olfactory mucosa like the cerebellum which shows that other forms/routes of viral entry into the brain are at play. Neuronal retrograde dissemination is the one where the virus may breach peripheral nerve terminals and take a trans-synaptic route to reach CNS. For instance, SARS-CoV-2 may invade peripheral chemoreceptors and may reach the cardiorespiratory centre in the brain stem [65] or through the gut-brain axis where the virus may enter the brain through enteric nerves [66]. In case of hematogenous dissemination, the virus after infecting the airways may breach the epithelial barrier and enter the bloodstream. Through systemic circulation, the virus may reach the cerebral circulation and could infect endothelial cells of blood–brain barrier or epithelial cells of the blood CSF barrier to reach the brain or via circumventricular organs which lack the blood–brain barrier [5]. Trojan horse mechanism is another way by which SARS-CoV-2 could reach the brain parenchyma. It is the process in which the virus infects leucocytes which get activated and disseminate to other tissues and cross blood–brain barrier [67].
Once SARS-CoV-2 enters the brain, it enters and infects the neurons, glial cells, and endothelial cells through ACE2 and replicates which leads to cell death. It causes damage to the blood–brain barrier which will increase its permeability and cause oedema, intracerebral bleeding, and neuronal death. The infected neurons can release inflammatory mediators that can activate other immune cells like mast cells, neurons, microglia, astrocytes, endothelial cells, and pericytes [68, 69].
Earlier studies show that survivors of critical illness have higher risk of developing neuropsychiatric consequences after discharge from the hospital. The prevalence of symptoms of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress was found to be 29% [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], 34% [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42], and 34% [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50] in survivors of critical illness, respectively [70, 71, 72]. Impairment in memory, attention, and concentration was observed in SARS survivors 1 year after recovery [73]. Based on the knowledge from earlier infections by coronaviruses, SARS, and MERS, an increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders like depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, are possible in a long-term follow-up of patients recovered from COVID-19 [12].
Neuropsychiatric disorders that display impaired adult neurogenesis include major depressive disorder, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and post-traumatic stress disorder. All of these correlate well with the reduction in hippocampal volume, cognitive deficits, and mood dysregulation [74]. A recent 3-month prospective study by Yiping Lu et al. conducted in COVID-19 recovered patients found that there was grey matter enlargement in olfactory cortices and hippocampus bilaterally [75]. Yiping Lu et al. also found that the grey matter volume of the hippocampus was negatively related to loss of smell during the disease phase [75]. Anosmia over a course of time in upper respiratory tract infections was found to be associated with a decrease in the grey matter volume [GMV] of the central olfactory system due to loss of stimulation while enlargement of GMV is observed during recovery [76]. Functional compensation in the form of enlarged neurons and an increase in the dendritic spine and compensatory enhanced neurogenesis are believed to be the reason behind GMV enlargement during recovery [77]. Loss of memory that persisted 3 months after the active infection in COVID-19 recovered patients was found to be negatively related to hippocampal grey matter volume [75]. Memory acquisition depends on newborn neurons and impairment in the acquisition of memory occurs due to inhibition of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus [78, 79].
Anosmia is regarded as the key feature of COVID-19 which either occurs as an only symptom or in association with other signs and symptoms [80, 81]. Earlier studies show that any impairment in olfactory neurogenesis is associated with anosmia since neurogenesis in the olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb is essential for the sense of smell [82, 83]. Dysfunction or atrophy of the olfactory bulb was observed in COVID-19 patients by recent studies done using brain imaging reports [84, 85]. Pathogenic changes in COVID-19 seem to cause loss of dopaminergic neurons, defects in the dopamine system, and exacerbate the clinical features of Parkinson’s disease [PD] [86, 87]. Anosmia is an important premotor symptom of PD which is not directly related to the neurodegenerative process in substantia nigra but appears to be related to defective adult neurogenesis [88, 89].
