\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6057",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Austenitic Stainless Steels - New Aspects",title:"Austenitic Stainless Steels",subtitle:"New Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Stainless steel is still one of the fastest growing materials. Today, the austenitic stainless steel with the classic composition of 18% Cr and 8% Ni (grade 304L) is still the most widely used by far in the world. The unique characteristic of stainless steel arises from three main factors. The versatility results from high corrosion resistance, excellent low- and high-temperature properties, high toughness, formability, and weldability. The long life of stainless steels has been proven in service in a wide range of environments, together with low maintenance costs compared to other highly alloyed metallic materials. The retained value of stainless steel results from the high intrinsic value and easy recycling. Stainless steel, especially of austenitic microstructure, plays a crucial role in achieving sustainable development nowadays, so it is also important for further generations.",isbn:"978-953-51-3702-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3701-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4021-4",doi:"10.5772/67935",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"austenitic-stainless-steels-new-aspects",numberOfPages:218,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9d535d6a795541ead4919f3fcfa82ff0",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tanski and Zbigniew Brytan",publishedDate:"December 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6057.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14767,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:56,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 21st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 14th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186373/images/system/186373.jpg",biography:"Dr. Wojciech Borek, Ph.D. and MSc in Engineering, is an assistant professor in the Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials at the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice, Poland, and a member of the association of Polish Cluster of Innovative Forging Technologies “HEFAJSTOS.” His scientific interests include materials science, heat treatment, thermomechanical treatment, plastic deformations, and Gleeble simulations, especially Gleeble welding simulation. He is also a specialist in steels, stainless steel, high-manganese austenitic steels, and light metal alloys. He is an author and coauthor of around 100 scientific publications worldwide including ten chapters in books and more than thirty publications in the Web of Science database. He has won ten national and international awards and honors. Dr. Borek has served, or is currently serving, as a contractor for more than eight research and didactic projects in Poland and abroad, a reviewer of numerous scientific publications, and a co-promoter of two doctoral dissertations.",institutionString:"Silesian University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Silesian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"15700",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Tański",slug:"tomasz-arkadiusz-tanski",fullName:"Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15700/images/system/15700.png",biography:"Prof. Tomasz Tański is the Head of the Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland, and a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Committee of Metallurgy. He is a specialist in non-ferrous alloys, composite materials, and nanostructured, manufacturing engineering. He has authored or co-authored more than 400 scientific publications worldwide, including 15 monographs and books and more than 116 publications on the Thomson Scientific Master Journal List. He has won twenty national and international awards. He is and has been a supervisor or contractor for more than fifteen research and didactic projects in Poland and abroad. He is a reviewer and promoter of numerous scientific papers, including eight doctoral theses in the field of nanotechnology and materials.",institutionString:"Silesian University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Silesian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"184900",title:"Dr.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Brytan",slug:"zbigniew-brytan",fullName:"Zbigniew Brytan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184900/images/5174_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Zbigniew Brytan, PhD and MSc in Engineering, is an assistant professor in the Institute of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials at the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice, Poland. His scientific interests include corrosion resistant alloys, stainless steel, sintering, surface engineering, laser processing of metals, welding of stainless steels. He is an author and coauthor of ca. 50 scientific publications worldwide, including 1 book and more than 20 publications in the Philadelphia list., he is and/or was a main contractor or contractor of more than 5 research and didactic projects in Poland in the field of stainless steels. He is known as expert in stainless steel processing, providing technical expertise to more than 30 stainless steel producers. He is also a trainer for product managers, sellers and process engineers of stainless steels.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Silesian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"57888",title:"Introductory Chapter: Why Austenitic Stainless Steels are Continuously Interesting for Science?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72062",slug:"introductory-chapter-why-austenitic-stainless-steels-are-continuously-interesting-for-science-",totalDownloads:1339,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zbigniew Brytan, Wojciech Borek and Tomasz Tański",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57888",authors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],corrections:null},{id:"57149",title:"Considerations in the Design of Formable Austenitic Stainless Steels Based on Deformation-Induced Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70939",slug:"considerations-in-the-design-of-formable-austenitic-stainless-steels-based-on-deformation-induced-pr",totalDownloads:2104,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The temperature dependence of tensile elongation in austenitic steels is discussed in view of the relationship between the stacking fault energy and deformation-induced processes. It is shown that the maximum tensile elongation is achieved in the vicinity of Mdγ → α′ temperature. The influence of alloying elements on the temperature dependence of tensile elongation can therefore be analyzed with regard to their influence on the Mdγ → α′ temperature. In this regard, majority of alloying elements including C and N decrease the temperature associated with highest tensile elongation. Due to the high efficiency of C and N in increasing the stability of austenite, approaches toward the development of high-interstitial austenitic stainless steels containing minimal amounts of substitutional alloying elements are discussed. Finally, some of the challenges associated with the processing of high-interstitial austenitic stainless steels are reviewed.",signatures:"Javad Mola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57149",authors:[{id:"205741",title:"Dr.",name:"Javad",surname:"Mola",slug:"javad-mola",fullName:"Javad Mola"}],corrections:null},{id:"57525",title:"Investigation of Martensitic Transformation Induced by Cyclic Plastic Deformation in Austenitic Steels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71408",slug:"investigation-of-martensitic-transformation-induced-by-cyclic-plastic-deformation-in-austenitic-stee",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main goal was to demonstrate the possibility of investigating martensitic transformation induced by plastic strain, especially including the kinetics of this transformation, using selected cross effects. It is commonly known that this type of transformation is a basic “mechanism” occurring in shape memory materials and metastable austenitic