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Innocent, L. Renaud, M. Cretin, F. Pichot, R. Ferrigno and S. 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1. Introduction
This study analyzes inequality affecting the 63 million Mexican women (or 50.1% of the total population) in the three Mexican population groups. The focus of the analysis is to measure women’s inequality across all Mexican Societies and in the three and main population groups that conform to it according to the 2020 Population Census. The main interest is put in the discrimination of all women vis a vis men in total population and in each group and less on the characteristics of women discrimination in each. The intention is to reflect on and analyze the causes and consequences of the horizontal inequalities faced by women rather than to analyze them as an effect of the intersectionality of gender and ethnicity. In a strict sense, it is not an intersectionality analysis although some aspects of interferences are discussed all along with the text. Both HI and interdisciplinary analysis overlap in important aspects and differs in others. Both start from multidimensional approaches, but while the former concentrates on dimensional intersectionality focusing on a global analysis of inequalities between groups as a whole, the latter concentrates on the analysis of those categories which are particularly deprived because of intersectionality [1].
In this study the focal analysis is on the discrimination exercised against women in society, which is reinforced with elements of intersectionality, it is discrimination that is reproduced within each population group. In a country as culturally diverse as Mexico, we consider it relevant to approach gender discrimination in society and the country’s ethnic groups, two of them, the Indigenous and Afro-descendant population, objects of discrimination; this analysis has not been sufficiently studied from the perspective of HI [1] and in Mexico, partly because of the difficulties in identifying ethnic groups in the statistics.1
Therefore, based on the HI approach, this study analyzes gender discrimination against women in the Indigenous and Afro-descendant populations and for those who do not self-identify as belonging to any of these ethnic groups. It shows the perpetuation of discrimination by the interplay between Mexico’s original cultures and the formal and informal institutions brought by the conquerors, maintained and reinforced in the colonial era, and again in the political constitutions of the Latin American republics that gave the vote only to literate men and landowners. The right to vote was not extended to women until well into the twentieth century, later than to Indigenous and Afro-descendant men.
Horizontal inequality, or inequality between social groups that differ in ways such as ethnicity, culture, religion, or gender, is at the root of gender, ethnic, tribal and minority claims, fundamental rights contained in various United Nations agreements,2 establishing minimum thresholds of equity in necessary goods but allowing a certain inequality in non-essential goods and goods distributed by merit. Horizontal inequality can be used to identify the areas and factors in which these gaps in rights and inequalities prevail between men and women.
Understanding the gender discrimination that affects more than half of the world’s population requires accepting the intensity and variety of the factors that determine and perpetuate it. Measuring the inequality experienced by Mexican women implies recognizing both, the breadth and depth of the social gaps existing in the country, the social debt they imply and the profundity of discrimination that often passes for normal or idiosyncratic behavior.
A quantitative exploration was required to measure these gender gaps, so a Gender Equality Index is constructed, which allows estimating gender gaps in various factors and grouping them for each area of HI. An index is then provided for each area of HI to obtain an aggregate index as a global reference for gender inequality and from which it is possible to compare gender inequality between population groups. For so doing the Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020 (Census of Population and Housing 2020) was used. The Censo is the statistical source in Mexico that provides the latest official count of inhabitants in Mexico. It allows identifying the three main population conglomerates: the Indigenous population, the Afro-descendant population and all others.
2. The specificity of gender discrimination
Official recognition of women’s political, social, cultural, collective and territorial rights has gained pace along with the institutions and policies created to defend them. Political participation quotas, equal pay for equal work, and incorporation of women into the police and armed forces have been legislated and complied with, and universities have been opened to women. Nevertheless, women face unabated inequality. Even the first initial analyses that apply the concept and methodologies of HI have prioritized other elements such as ethnic, linguistic or religious distinctions over gender. This paper does not intend to fully explain the causes of women’s inequality. It aims to only suggest some areas that contribute to it such as religion and elements of classical and neoclassical economic theory, which require a more profound analysis that exceeds the scope of the present research.
One of the causes of pay inequality is differences in labor productivity, although it does not explain the 30% of the wage gap between women and men that is attributed to gender discrimination. Yet theoretical frameworks, concepts and neoclassical economic methods do not enable identification of the mechanisms that explain discrimination in economic policy decision-making. A good part of the gap in pay and other economic variables is due to the formal and informal institutions that, like religion, exist and regulate socio-economic life. This is a complex issue in societies where Catholicism is the predominant religion in ethnic groups. Religion helps support hierarchical androcentric attitudes and practices.
Another driver of gender inequality is the prevailing classical and neoclassical economic theory that idolizes the selfish economic man as the core of the economy hides the contribution of women to the advantages of men. Maximizing his profit, he is the Robinson Crusoe, the model hero of individual entrepreneurship. Any subject other than this prototype is merely an accessory that serves the economic man’s self-directed interests. The economic woman, therefore, is altruistic, selfless, self-sacrificing, free of vice, and born to serve. Since all her decisions and their consequences arise from this natural rationality, her lower social status, income and education can be attributed to the free acceptance of this rationality, not to the rules of the market, a formal institution arising from the capitalist social organization model [2, 3]. This ideology is to be found in the discussion about employment and occupations in Sections 2 and 3.