Understanding the process of adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 may reveal a critical role of the regenerative capacity of NPCs in combating the neuropsychiatric consequence of COVID-19. There are no studies or evidence to link COVID-19 with adult neurogenesis yet. Based on the factors like the presentation of neuropsychiatric symptoms in COVID-19, the occurrence of symptoms like anosmia, memory and cognitive deficits in COVID-19, the neuro-invasive potential of SARS-CoV-2, ACE2 expression in sites of adult neurogenesis, increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-6, Il-1β which inhibit adult neurogenesis and impact of earlier coronavirus infections, it might not be far-fetched to say that COVID-19 could have a possible impact on adult neurogenesis. There is a severe scarcity in research analysing the effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on adult neurogenesis. The current chapter, which is speculative and based on a thorough literature search, discusses the possible changes in adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 emphasising the role of ACE2. If proven to be true in the future, the findings in this article will help in achieving early intervention to address the neuropsychiatric long-term consequence of COVID-19.
SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cell through ACE2 is followed by the downregulation of ACE2. A decrease in ACE2 will lead to dysregulation of RAS and various other complications. A recent study has found that ACE2 is expressed in young neurons and in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells [90]. ACE2 is found to have various neuroprotective functions. It converts neurotoxic amyloid protein Aβ into neuroprotective one in transgenic mice [91]. ACE2 activator, diminazene increased CREB, BDNF, glutamate, and nicotinic receptor and decreased the levels of apoptotic and inflammatory proteins in the AD model of D-galactose-ovariectomized rats [92]. All these factors play a major role in adult neurogenesis. ACE2 deficiency in mice was found to be accompanied by significantly impaired learning and memory [93]. Exercise-induced neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus was abolished in ACE2 deficient mice. Ang II, Ang [1-7], and Mas receptors were not found to be responsible and hence the mediator of this effect is not identified yet [94].
ACE2 expression is stronger in the enterocytes of the small intestine and colon, which is even higher than in the lungs. Neural ganglia cells in the colon of the enteric nervous system also express ACE2 receptors. Intestinal ACE2 plays a major role in the transport of neutral amino acids via B0AT1, neutral amino acid transporter. ACE2/B0AT1 complex regulates the composition and function of gut microbiota. ACE2 knockout animals showed lower levels of serum neutral amino acid levels like tryptophan, and impaired gut microbiota composition along with reduced expression of small intestinal antimicrobial peptides [95]. Enteric infection is an important presentation of COVID-19. Faeces of COVID-19 patients were found to have Viral mRNA [96, 97]. SARS-CoV-2 entry via the enteric route into host cell leads to ACE2 shedding due to S priming which may lead to gut microbiota dysbiosis [98]. Depletion of gut microbiota by prolonged antibiotic treatment resulted in impairment in cognitive function and hippocampal neurogenesis in adult mice [99]. The existence of a strong link between gut microbiota and the development of mental disorders, depression, and anxiety which are associated with impaired adult neurogenesis has been explored in recent studies [100].
Neuroinflammation directly impairs adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-α causes a reduction in neural cell proliferation and suppresses adult hippocampal neurogenesis [101, 102, 103]. SARS-CoV-2 entry into the brain triggers an immune response by activating microglia, astrocytes, and other immune cells. This leads to increased production of cytokines in the brain. Cytokine storm which is a deadly hyperinflammatory response is considered to be a hallmark feature of COVID-19 pathogenesis [104]. Hypercytokinemia of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α was observed in COVID-19 patients. Increased levels of IL-6 correlate with mortality and the need for ventilator support [105, 106].
Thus, there are different possible mechanisms through which SARS-CoV-2 affects adult neurogenesis via ACE2. This chapter, however, will focus on the role of ACE2 in possible alterations in adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 via neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitter signalling is found to play a major role in the formation of new neurons in addition to its clear and indisputable role in communication between neurons. Starting from embryogenesis, neurotransmitters are involved in neuronal proliferation. In adult neurogenesis, they influence various steps including proliferation, differentiation, and migration. In addition to the direct action of neurotransmitters on adult neurogenesis, they also influence other factors that regulate neurogenesis like neurotrophic factors and growth factors [107].