steels strengthened with martensite separations. The motivation behind the research was also to follow and visualise the transformation on line, during cyclic loading (fatigue process), without the necessity to use, for example, roentgenographic (destructive) or microscopic methods. The application of the magneto-mechanical effect (the Villari effect) and the thermomechanical effect (the Kelvin/Thomson effect) turned out to be particularly useful because they significantly change with martensite initiation and then accumulate in austenite. Therefore, the goal was to develop the non-destructive methods of investigating martensite transformation, which could then be used on real constructions made of metastable austenite steel. In the case of the magneto-mechanical method, the goal was to additionally visualise the magnetic field transformations along a sample in the function of a loading cycle and the index of this period. To achieve this, high-resolution phase maps were used, which also allowed image processing methods known from machinery visioning (MV) or digital image correlation (DIC) techniques to be used.",signatures:"Jerzy Kaleta, Przemysław Wiewiórski and Wojciech Wiśniewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57525",authors:[{id:"19069",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Kaleta",slug:"jerzy-kaleta",fullName:"Jerzy Kaleta"},{id:"220028",title:"MSc.",name:"Przemysław",surname:"Wiewiórski",slug:"przemyslaw-wiewiorski",fullName:"Przemysław Wiewiórski"},{id:"220029",title:"MSc.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Wiśniewski",slug:"wojciech-wisniewski",fullName:"Wojciech Wiśniewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"57563",title:"Effect of Sigma Phase on Fracture Behavior of Steels and Weld Joints of Components in Power Industry Working at Supercritical Conditions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71569",slug:"effect-of-sigma-phase-on-fracture-behavior-of-steels-and-weld-joints-of-components-in-power-industry",totalDownloads:2039,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter deals with the change of the structure and mechanical properties of the austenitic steels grades TP347HFG, Super 304H and HR3C as well as their welded joints after the exposure at temperatures corresponding to the ultra-super critical (USC) and advanced ultra-super critical (A-USC) parameters. Several tube bend radii were investigated in order to understand relation between cold work plastic deformation, mechanical properties and the structural changes with special attention to the generation of sigma phase during long-term high temperature exposure. The effect of post bend solution annealing work on the material properties and structural changes was studied, too, using small punch test (SPT) and miniaturized tensile tests taken both from straight part and extrados of bends under investigation. Creep properties of either base metal either welded joints were tested and evaluated using standard creep specimens at temperatures 650, 700 and 750°C. The obtained results confirmed that the mechanical properties and the structure were significantly influenced even after relatively short-time exposure at elevated temperature. The results of experiments were compared with other results obtained from analyses of tubes after 100,000 h of exposure in a USC block where extensive precipitation of sigma phase was also identified.",signatures:"Zdeněk Kuboň, Šárka Stejskalová and Ladislav Kander",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57563",authors:[{id:"38210",title:"MSc.",name:"Ladislav",surname:"Kander",slug:"ladislav-kander",fullName:"Ladislav Kander"},{id:"220613",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeněk",surname:"Kuboň",slug:"zdenek-kubon",fullName:"Zdeněk Kuboň"}],corrections:null},{id:"57285",title:"Precipitation Processes in Creep-Resistant Austenitic Steels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70941",slug:"precipitation-processes-in-creep-resistant-austenitic-steels",totalDownloads:1394,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Creep-resisting austenitic steels constitute a group of construction materials which can work in the conditions of creep for the temperature range from 550 to 700°C. The service of austenitic steels leads to the progressive degradation of their microstructure, which results in the changes of functional properties. The main mechanisms of degradation of the austenitic steel microstructure include the processes of matrix softening, the processes of precipitation and matrix depletion of the interstitial and substitution elements. Precipitation processes in austenitic steels are a very important indicator, which allows the advancement of microstructure degradation processes in these steels to be determined. Hence, the knowledge of the impact of individual secondary phases on the microstructure and properties of austenitic steels plays a very important role in diagnosing the components and equipment of the power boiler system and makes it possible to forecast the time of safe operation of systems made from these steels. Based on own studies and data from literature, this paper will present the characteristics of secondary phase precipitates occurring in creep-resistant austenitic steels during their operation at an elevated/high temperature. The effect of secondary precipitates on mechanical properties of these steels will be discussed too.",signatures:"Grzegorz Golański, Adam Zieliński and Hanna Purzyńska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57285",authors:[{id:"205602",title:"Prof.",name:"Adam",surname:"Zieliński",slug:"adam-zielinski",fullName:"Adam Zieliński"},{id:"206667",title:"Prof.",name:"Grzegorz",surname:"Golański",slug:"grzegorz-golanski",fullName:"Grzegorz Golański"},{id:"206737",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanna",surname:"Purzyńska",slug:"hanna-purzynska",fullName:"Hanna Purzyńska"}],corrections:null},{id:"56675",title:"Effect of Precipitation on Cryogenic Toughness of N-Containing Austenitic Stainless Steels After Aging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70367",slug:"effect-of-precipitation-on-cryogenic-toughness-of-n-containing-austenitic-stainless-steels-after-agi",totalDownloads:1243,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter shows the effect of intergranular precipitation on the cryogenic toughness of N-containing austenitic stainless steels in comparison to that for 316-type austenitic stainless steels. First part of the chapter deals with the thermodynamic stability and growth kinetics of the precipitated phases in the austenite matrix based on Thermo-Calc software. To continue, the experimental evolution of precipitation for N-containing steels is compared to that of 316-type steel and the difference between them are explained based on the Thermo-Calc PRISMA-calculated results. Finally, the effect of intergranular precipitation on the cryogenic fracture toughness is also analyzed using Charpy V‐Notch impact test results. The fracture mode is also related to the precipitation characteristics.",signatures:"Maribel L. Saucedo-Muñoz and Victor M. Lopez-Hirata",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56675",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56675",authors:[{id:"103382",title:"Prof.",name:"Maribel",surname:"Saucedo-Muñoz",slug:"maribel-saucedo-munoz",fullName:"Maribel Saucedo-Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"56709",title:"Local Corrosion of Austenitic Steels and Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70339",slug:"local-corrosion-of-austenitic-steels-and-alloys",totalDownloads:1267,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The principles of doping of austenitic unstabilized Cr-Ni and Cr-Mn-Ni steels resistant against pitting, slit, and intergranular corrosion (IGC) in weakly and strongly oxidative media are considered. The features of the effect of individual and joint doping with nitrogen, molybdenum, and silicon steels on their resistance to local corrosion have been studied. The ambiguous effect of joint doping with nitrogen and molybdenum of Cr-Mn-Ni steels on their resistance against pitting corrosion is revealed. It has been established that the presence of silicon, in addition to nitrogen and molybdenum, is a prerequisite for