Neoclassical theory hides processes that perpetuate gender inequalities through the axiomatization of human behavior. Assuming exogenous preferences hides the fact that preferences are induced rather than natural. If society, from childhood to insertion into the labor market, relegates women to certain activities, their preferences are adjusted to the possibilities, it is a prior and subsequent discrimination that results in less labor and political recognition [4]. One of the main contributions of feminist economic theory is its rejection of positivism for which there is no evidence of reality, only proof of the action of natural laws; absolute truths, obtained from supposedly rigorous and objective analyses. One of those absolute truths is the naturally different rationality of women.
For example, neoclassical economics and its facets and ramifications conceive as a historical fact that the economy is divided into the public and private spheres. It is irrefutable that the economic man has always managed the public sphere, which claims that his natural function is to set the agenda that determines power, wealth and the distribution of income. The function of the home and women is repressed for the sake of this agenda, generating an unequal society [2, 3]. Newer concepts of macroeconomics and growth theory depart from this narrow model, conceiving society and the economy as developing in contexts of environmental and socio-cultural activity, which cannot be ignored if social sustainability is sought. Moreover, this development takes place in three spheres that are symbiotically linked: (i) the nuclear sphere—the productive unit—families, homes, and communities that supply and demand goods, services and care; (ii) the business sphere, the sphere of enterprises, including those whose objective goes beyond maximizing profit; and (iii) the public sphere, governments and non-profit welfare organizations such as the UN, the Red Cross, and others. The predominant ideas expressed in these contexts and spheres do not permit discrimination against women to be overcome, since that discrimination “… is deeply wedded to the prevailing power structure and that structure is patriarchal; that is, the orthodox economy expresses patriarchal power” ([5], p. 3).
3. What is horizontal inequality?
Horizontal inequalities are differences between groups with a shared identity, expressed in four areas that are circularly intertwined: (1) political participation, (2) economic aspects, (3) social aspects, and (4) cultural status. Each of these areas is made up of multiple factors of a different nature mutually affectting each other. Thus, the want of real political participation is manifested in all spheres and powers of government; legal and legislative, the armed forces, and the police. Socioeconomic and cultural elements intersect with all forms of property; access to services, education and health, justice, and social recognition; and their particular worldview and rationality. Discrimination in these areas, sustained for generations over the centuries, creates cycles of poverty, from which collective escape is impossible and individual escape is never easy. Eliminating gender discrimination, as well as discrimination for other reasons, is not a mere matter of labor insertion or solely economic measures, it requires actions in many other areas, such as education, granting women human rights, the freedom to decide on maternity and equal access to justice, among others.
3.1 Measuring horizontal inequality
Based on the concept of HI, this work measures gender inequality in the 3 population groups identified with information from the Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.3 Indigenous population, Afro-descendant4 communities and the rest.5
Once the size of the three social conglomerates and their gender structure was determined, the second step was to construct a gender equality index to identify and measure the gaps that persist and hinder comprehensive progress inequality between men and women within each population group. With the information above, the analysis of the differences in the level of education and employment was carried due to the importance of these two areas during the life span of all women.
3.2 The size of the indigenous and Afro-descendant population by gender
According to the Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020,6 there are 23,229,560 people, or 19.4% of the population, who self-describe as Indigenous and 2,482,098 people who self-describe as Afro-descendants, representing 2% of the total population of the country. The population that does not identify as either Indigenous or Afro-descendant is 100,867,437, or 80.4%. In all three population groups and the total population, women account for a greater proportion by about 2.5% (Table 1).
Concept
Total
Men
Women
Total population
125,515,554
61,142,530
64,373,024
Not self-identified as Indigenous or Afro-descendant
100,867,437
49,153,310
51,714,127
Self-identified as Indigenous
23,229,560
11,280,059
11,949,501
Self-identified as Afro-descendant
2,482,098
1,228,157
1,253,941
Table 1.
Ethnic and gender composition of the total Mexican population.1
Self-identified as Indigenous is specified for the population aged 3 years and older, the rest from 0 years.
Source: Authors, based on microdata from the Extended Questionnaire, Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2020.
3.3 The gender equality index
Horizontal inequality is multifaceted; analyzing it requires taking into account various dimensions that may account for inequalities between groups. In this work, the axis is gender discrimination within three groups; the Indigenous population, the Afro-descendant community and those who do not self-describe as either of these.
To assign a magnitude to HI, an Gender-Equality Index (GEI) that measures the level of equality between groups has been developed. In this case the index compares men and women in the three population groups of interest. The index is based on the methodology of the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), which produces a composite indicator to measure gender equality in the European Union (EU) and each of its member states.
The objective is to measure the disparities between men and women according to the selected set of dimensions, sub-dimensions and their decomposition into individual indicators. The index is adapted to the context and priorities of EU policy. In the present study, the dimensions were chosen according to the four dimensions of HI described above; societal, economic, cultural, and political participation, and their interrelationships.