Serotonin is a crucial monoaminergic neurotransmitter that acts as a mood stabiliser and is associated with feelings of happiness, well-being, and contentedness. In the brain, it is synthesised by the Raphe nuclei neurons in the brain stem from tryptophan using neuron-specific tryptophan hydroxylase 2 enzymes. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 [VMAT] packs the synthesised serotonin into vesicles. Serotonin transporters [SERT] re-uptake serotonin back to presynaptic neurons after its release, thereby regulating its extracellular levels [108]. The serotonergic fibres from raphe nuclei have projections throughout the brain and especially to the granule cells and interneurons of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Serotonin is known to play a major regulatory role in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SRRI] are commonly used antidepressants that act by increasing serotonin levels in the brain causes clinical improvement associated with an increase in adult hippocampal neurogenesis characterised by increased neuronal proliferation and number of newborn neurons [109]. Malberg et al. in 2000 were the first to show that chronic treatment with fluoxetine improved adult hippocampal neurogenesis [109]. In the dentate gyrus, serotonin is known to promote neuronal development and its depletion was found to cause reduced dendritic spine density of granule cells [110, 111, 112, 113]. Chronic treatment with SSRI, fluoxetine was found to increase the survival of newborn neurons in the dentate gyrus [109, 114]. In stress models like inescapable stress, cold restraint stress in the animal model, fluoxetine administration was found to exhibit neurogenic and neuroprotective roles in the hippocampus [114, 115]. Accelerated synaptogenesis and increased long-term potentiation [LTP] in the hippocampus were also observed by long-term treatment by fluoxetine [116].
Recent studies have found that ACE2 plays a major role in the biosynthesis of serotonin [5HT]. The precursor for 5HT is an essential amino acid, tryptophan which can cross the blood–brain barrier and whose intestinal absorption was found to be reduced by 70% in case of ACE2 deficiency. Thus, ACE2 has an indirect modulatory role in 5HT synthesis in the brain [117]. There are recent studies that show that 5HT synthesis in the brain is dependent on ACE2, which acts by modulating 5HT metabolism and ACE2 deficiency leads to decreased serum tryptophan levels and decreased serotonin levels in the brain [94].
Dopamine is involved in executive functions, volition, motor control, motivation, pleasure/reward, and attention/concentration [118]. The role and mechanism of action of dopamine in adult neurogenesis are not elucidated fully. Dopamine was found to modulate cell proliferation in the embryonic brain [119]. Hippocampus and sub-ventricular zone [SVZ] which are the neurogenic niche containing neural stem cells receive dopaminergic projections from the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Dopamine receptors are also widely expressed in these two areas and play a regulatory role in adult neurogenesis and neural plasticity [120, 121]. Earlier studies show that depletion of dopamine in the rat model reduces both proliferation and survival of neural precursor cells in the sub-granular zone [SGZ] of the dentate gyrus [122, 123]. Dopaminergic denervation in substantia nigra caused a significant reduction in the proliferation of neural stem cells in SGZ and SVZ which was reversed by D2 receptor stimulation in rodents [123]. In humans, post-mortem studies have revealed that the number of neural precursor cells in SGZ and SVZ was reduced in patients with Parkinson’s disease [124]. Dopamine was also found to increase the type 2A early progenitor cell in the hippocampus of rodents via D1 like receptors [118]. Dopamine receptor agonist pramipexole increases the proliferation and survival of newborn neurons in SVZ, olfactory bulb [119].
RAS plays a major role in dopaminergic vulnerability through AT1 receptors. Dysregulation of RAS due to the downregulation of ACE2 induced by SARS-CoV-2 may increase the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons and subsequently dopamine levels [125]. Interactions between dopamine and angiotensin receptors that are counterregulatory in nature are observed in substantia nigra and striatum [125]. The gene for ACE2 was found to coexpress and coregulate with that of dopa decarboxylase [DDC] in non-neuronal cells, which is a major enzyme of dopamine, serotonin, and histamine biosynthesis. DDC converts L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine [L-DOPA] into dopamine which subsequently forms norepinephrine and epinephrine and L-5-hydroxytryptophan into serotonin. This coexpression and coregulation link between the genes for ACE2 and DDC gives rise to the possibility of a functional link between the actions of ACE2 and DDC [i.e.,] in the synthesis of Ang [1-7] and dopamine and serotonin mediated by ACE2 and DDC, respectively [126]. Following the infusion of Ang [1-7] in the hypothalamus of rats, brain dopamine levels increased which emphasises the link between ACE2 and DDC. SARS-CoV-2 induced downregulation of ACE2 could cause the decreased synthesis of serotonin and dopamine [94, 127].