eliminating the propensity to the IGC after a long release of chromium-nickel steels. The introduction of silicon into Cr-Ni steel with 0.03% C, with a balanced content of Cr, N, Mo, and Si, equates it with a particularly low-carbon steel containing 0.003% C. Based on the above doping principles, a number of austenitic steels are designed for production equipment that is resistant to local corrosion in chloride-containing media and nitric acid.",signatures:"Pisarevskiy Lev Alexandrovich and Filippov Georgiy Anatolievich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56709",authors:[{id:"206246",title:"Dr.",name:"Lev",surname:"Pisarevskiy",slug:"lev-pisarevskiy",fullName:"Lev Pisarevskiy"},{id:"206828",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgiy",surname:"Filippov",slug:"georgiy-filippov",fullName:"Georgiy Filippov"}],corrections:null},{id:"56817",title:"Pitting Corrosion Resistance and Inhibition of Lean Austenitic Stainless Steel Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70579",slug:"pitting-corrosion-resistance-and-inhibition-of-lean-austenitic-stainless-steel-alloys",totalDownloads:1602,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The pitting corrosion behavior of 301, 304 and 316 austenitic stainless steels in 2M H2SO4 at 0–1.5% NaCl concentrations was investigated through potentiodynamic polarization and optical microscopy analysis. Electrochemical analysis of the pitting corrosion inhibition and surface protection properties of rosemary oil and aniline on the stainless was also performed. The corrosion rate, pitting potential, passivation potential, metastable pitting potential and surface morphology of both steels where significantly altered by changes in chloride concentration, differences in alloy composition and metallurgical properties of the steels. 316 steel had the lowest corrosion rate and highest pitting corrosion resistance followed by 301 steel. The surface morphology of 316 steel was slightly altered at 1.5% NaCl concentration while 301 steel appears to etch with grain boundaries appearing at higher chloride concentration. 304 steel showed no resistance to pitting after 0% NaCl coupled with relatively significant increase in corrosion rate values. Its surface morphology showed the presence of corrosion pits with respect to chloride and inhibitor concentration. Rosemary oil and aniline significantly reduced the corrosion rates values of the stainless steels and with consequent increase in their pitting corrosion resistance; however the compounds had no positive influence on the pitting corrosion behavior of 304 steel.",signatures:"Roland Tolulope Loto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56817",authors:[{id:"205794",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland",surname:"Loto",slug:"roland-loto",fullName:"Roland Loto"}],corrections:null},{id:"56808",title:"Friction Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel with Copper Material",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70558",slug:"friction-welding-of-austenitic-stainless-steel-with-copper-material",totalDownloads:1337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels are most preferred over other types of stainless steel families. Welding of stainless steel using friction welding is widely seen in the current scenario. Since the time consumed for friction welding is very less, metallurgical defects are almost reduced without pre- and postheat treatment. The problems encountered in friction welding during joining of austenitic stainless steel are very limited when compared to fusion welding process. The studies have undergone with joining of austenitic stainless steel and copper material to evaluate the friction welding parameter for finding the good bond strength.",signatures:"Shanjeevi Chinnakannan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56808",authors:[{id:"205805",title:"Dr.",name:"C",surname:"Shanjeevi",slug:"c-shanjeevi",fullName:"C Shanjeevi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57173",title:"Study of Fracture Mechanisms at Cyclic Fatigue of Austenitic Steels Used in Nuclear Reactors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70953",slug:"study-of-fracture-mechanisms-at-cyclic-fatigue-of-austenitic-steels-used-in-nuclear-reactors",totalDownloads:1153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presented work deals with the possible reasons of nucleation and propagation of macro-, meso-, and microcracks after low-cycle fatigue (LCF) tests of stainless, austenitic steels at room temperature. This research will also support the solution of some important problems of steel modeling and their application to EURATOM, FUSION, TACIS, PHARE, CORDIS, PERFECT, AMES, FP 7, and GEN IV programs. The scanning electron microscopic (SEM), X-ray, and transmission electron microscopic (TEM) examinations and statistical analysis of the samples which undergone the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) showed that the average length of slip bands and micro-components of macrocrack are equal, and they are always parallel to each other, indicating their crystallographic character. The microcracks in these samples, caused by the residual stresses after the LCF, were studied in the TEM samples after their preparation to reveal the features of microcrack initiation and nucleation. It was shown that microcracks propagate along slip bands and change their propagation direction at the boundaries of grains and subgrains. This confirms that microcracks, as well as micro-components of mesocrack, are crystallographic. Mathematical calculations of elastic-plastic model are also performed which showed that the length of plastic zone, according to our assessments, is equal to 110–120 d, where d is a width of crack opening.",signatures:"Tamaz Eterashvili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57173",authors:[{id:"208661",title:"Prof.",name:"Tamazi",surname:"Eterashvili",slug:"tamazi-eterashvili",fullName:"Tamazi Eterashvili"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7385",title:"Cavitation",subtitle:"Selected Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075ee4bb432760777ffcba092d0cffae",slug:"cavitation-selected-issues",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tański and Mariusz Król",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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Vitamin D is a lipophilic, steroid hormone, obtained from various food sources as well as majorly synthesized by the body in the skin through exposure to ultraviolet irradiation [1, 2]. In nature, vitamin D exists in two forms, vitamin D2, and vitamin D3. 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) is the major circulatory form and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D) is the active form of vitamin D that exerts its activity by binding to and activating the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR), which is a ligand-inducible transcription factor [3]. Upon activation, VDR forms a heterodimer with the retinoid-X receptor (RXR) that interacts with particular DNA sequences in the promoter region of target genes called vitamin response elements (VDREs) [4]. Vitamin D exerts a diverse biological function such as cell proliferation, calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, and cell differentiation. Most of these actions are carried out by regulating the expression of target genes through VDR activation [3].
Vitamin D deficiency is a widespread condition, reportedly occurring in 30 to 60% of the general population worldwide [5, 6, 7]. Vitamin D is commonly known for its vital role in calcium homeostasis and bone mineralization. It is also crucial in the prevention of rickets during early age and osteomalacia during adult age [8, 9]. Increasing evidence from clinical reports, cross-sectional studies, and cell culture studies further indicate that vitamin D may exert an anticoagulant effect emphasizing an essential role of vitamin D metabolites in the pathogenesis of thrombosis [10, 11, 12]. VDR is expressed throughout the body including various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and lymphocytes [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. They are also expressed in the vascular endothelial cells [18], which are relevant to hemostasis.
Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot within the intact vascular system. It can occur in both arterial and venous systems [19]. Rudolf Virchow, a German scientist, and physician proposed the three main factors that may predispose an individual to the development of thrombosis: stasis, endothelial dysfunction, and hypercoagulability. Apart from these three factors, the innate inflammatory system also has an intrinsic link with coagulation, whereby activation of the inflammatory system promotes thrombosis and vice versa [20, 21]. Interventional studies have shown vitamin D treatment enhances endothelial functions and reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [22, 23, 24]. Apart from this, the anti-thrombotic effect of vitamin D on the pro-thrombotic and anti-thrombotic components of the coagulation system has also been well defined [25, 26, 27]. In this chapter, we are defining the effect of vitamin D deficiency in the three most important parameters viz. coagulation, endothelial activation, and immune responses affecting the occurrence of thrombosis. This chapter will also discuss the clinical impact of Vitamin D in various diseases including COVID-19.
Vitamin D deficiency is defined based on the plasma levels of 25(OH)D. Individuals with plasma levels under 20 ng/mL are considered vitamin D deficient. Vitamin D deficiency is highly prevalent worldwide with approximately 30–50% incidences [28, 29, 30]. Several reports have established the significant association of vitamin D deficiency with the increased risk of various cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and mortality [31, 32, 33]. Various studies have also reported the association of vitamin D deficiency with the increased incidences of thromboembolism [34, 35, 36]. As suggested by the studies, the underlying molecular mechanism for the antithrombotic potential of vitamin D includes up-regulation of thrombomodulin and downregulation of tissue factor (TF) [25, 36, 37]. Additionally, vitamin D upregulates and increases the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 [24, 38]. The expression profile of more than 200 genes involved in the regulation of cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis is directly or indirectly regulated by vitamin D [39]. The experimental shreds of evidence obtained from cell culture studies depicted that biologically active form of vitamin D3 i.e., 1,25(OH)2D, and its synthetic analogs exerted the anticoagulant effects [40]. Koyama et al. have demonstrated in their experiments on human peripheral monocytes that 1,25(OH)2D exerted the anticoagulant effects by upregulating the expression of thrombomodulin, an anticoagulant glycoprotein, and downregulating the expression of TF, a critical coagulation factor [13]. 1,25 (OH)2D directly suppresses renin gene expression via a vitamin D-response (VDR) element that is present in the renin gene [41]. Different studies on mouse embryonic fibroblasts from VDR Knockout (VDRKO) mice asserted an increase in pro-fibrotic factors including nuclear factor kappa B, interleukin (IL)- 6, and TNF-α suggesting that 1,25 (OH)2D may have antifibrotic effect and hence modulates multiple signaling pathways, like the transforming growth factor-β/Smad signaling [42]. Experiments with VDRKO mice showed enhanced ADP-induced platelet aggregation, down-regulation of thrombomodulin and anti-thrombin, and upregulation of TF at mRNA level [43]. The VDR system has a physiological role in the maintenance of anti-thrombotic homeostasis as exacerbated multiorgan thrombus formation has been observed in VDRKO mice after lipopolysaccharide injection [43]. Recently, it has been documented that human platelets and megakaryocyte lineage also express VDR [44]. Hyppönen et al. documented that serum 25(OH)D level inversely associated with tPA antigen, fibrinogen, and D-dimer, suggesting a possible role for vitamin D3 status in determining thrombolytic profile [45]. It is well studied that inflammation can cause coagulation with high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) [46, 47]. A study comprising of 206 individuals reported significant inverse associations between 25(OH)D and PAI-1 and tPA antigen levels and between 1,25(OH)2D and tPA and hs-CRP levels [48].
However, because of the small number of clinical trials and heterogeneity, more studies need to be conducted to further define the haemostatic abnormalities seen in individuals with vitamin D3-deficiency, and to precisely define the potential benefits of vitamin D3 supplementation as a preventive measure for various CVDs.
The pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases is governed by endothelium homeostasis. The vascular endothelium is of mesodermal origin and is located at the confluence between blood and the underlying vascular tissues. It not only works as a barrier function but also exerts several vasoprotective roles, and is considered as the main regulator of blood vessel homeostasis. Due to its inherent capability to perceive humoral and hemodynamic stimuli [49], the endothelium is instrumental in local regulation of vascular tone and structure, regulation of migration and growth of VSMCs, and controlling the adhesion and extravasation of leukocytes [50, 51]. Destabilization and activation of the endothelium take place as a result of injury, hemodynamic alteration, response to inflammatory cytokines, as well as genetic disorders [52, 53]. Endothelial dysfunction is found in various conditions that adversely affect the cardiovascular system, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, chronic renal failure, and Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) [54]. Endothelial cells (ECs) in a quiescent form exhibit an anti-coagulant, vasodilatory, and anti-adhesive property [55]. However, when activated they express pro-coagulant, vasoconstricting, and pro-adhesive properties [56]. Hemostasis is facilitated by an equilibrium of anticoagulant and procoagulant factors [56]. On one side of the hemostatic equilibrium, the ECs express anticoagulant factors such as thrombomodulin TM, tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), and tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA). On the other side, they express thrombin receptors, TF, plasminogen activator, and von Willebrand factor (vWF) [56].
The VDR has been identified in endothelium cells, and hydroxylation of 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D also takes place in the endothelium [18, 57]. The expression of VDR and 1-alfa hydroxylase in the endothelium was found to be decreased with 25(OH)D deficiency [58]. In the vascular system, it has been recognized that vitamin D controls the proliferation of endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells [59, 60]. Vitamin D up-regulates the production of nitric oxide (NO) in ECs [31], by increasing eNOS expression [61], which helps in reducing arterial stiffness [62]. Various randomized control trials (RCTs) have demonstrated an improvement in endothelial dysfunction in healthy individuals [23, 63, 64], as well as in patients [65, 66] and improvement of arterial stiffness with improved flow-mediated dilation (FMD) after vitamin D supplementation [67]. A study by Davide Carrara et al. showed restoration of normal vitamin D levels after prolonged supplementation with a high dose of cholecalciferol (50,000 IU/week orally for 8 weeks) is associated with inhibition of peripheral renin-angiotensin system and with an improvement of FMD in essential hypertensive patients with hypovitaminosis [68]. The 25(OH)D presumed to be an inactive sterol is also found to be a potent mediator of endothelial stability in a non-genomic manner at physiologically relevant levels [69].
1,25(OH)2D3 supplementation reduces oxidation stress, NF-kappa B activation, Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 levels in the endothelium cells [70]. Vitamin D also downregulates platelet-activating factor (PAF) induced ICAM-1 expression in the ECs [71]. Another study observed a greater level of p65 subunit of NF-kB, and IL-6 in vitamin D deficient groups as compared to the vitamin D sufficient group [72]. Vitamin D has also been shown to inhibit activation of proinflammatory TF, NF-kB, and its downstream target, IL-6 [73], which is a pro-inflammatory cytokine in cultured vascular ECs [74] In addition, Vitamin D has been demonstrated to reverse Angiotensin II (Ang II) induced oxidative stress, a key mediator of endothelial dysfunction [75]. Ang II not only induces the production of ROS but also activates TF NF-kB, which further upregulates several cytokines such as TNF-alfa, IL-6, and adhesion molecules ICAM-1, Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and E-selectin prompting vascular injury [76]. In vivo, VDR knockdown leads to an increase in leukocytes-endothelial interaction associated with endothelial cell activation markers VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 in endothelial cells [77].
Given the recognized significance of endothelial function in the homeostasis of the cardiovascular system, the protective effects of VDR in endothelial cells may explain by some of the reported beneficial effects of vitamin D attributed to the prevention or curing of cardiovascular disease [78, 79]. Vitamin D therapy has been observed to be associated with improvement in endothelial function in ischemic heart disease (IHD) patients with vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency [80]. Further,
Thrombosis and inflammation are the two intrinsically interlinked processes. Inflammation can induce a procoagulant milieu by multiple pathways such as by causing an imbalance between procoagulant and anticoagulant characteristics of the endothelium that can lead to local stimulation of coagulation cascade. TNF-α, a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is a potent inducer of the immune defense mechanism and the first to be released at the site of infection promotes a pro-coagulant state by eliciting the production of TF on the endothelium [83] and suppressing the synthesis of the anticoagulant protein C [84], thereby stimulating fibrin formation. Inflammatory stimuli change the cellular program of the endothelium by expressing adhesion molecules such as p-selectin and E-selectin facilitating a transition toward a more procoagulant phenotype [85].
Other cells of the circulation are also customized by inflammatory molecules toward a pro-thrombotic state such as neutrophils and monocytes expression of TF [86, 87], which is upregulated upon inflammation. The role of sterile inflammation has also been demonstrated in the thrombosis by a direct association between nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome complex, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha in hypoxia-induced thrombosis associated with an increase in the relative expression of caspase-1, interleukin-1beta and IL-18 transcripts in the individuals with venous thrombosis [20]. In recent years, the role of vitamin D as a regulator of both innate and adaptive immune responses has become very clear [88]. Local synthesis of 1,25-(OH)2D at the site of inflammation can modulate the immune response in a paracrine manner [89]. 1,25(OH)2D binds to the nuclear VDR which has been found to be expressed in various cells of the immune system such as macrophages, activated T-cells, B-cells, Dendritic cells, and monocytes [90, 91].
The immunomodulatory role of vitamin D has been observed through its ability to alter the secretion of inflammatory cytokines [92, 93]. Additionally, multiple studies are suggesting an inverse association between vitamin D level and inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and CRP [16, 17, 18, 19, 20], which are correctable by vitamin D supplementation [94, 95, 96]. Furthermore, lower vitamin D levels have also been associated with an increase in the levels of cellular adhesion molecules such as VCAM and ICAM [97].
Moreover, an increased incidence of auto-immune disorders in higher latitudes has been reported, which could be attributed to low UV-radiation that reduces the ability to synthesize vitamin D [98, 99]. Elderly peoples usually tend to have Hypovitaminosis D [26], which has been associated with an increased risk for chronic diseases where inflammation plays an integral component [100, 101]. A study by EM Akbas
Further, several cross-sectional studies have associated vitamin D levels and inflammation. Amer and Qayyam Studied 15,167 men and women aged 18 years and older [103]. They observed a negative association between vitamin D and inflammatory markers such as CRP and IL-6 in the vitamin D deficient groups (<25 nmol/L). This association was not observed in groups with insufficient and sufficient vitamin D status [104]. Bellia et al. examined the association of vitamin D and inflammatory markers in 137 morbidly obese individuals including both men and women. They also observed a significant inverse association between serum 25(OH)D levels and inflammatory markers like CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α [105]. A clinical trial by SS Bidar et al. observed a significant decrease in the systemic inflammatory markers including hsCRP, serum amyloid A, TNF-α, and IL-6 with the increase in circulating vitamin D after a daily intake of vitamin D fortified yogurt drink in the subjects with type 2 diabetes (T2D) [96]. However, in another clinical trial, Jorde et al. [106] observed no significant effects on hsCRP levels in the subjects randomly assigned to the therapy for 1 year with vitamin D3 40,000 IU per week, 20,000 IU per week, or placebo.
There is a close link between vitamin D and human health, vitamin D deficiency is widely associated with several diseased conditions by physicians and patients. The various diseases affected by vitamin D deficiency can be categorized as cardiovascular disease (hypertension, thrombosis), various cancers, autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and metabolic syndromes like osteomalacia, diabetes, and muscle weakness (Figure 1).
Reported Association of Vitamin D deficiency with various human disease.
Osteomalacia is a classical human manifestation associated with vitamin D deficiency. It is a clinical condition in which bone mineralization is hampered due to low concentrations of phosphorus and calcium in the extracellular fluid [107]. Vitamin D plays a crucial role in maintaining an adequate level of serum phosphorus and calcium. In the absence of vitamin D or its deficiency, only 10 to 15% of dietary calcium and 60% of phosphorus are absorbed in the human body [108, 109, 110]. With the advent of technologies, molecular biology has permitted a more detailed characterization of the effects of vitamin D deficiency, via working on the animals lacking the VDR and studying their phenotype. Subtle abnormalities in the immune and cardiovascular system have been defined in the global VDRKO mouse, but their relevance to human disease is still obscure [111]. Greater awareness of the high prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and its associated abnormalities is required among researchers, clinicians, and patients. There has been a large number of trials concerning the effects of vitamin D on the management and prevention in the last two decades. The most studied diseases in this aspect have been discussed below:
The association between osteoporosis and vitamin D deficiency is well established especially in the elderly. Vitamin D deficiency has been linked with the significant suppression in intestinal Calcium absorption and the impairment of its balance, which causes low bone mineral content and density. Decreased bone mineral density (BMD) raises the risk of bone fractures, which contributes significantly to the hospitalization, morbidity, and mortality of elderlies [112, 113]. Several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of vitamin D as a preventive measure for fractures. Clinical trials recommending the use of 700 to 800 IU/d oral vitamin D with or without Ca supplementation reported a significant 26% decrease in the risk of sustaining a hip fracture and a significant 23% decrease in the risk of sustaining any non-vertebral fracture vs. placebo or Calcium alone [114].