The SARS-CoV-2 infection has been found to cause loss of dopaminergic neurons and deficits in the dopamine system [86, 128]. ACE2 expression is high in dopaminergic neurons and the downregulation of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 may cause depletion of dopaminergic neurons and dopamine levels. This is evident from the worsening of symptoms observed in COVID-19 patients with Parkinson’s disease [PD], requiring increased dopamine replacement therapy [129]. ACE2 deletion in the knockout mouse model caused a significant reduction in dopamine D1 mRNA expression in substantia nigra [130].
Norepinephrine is an important catecholamine that is involved in alertness, arousal, sleep–wake cycle, memory storage, and emotions. It modulates various functions of the hippocampus like learning, memory, and mood. Noradrenergic axon terminals arising from the locus coeruleus densely innervate the neurogenic niche in the adult hippocampus [131]. Norepinephrine along with the other monoaminergic neurotransmitters plays a major role in adult neurogenesis. Norepinephrine was found to activate the stem cells and neural precursor cells via β3-adrenergic receptors where non-proliferating latent precursor cells develop the ability to respond to mitogens and generate neurospheres. It also increases the proliferation of early progenitor cells in the adult hippocampus via β2-adrenergic receptors [132, 133]. Depletion of norepinephrine significantly decreased the proliferation of progenitor cells of granule cells in the hippocampus [134]. Antidepressants that selectively increase norepinephrine were found to increase adult hippocampal neurogenesis [132].
Downregulation of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 may affect the activity of DDC due to the coexpression and coregulation between the genes for ACE2 and DDC. This could lead to a decrease in the biosynthesis of dopamine and subsequently norepinephrine [126].
Glutamate is the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter of the CNS. It plays a vital role in both embryonic brain development and adult neurogenesis. Its extracellular levels are especially higher in the neurogenic niche when compared to other areas of the brain [135, 136]. It has trophic effects on the developing neurons before synapse formation like proliferation, migration, and maturation. It causes an increase in the proliferation of neural progenitor cells [NPC]. The NPCs express NMDA metabotropic glutamate receptors, stimulation of which caused increased intracellular calcium and activation of NeuroD1, proneural gene [137]. Glutamate signalling plays a positive role in maintaining the proliferation of NPCs and the survival rates of newborn neurons [137, 138].
Gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA] is a principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It is produced from glutamate by the action of the enzymes glutamate decarboxylase GAD65 and GAD67 [139]. Dysfunction in the GABAergic system is implicated in major depressive disorder and anxiety [140]. However, in the developing brain, GABA exerts an excitatory effect, that is, GABA is excitatory in immature neurons. Tonic discharge from GABAergic neurons is necessary for maintaining the quiescent state of NPCs. The absence of GABAergic excitability will cause impairment in neuronal maturation and synapse formation while an excess of it over newborn neurons will lead to seizures [141]. In SGZ, GABA mediates depolarisation of progenitor cells which is involved in the incorporation of AMPA receptors in immature granule cells, which is critical for learning and formation of memory [142]. It has a negative influence on neuroblasts. It inhibits the proliferation and migration of neuroblasts. It also inhibits the proliferation of NPCs [143, 144, 145]. It also promotes the differentiation of hippocampal NPCs. GABAA receptor agonist, phenobarbital caused a reduction in NPC proliferation and increase in differentiation which resulted in an increased number of newborn neurons [146]. Thus, it plays crucial role in different stages of adult neurogenesis. GABA and glutamate signalling play a major role in adult neurogenesis. Selective activation of the receptor subtypes of GABA and glutamate expressed in NPCs plays a pivotal role in self-replication and fate commitment of the developing neurons into a particular progeny [147].
A recent study has found ACE2 to be located mainly in excitatory neurons of the brain and to a lesser extent in inhibitory neurons like GABAergic neurons [148]. This indicates that SARS-CoV-2 once enters the brain has the potential to access the glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons. The consequence of this is not known however, viral entry may trigger apoptotic pathways and cause excitatory-inhibitory imbalance, and lead to neuronal death [149]. Cytokine release from infected neurons and other activated microglia and astrocytes may also cause a decrease in glutamate and GABA [150]. These effects are implicated along with impaired adult neurogenesis in neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Seizure is one of the neurological symptoms in COVID-19 patients, in which an increase in glutamate levels and decrease in GABA levels in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus is an implicated mechanism [151]. This further emphasises the possible impact of SARS-CoV-2 on glutamate and GABA.