One of the prominent features of vitamin D deficiency is muscle weakness. Several clinical data of patients with nonspecific muscle weakness, muscle aches, and pains have shown vitamin D inadequacy [115, 116]. It has been reported that skeletal muscle tissue contains VDR and needs vitamin D to attain maximum function [117]. Recent studies have associated the increased vitamin D levels with improved muscle performance, and thereby reduced incidences of fall and fracture. A 5-month randomized controlled trial study has exhibited a 72% reduction in the risk of falls as compared with the placebo group in elderly people in a nursing home receiving 800 IU of vitamin D2 plus calcium daily [118].
Hypertension affects the population globally. Increasing evidence in recent times suggests that vitamin D has a crucial role in regulating blood pressure. Animal studies indicate that 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D inhibits renin expression in the juxtaglomerular apparatus and blocks the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, which affects systemic blood pressure [119]. People taking oral supplementation of vitamin D were found to have reduced blood pressure. The exposure of skin to UVB rays, a major source of vitamin D formation, has been associated with lower blood pressure [120, 121, 122].
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an auto-immune disease characterized by the attack of self- immune system on the myelin sheath which works as a nerve insulator. The transmission of nerve signals gets affected leading to disrupted communication between the body and brain.. There have been several reports claiming the increased frequency of MS in temperate climates than in the tropics [123, 124]. Furthermore, studies also suggest that there is a strong negative correlation between the short annual, winter hours and frequency of occurrence of MS [125, 126]. Hence, these studies could hypothesized that vitamin D synthesized during sun exposure exerted a protective effect [127, 128, 129]. In addition, There are few studies that indicated low or insufficient levels of vitamin D in MS patients [130, 131, 132].
The re-arrival of worldwide vitamin D deficiency has led to the re-emergence of rickets. Low levels of vitamin D in breastfeeding mothers can, often, lead to deficiencies in their children. The recommended levels of vitamin D supplements are 400 IU/d for infants to avoid diseases such as rickets [8].
Garland and Garland for the first time reported that vitamin D deficiency could be associated with a higher risk of colon cancer mortality. Recent studies have reported an increased risk of several cancers with vitamin D deficiency, suggesting that vitamin D deficiency may account for premature mortality from colon, breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer [133, 134, 135]. Vitamin D is a potent hormone and regulates cell growth. VDRs are expressed by various cells and get activated by 1,25(OH)2 D, inducing differentiation into normally functioning cells, and inhibiting proliferation, angiogenesis, invasiveness, and metastatic potential. Studies reveal that tumor models of lung, colon, kidney, breast, and prostate cancer, vitamin D showed activity against metastasis [136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141]. These studies have also shown the immunomodulatory effect of Vitamin D. It has been reported that when elicited by an inappropriate and overly exuberant immune response, vitamin D acts in a paracrine manner and decreases T cell responsiveness via inhibition of cellular proliferation and reduced lymphokine production. Thus, vitamin D shows a beneficial effect as an immunosuppressant.
Vitamin D deficiency is known to inhibit pancreatic secretion and turnover of insulin, causing impaired glucose tolerance. An association was found between a low level of vitamin D and a high incidence of type 1 diabetes [142].
Tuberculosis
As discussed in previous sections, vitamin D can tackle thrombosis by influencing inflammatory pathways, coagulation factors, and endothelium homeostasis in a pleiotropic manner. Figure 2 illustrates a possible mechanism through which vitamin D might impart its protective role against the occurrence of thrombosis. Several clinical trials have also highlighted the anti-thrombotic actions of vitamin D. A study by TM Beer
Possible mechanism of the protective role of vitamin D in the occurrence of thrombosis.
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all of us globally. The lack of understanding of the mechanism of action of SARS-CoV2 virus has generated an overall interest in understanding the potential risk factors that may explain the mechanistic basis for disease propagation and control. The role of vitamin D has emerged in COVID-19 as well. The innate immune system forms the first line of defense against invading pathogens including viruses. 1,25(OH)2D enhances innate defense by inducing antimicrobial peptides like cathelicidin that result in the destruction and clearance of viral particles via several molecular mechanisms. It also helps in the recruitment of neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, and dendritic cells for killing and clearance of viral particles, and initiation of the immune response. Further, the chronic activation of the innate immune system in COVID-19 infection results in a cytokine storm. It has been hypothesized that 1,25(OH)2D helps in curtailing this chronic innate immune response through various biological mechanisms such as downregulation of TLRs and direct inhibition of TNF/NFκB and IFNγ signaling pathways. 1,25(OH)2D, regulates adaptive immune response by limiting maturation of dendritic cells along with their ability to present antigen to T cells, thus limiting shifting of the T cell profile from proinflammatory Th1 and Th17 subsets to Th2 and Treg subsets. Thus, inhibits the pro-inflammatory processes. Although all these findings come from different studies with a variety of pathogens (virus/bacteria) the relevance of these protective actions of vitamin D on SARS-CoV-2 can merit further investigation [148]. In a recent study of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, vitamin D deficiency was reported in 75% of the overall cohort and in 85% of those who required ICU admission [149]. Also, a European study analysis of SARS-CoV-2 severity based on vitamin D status suggested that countries with the highest rate of vitamin D deficiency are associated with the highest rates of COVID-19 infection and mortality [150]. Therefore, vitamin D supplements as a part of standard nutrition in COVID-19 may provide certain clinical benefits though more research related to this subject is solicited [151].
Inadequacy or deficiency of vitamin D is a global problem. Though recent studies have established vitamin D as a key regulatory molecule in various physiological processes and have proposed it as a promising predictive/therapeutic tool still the close association of vitamin D with human health, and its deficiency in the body is not widely recognized as a health concern by both common man and physicians. The relation between vitamin D deficiency and the associated risk of various chronic and acute diseases is still obscure and requires intensive research efforts. In recent years, various studies have explored several non-calcemic consequences of vitamin D. There are reports that corelates lower doses of vitamin D with thrombosis and various cardiovascular diseases. Still, there is an impelling need to enhance our knowledge of the molecular pathways regulated/influenced via vitamin D and their effect on various organ systems including the cardiovascular system. This would require conducting large-scale intervention clinical trials to firmly establish the association of vitamin D status to cardiovascular health. Additionally, it is important to state that although deficiency of vitamin D is common and widespread, it can be safely corrected with a variety of supplement types and regimens available and thus should be identified and addressed in the clinical practice of treating diseases associated with it.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Changes in pH were required to improve the stability of the colloidal suspensions.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Lilia Coronato Courrol and Ricardo Almeida de Matos",authors:[{id:"183894",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lilia",middleName:null,surname:"Courrol",slug:"lilia-courrol",fullName:"Lilia Courrol"},{id:"185446",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Matos",slug:"ricardo-matos",fullName:"Ricardo Matos"}]},{id:"51091",doi:"10.5772/64081",title:"Nanoporous Gold Films as Catalyst",slug:"nanoporous-gold-films-as-catalyst",totalDownloads:2026,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Nanoporous gold (NPG) is reviewed as a catalyst. Various preparation methods were first reviewed for NPG and its structure. Applications of this catalyst in CO oxidation, hydrogen oxidation, hydrogen production are discussed. Regarding CO oxidation, detailed studies on reaction mechanism and density functional theory (DFT) calculations were also reviewed. Not only as a model reaction but also practical aspects of removing CO residue in hydrogen stream are discussed. Beyond those simple reactions, the application of NPG to more complicated reactions such as alcohol oxidation is reviewed. Selective aerobic oxidation of gas‐phase alcohols is first reviewed and reactions in liquid phase are discussed. Finally, future prospects of NPG as a catalyst for more complicated reactions such as organic synthesis are briefly discussed.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Sang Hoon Kim",authors:[{id:"183817",title:"Dr.",name:"Sang Hoon",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"sang-hoon-kim",fullName:"Sang Hoon Kim"}]},{id:"51939",doi:"10.5772/64770",title:"Electrochemical Reactivity at Free and Supported Gold Nanocatalysts Surface",slug:"electrochemical-reactivity-at-free-and-supported-gold-nanocatalysts-surface",totalDownloads:2111,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents an overview on size, structure, morphology, composition as well as the effect of the support on the electrocatalytic properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). It was found that the electrocatalytic properties of unsupported AuNPs strongly depend on their size and shape. Consequently, the electrocatalytic properties of AuNPs can be tuned. Furthermore, to design high-performance electrocatalysts with minimal precious metal content and cost, the direct immobilization of metal NPs onto carbon-based substrates during their synthesis constitutes another elegant alternative and has been thoroughly examined. These “easy-to-use” supports as scaffolds for AuNPs, namely carbon black, carbon paper, etc., offer beneficial contributions. Indeed, thanks to their high available surface area, good electronic conductivity and synergistic effect between the chemical species present on their surface and the loaded NPs, carbon-based supports enable maximizing the efficient utilization of the catalysts toward drastic enhancement in both activity and durability. We also examined different judicious combinations of (electro)analytical techniques for the unambiguous determination of the reaction product(s) over the Au-based nanocatalysts, using glucose as model molecule given its importance in electrocatalysis. The performances of carbon-supported AuNPs as anode materials in direct glucose fuel cell in alkaline medium were also discussed.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Seydou Hebié, Yaovi Holade, Karine Servat, Boniface K. Kokoh and\nTêko W. Napporn",authors:[{id:"28387",title:"Prof.",name:"Boniface",middleName:null,surname:"Kokoh",slug:"boniface-kokoh",fullName:"Boniface Kokoh"},{id:"29443",title:"Dr.",name:"Karine",middleName:null,surname:"Servat",slug:"karine-servat",fullName:"Karine Servat"},{id:"30682",title:"Dr.",name:"Teko",middleName:null,surname:"Napporn",slug:"teko-napporn",fullName:"Teko Napporn"},{id:"183917",title:"Dr.",name:"Seydou",middleName:null,surname:"Hebie",slug:"seydou-hebie",fullName:"Seydou Hebie"},{id:"183918",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaovi",middleName:null,surname:"Holade",slug:"yaovi-holade",fullName:"Yaovi Holade"}]},{id:"51930",doi:"10.5772/64103",title:"Gold-Catalysed Reactions",slug:"gold-catalysed-reactions",totalDownloads:1934,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In recent years, there have been three significant pieces of research which helped propel gold catalysis research into the forefront: the discoveries that gold/silica can catalyse the hydrogenation of pentene, that gold on carbon can be used in the hydrochlorination of acetylene and that deposition-precipitation (DP) methods can be used to prepare nanogold on titania capable of enabling the oxidation of CO at very low temperatures. The synthesis of small gold particles, their characterisation and peculiar properties are considered together with their behaviour as heterogeneous catalysts for a variety of reactions. Some of the issues concerning the practical application of gold catalysts are also discussed.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"J.A. Moma, T.A. Ntho and Michael Scurrell",authors:[{id:"179872",title:"Prof.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Scurrell",slug:"mike-scurrell",fullName:"Mike Scurrell"},{id:"183973",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"183974",title:"Dr.",name:"Thabang",middleName:"Abraham",surname:"Ntho",slug:"thabang-ntho",fullName:"Thabang Ntho"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51930",title:"Gold-Catalysed Reactions",slug:"gold-catalysed-reactions",totalDownloads:1934,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In recent years, there have been three significant pieces of research which helped propel gold catalysis research into the forefront: the discoveries that gold/silica can catalyse the hydrogenation of pentene, that gold on carbon can be used in the hydrochlorination of acetylene and that deposition-precipitation (DP) methods can be used to prepare nanogold on titania capable of enabling the oxidation of CO at very low temperatures. The synthesis of small gold particles, their characterisation and peculiar properties are considered together with their behaviour as heterogeneous catalysts for a variety of reactions. Some of the issues concerning the practical application of gold catalysts are also discussed.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"J.A. Moma, T.A. Ntho and Michael Scurrell",authors:[{id:"179872",title:"Prof.