Thus, SARS-CoV-2 induced downregulation of ACE2 in COVID-19 is potentially detrimental to adult neurogenesis. ACE2 deficiency affects the levels and actions of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, and glutamate which play crucial roles in adult neurogenesis.
SARS-CoV-2 has been found to have a high affinity to ACE2 receptors. Such high affinity has been linked to affect neurogenesis through a variety of mechanisms. The present chapter has clearly postulated the link between this deadly virus and its effect on monoaminergic neurotransmitters as well as GABA and glutamate which play a major role in adult neurogenesis. As ACE2 receptors are expressed in the hippocampus, decreased neurogenesis in this region could be one of the major factors behind the neuropsychiatric disorders associated with patients affected with COVID-19. Awareness and early intervention to prevent and treat long-term psychiatric consequences of COVID-19 are crucial. We should be aware of the possibility that in the long term, COVID-19 may be associated with cognitive and psychiatric disorders in those who recovered. Despite having a mild course of disease in children and adolescents, immunological response to the infection in this population may affect synaptic pruning which may lead to various issues that may not be immediately apparent. Insights into the various machinations of adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 can be used to engineer the process to help with the pathological changes in the brain inflicted by the disease.
The authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research, Majmaah University for the support of this chapter.
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Additionally, this chapter elucidates and illustrates the wastewater treatment plants in terms of plant sizing, plant layout, plant design, and plant location.",book:{id:"4619",slug:"wastewater-treatment-engineering",title:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering"},signatures:"Mohamed Samer",authors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}]},{id:"52474",title:"Slaughterhouse Wastewater: Treatment, Management and Resource Recovery",slug:"slaughterhouse-wastewater-treatment-management-and-resource-recovery",totalDownloads:6816,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:"The meat processing industry is one of the largest consumers of total freshwater used in the agricultural and livestock industry worldwide. Meat processing plants (MPPs) produce large amounts of slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) because of the slaughtering process and cleaning of facilities. SWWs need significant treatment for a sustainable and safe discharge to the environment due to the high content of organics and nutrients. Therefore, the treatment and final disposal of SWW are a public health necessity. In this chapter, the regulatory frameworks relevant to the SWW management, environmental impacts, health effects, and treatment methods are discussed. Although physical, chemical, and biological treatment can be used for SWW degradation, each treatment process has different advantages and drawbacks depending on the SWW characteristics, best available technology, jurisdictions, and regulations. SWWs are typically assessed using bulk parameters because of the various pollutant loads derived from the type and the number of animals slaughtered that fluctuate amid the meat industry. Thus, an on-site treatment using combined processes would be the best option to treat and disinfect the slaughterhouse effluents to be safely discharged into receiving waters.",book:{id:"6050",slug:"physico-chemical-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",title:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",fullTitle:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery"},signatures:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte and Mehrab Mehrvar",authors:[{id:"66753",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehrab",middleName:null,surname:"Mehrvar",slug:"mehrab-mehrvar",fullName:"Mehrab Mehrvar"},{id:"189304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciro",middleName:"Fernando",surname:"Bustillo-Lecompte",slug:"ciro-bustillo-lecompte",fullName:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte"}]},{id:"48946",title:"Cogeneration Power-Desalting Plants Using Gas Turbine Combined Cycle",slug:"cogeneration-power-desalting-plants-using-gas-turbine-combined-cycle",totalDownloads:4659,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The gas-steam turbine combined cycle (GTCC) is the preferred power plant type because of its high efficiency and its use of cheap and clean natural gas as fuel. It is also the preferred type in the Arab Gulf countries where it is used as cogeneration power-desalting plant (CPDP). In this chapter, descriptions and analysis of the GTCC components are presented, namely, the gas turbine cycle (compressor, combustor, gas turbine), heat recovery steam generator, and steam turbine. Combinations of the GTCC with thermally driven desalination units to present CPDP are presented. A parametric study to show the effect of using GTCC on several operating parameters on the CPDP is also presented, as well as cost allocation methods of fuel between the two product utilities (electric power and desalted seawater are also presented).",book:{id:"4613",slug:"desalination-updates",title:"Desalination Updates",fullTitle:"Desalination