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Scurrell",slug:"mike-scurrell",fullName:"Mike Scurrell"},{id:"183973",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"183974",title:"Dr.",name:"Thabang",middleName:"Abraham",surname:"Ntho",slug:"thabang-ntho",fullName:"Thabang Ntho"}]},{id:"52066",title:"Supported Gold Nanoparticles as Promising Catalysts",slug:"supported-gold-nanoparticles-as-promising-catalysts",totalDownloads:3092,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"In recent times, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) either in the form of colloids or as supported nanoparticles are being extensively used as efficient redox catalyst materials. Catalysis particularly using supported gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has attracted immense research interest due to their unique properties and greater potentiality that is directly related to their particle size. The primary objective of this chapter is to provide comprehensive overview about gold metal nanoparticles (AuNPs) and their application as promising catalysts. This chapter contains six sections in total. Section 1 starts with a general introduction, recent progress, and brief summary of the application of supported AuNPs as promising catalysts for different applications. Section 2 briefs the properties and stability of gold nanoparticles. Section 3 reviews the preparation methods of supported AuNPs for a wide range of catalytic applications. Section 4 describes briefly some of the most commonly reported supported AuNPs for different applications. Section 5 concentrates on our own results related to the application of supported AuNPs in heterogeneous catalysis. In this section, the oxidation of cyclohexane (CH) and benzyl alcohol (BA) to adipic acid (AA), benzaldehyde (BAl), and ammoxidation of 2-methylpyrazine to 2-cyanopyrazine are discussed. Finally, Section 6 describes, main points and outlook are summarized.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Ahmad Alshammari and Venkata Narayana Kalevaru",authors:[{id:"178547",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Alshammari",slug:"ahmad-alshammari",fullName:"Ahmad Alshammari"},{id:"180753",title:"Dr.",name:"V. Narayana",middleName:null,surname:"Kalevaru",slug:"v.-narayana-kalevaru",fullName:"V. Narayana Kalevaru"}]},{id:"50852",title:"Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Amino Acids by Light Irradiation",slug:"synthesis-of-gold-nanoparticles-using-amino-acids-by-light-irradiation",totalDownloads:3602,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The synthesis of nanoparticles is generally carried out by chemical reduction, which is effective but uses a number of toxic substances, making the process potentially harmful to the environment. Thus, as part of the search for environmentally friendly or green synthetic methods, this chapter aimed to present the synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using only HAuCl4, Milli-Q water, white light from a xenon lamp, and amino acids. A total of 21 amino acids were studied, and the shapes and sizes of the resultant nanoparticles were evaluated. The products were characterized by ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) and fluorescence spectroscopy, zeta potential measurements, and transmission electron microscopy. The synthesis of the AuNPs was successful with 18 amino acids, and the best results were obtained with aspartic acid, arginine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. The nanoparticles were spherical and their sizes ranged from 5 to 100 nm. Changes in pH were required to improve the stability of the colloidal suspensions.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Lilia Coronato Courrol and Ricardo Almeida de Matos",authors:[{id:"183894",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lilia",middleName:null,surname:"Courrol",slug:"lilia-courrol",fullName:"Lilia Courrol"},{id:"185446",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Matos",slug:"ricardo-matos",fullName:"Ricardo Matos"}]},{id:"51091",title:"Nanoporous Gold Films as Catalyst",slug:"nanoporous-gold-films-as-catalyst",totalDownloads:2026,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Nanoporous gold (NPG) is reviewed as a catalyst. Various preparation methods were first reviewed for NPG and its structure. Applications of this catalyst in CO oxidation, hydrogen oxidation, hydrogen production are discussed. Regarding CO oxidation, detailed studies on reaction mechanism and density functional theory (DFT) calculations were also reviewed. Not only as a model reaction but also practical aspects of removing CO residue in hydrogen stream are discussed. Beyond those simple reactions, the application of NPG to more complicated reactions such as alcohol oxidation is reviewed. Selective aerobic oxidation of gas‐phase alcohols is first reviewed and reactions in liquid phase are discussed. Finally, future prospects of NPG as a catalyst for more complicated reactions such as organic synthesis are briefly discussed.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Sang Hoon Kim",authors:[{id:"183817",title:"Dr.",name:"Sang Hoon",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"sang-hoon-kim",fullName:"Sang Hoon Kim"}]},{id:"51939",title:"Electrochemical Reactivity at Free and Supported Gold Nanocatalysts Surface",slug:"electrochemical-reactivity-at-free-and-supported-gold-nanocatalysts-surface",totalDownloads:2111,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents an overview on size, structure, morphology, composition as well as the effect of the support on the electrocatalytic properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). It was found that the electrocatalytic properties of unsupported AuNPs strongly depend on their size and shape. Consequently, the electrocatalytic properties of AuNPs can be tuned. Furthermore, to design high-performance electrocatalysts with minimal precious metal content and cost, the direct immobilization of metal NPs onto carbon-based substrates during their synthesis constitutes another elegant alternative and has been thoroughly examined. These “easy-to-use” supports as scaffolds for AuNPs, namely carbon black, carbon paper, etc., offer beneficial contributions. Indeed, thanks to their high available surface area, good electronic conductivity and synergistic effect between the chemical species present on their surface and the loaded NPs, carbon-based supports enable maximizing the efficient utilization of the catalysts toward drastic enhancement in both activity and durability. We also examined different judicious combinations of (electro)analytical techniques for the unambiguous determination of the reaction product(s) over the Au-based nanocatalysts, using glucose as model molecule given its importance in electrocatalysis. The performances of carbon-supported AuNPs as anode materials in direct glucose fuel cell in alkaline medium were also discussed.",book:{id:"5310",slug:"catalytic-application-of-nano-gold-catalysts",title:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts",fullTitle:"Catalytic Application of Nano-Gold Catalysts"},signatures:"Seydou Hebié, Yaovi Holade, Karine Servat, Boniface K. Kokoh and\nTêko W. Napporn",authors:[{id:"28387",title:"Prof.",name:"Boniface",middleName:null,surname:"Kokoh",slug:"boniface-kokoh",fullName:"Boniface Kokoh"},{id:"29443",title:"Dr.",name:"Karine",middleName:null,surname:"Servat",slug:"karine-servat",fullName:"Karine Servat"},{id:"30682",title:"Dr.",name:"Teko",middleName:null,surname:"Napporn",slug:"teko-napporn",fullName:"Teko Napporn"},{id:"183917",title:"Dr.",name:"Seydou",middleName:null,surname:"Hebie",slug:"seydou-hebie",fullName:"Seydou Hebie"},{id:"183918",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaovi",middleName:null,surname:"Holade",slug:"yaovi-holade",fullName:"Yaovi Holade"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"382",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. 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He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/20117",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"20117"},fullPath:"/chapters/20117",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()