Updates"},signatures:"M.A. Darwish, H.K. Abdulrahim, A.A. Mabrouk and A.S. Hassan",authors:[{id:"173364",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Darwish",slug:"mohamed-darwish",fullName:"Mohamed Darwish"},{id:"173603",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulrahim",slug:"hassan-abdulrahim",fullName:"Hassan Abdulrahim"},{id:"173774",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Nasser",middleName:null,surname:"Mabrouk",slug:"abdel-nasser-mabrouk",fullName:"Abdel Nasser Mabrouk"},{id:"175519",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashraf",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"ashraf-hassan",fullName:"Ashraf Hassan"}]},{id:"54201",title:"Pulp Mill Wastewater: Characteristics and Treatment",slug:"pulp-mill-wastewater-characteristics-and-treatment",totalDownloads:4914,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The production of chemical pulp in recent times is 180 million tons per year; while the production of eucalyptus pulp has increased intensively, especially in the southern hemisphere. The pulp and paper industry has long been considered a large consumer of natural resources (wood and water) and one of the largest sources of pollution to the environment (air, water courses and soil). Important efforts are being made to reduce the pollutant levels and water consumption of the industry. The wastewater composition, and therefore, the efficiency of effluent treatments and characteristics of the discharges to water are strongly dependent on the applied technology and raw materials. Despite a large body of literature on softwood-based wastewater, few studies have examined the characteristics of kraft eucalyptus bleaching effluents and their behaviour in the different biological treatments. The largest secondary treatment systems today use the activated sludge process. Sixty to seventy-five per cent of all the biological effluent treatment plants within the pulp and paper industry use this kind of treatment system. This chapter reviews the current pulping technologies at mills and compares the chemical composition and biological treatment of wastewater between softwood and hardwood bleached pulps.",book:{id:"5417",slug:"biological-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",title:"Biological Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",fullTitle:"Biological Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery"},signatures:"María Noel Cabrera",authors:[{id:"187931",title:"Dr.",name:"María Noel",middleName:null,surname:"Cabrera",slug:"maria-noel-cabrera",fullName:"María Noel Cabrera"}]},{id:"54320",title:"Phosphorus Recovery by Struvite Crystallization from Livestock Wastewater and Reuse as Fertilizer: A Review",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-by-struvite-crystallization-from-livestock-wastewater-and-reuse-as-fertilizer-a-",totalDownloads:2566,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"In China, the intensive livestock farming produces massive livestock wastewater with high concentration of phosphorus. Discharge of these compounds to surface water not only causes water eutrophication but also wastes phosphorus resources for plant growth. Therefore, it’s necessary combining the removal of phosphorus from livestock wastewater with its recovery and reuse as fertilizer. As a valuable slow-release mineral fertilizer, struvite crystallization has become a focus in phosphorus recovery. In this chapter, struvite crystallization mechanism, reaction factors, crystallizers, and the applications of struvite as fertilizer are discussed. Two steps of nucleation and crystal growth for struvite crystallization from generation to growth are introduced. The reaction factors, including molar ratio of magnesium and phosphate, solution pH, coexisting substances, and seeding assist, of struvite crystallization are summarized. Several innovate types of crystallizer, which relate to the shape and size of harvest struvite to realize the phosphorus recycling, are demonstrated. Due to the influence of toxic or harmful impurities in struvite on its reuse as fertilizer, the environmental risk evaluation of struvite application is introduced. In conclusion, struvite crystallization is a promising tool for recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater.",book:{id:"6050",slug:"physico-chemical-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",title:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",fullTitle:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery"},signatures:"Tao Zhang, Rongfeng Jiang and Yaxin Deng",authors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang"},{id:"195403",title:"Dr.",name:"Rongfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"rongfeng-jiang",fullName:"Rongfeng Jiang"},{id:"195404",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaxin",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",slug:"yaxin-deng",fullName:"Yaxin Deng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"779",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82817",title:"Perspective Chapter: Microfluidic Technologies for On-Site Detection and Quantification of Infectious Diseases - The Experience with SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105950",signatures:"Andres Escobar and Chang-qing Xu",slug:"perspective-chapter-microfluidic-technologies-for-on-site-detection-and-quantification-of-infectious",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"