The GEI is a composite indicator that is obtained by applying a multidimensional concept to integrate individual indicators into a single measure [7]. To select the individual indicators, various indicators that have been considered relevant to the measurement of gender equality were reviewed. These included those used by the EIGE, by the World Economic Forum for the development of the Global Gender Gap, and other lists of indicators [8, 9] based on a structure of dimensions and sub-dimensions suitable for addressing gender inequalities.
The list of indicators used for the GEI is presented in Table 2. Eleven individual indicators were chosen from among the four dimensions of HI. Data were obtained from the 2020 Census, except for the indicator “people who have not been discriminated against” (percentage of the population aged 18 and over), which was obtained from the Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación (ENADIS) [10].
Dimension
Individual indicator
Societal factors
Persons with a bachelor’s degree (percentage of the population aged 15 and older)
Persons with access to medical services (percentage of the population from 0 years of age)
Persons with a birth certificate (percentage of the population from 0 years of age)
Labor and economic factors
Persons employed in the formal sector (distribution by gender, aged 15 and older)
Persons employed full-time (distribution by gender, aged 15 and older)
Employed persons whose income covers the food and non-food basket (distribution by gender, aged 15 and older)
Political participation
Persons with a high degree of socio-political participation (distribution by gender, aged 15 and older)
Persons employed in management positions (distribution by gender, aged 15 and older)
Persons employed in the armed forces (distribution by gender, aged 15 and older)
Cultural factors
Persons who have been discriminated against (percentage of the population aged 18 and older)
Persons who can read and write (percentage of the population aged 18 and older)
Table 2.
Dimensions of horizontal inequality and its indicators.
Source: Authors.
To calculate the GEI, we started with the gender gap (GG) using the formula proposed by the EIGE, which is calculated from the ratio between the value of the indicator for women (Xitfemale) and the average value for men and women (Xitmean) of the individual indicator being considered. The values range between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds to total inequality and 1 total equality. The formula is as follows:
1−XitfemaleXitmean−1E1
Subsequently, the geometric means of the individual indices were obtained for each of the four dimensions of HI:
Dk=GG1GG2…k,k=1,2,…E2
The GEI is obtained by calculating the weighted geometric mean of the indices for each dimension (D). The weighting (α) is the same for each dimension:
GEI=D1α1D2α2D3α3D4α4E3
Substituting in Eq. (3), the following is obtained:
GEI=Πi=1nDiαi1Σαi=D1α1D2α2…D4α41α1+α2+α3+α4E4
3.4 What does gender equality reveal about gender discrimination in Mexico?
The gender gap values calculated for each of the indicators are shown in Table 3. It should be borne in mind that the level of equality between men and women for each category is being assessed within each population group. It can be observed that societal and cultural factors show values closer to one than do economic factors and political participation. This means there is less disparity between men and women in these areas, although certain features are worth noting in each of the dimensions.
Dimension
Individual indicator
Not self-identified as Indigenous or Afro-descendant
Self-identified as Indigenous
Self-identified as Afro-descendant
Societal factors
Bachelor’s degree completed
0.976
0.963
0.967
Enrolled in health care
0.984
0.979
0.983
Birth certificate
0.975
0.971
0.990
Labor and economic factors
Formal employment
0.809
0.755
0.775
Full time
0.741
0.637
0.725
Food and non-food bask.
0.733
0.653
0.711
Political participation
Political office
0.740
0.609
0.882
Management position
0.798
0.783
0.746
Armed forces member
0.156
0.115
0.143
Cultural factors
Nondiscrimination
0.988
0.995
0.793
Literacy
0.954
0.944
0.986
Table 3.
Gender gaps by individual indicators of the dimensions of horizontal inequality.
Source: Authors, based on microdata from the Extended Questionnaire, Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2020, and main results of the Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación (ENADIS) [10].
The analysis of societal factors indicates that the differences are low between men and women who have access to higher education and health care; some differences favor men, but when these are weighted by the members of each gender in the respective category, it can be seen that the factors affect them both similarly. For enrollment in and access to medical services and registration in the civil registry, the situation is similar, with similar access rates for men and women. There has been an effort on the part of the Mexican government and civil society to make progress in recognizing social guarantees for men and women; although these are yet sufficient, the gender perspective has been incorporated as a fundamental component of public policy. The results of this study suggest that a similar exercise should be carried out for a previous period, to make a comparison and test this progress over time.
The indicator with the largest gap among labor and economic factors is monthly income to cover the food and non-food basket, calculated by the Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social (Coneval). The calculation was carried out at the individual level to compare income purchasing power between men and women, although family income is normally used. The lower level of income for women and their lower purchasing power is explained by such factors as job segregation7 and shorter workweeks compared to men. According to various studies [11, 12], job and sector segregation by gender contributes significantly to gender pay gaps and decreases workers’ bargaining power. Information from the 2020 Census indicates that while employed women worked an average of 40.8 h a week, men worked an average of 47.7 h, which is also reflected in the gap between men and women who work full time.
The division of labor about reproductive work in the home by gender leads to differences in time use patterns between men and women [12]. Women who work generally distribute their time between their job and tasks in the home, so either they tend to be employed in jobs that demand fewer hours per week than men’s jobs or else they have less free time.8
In terms of the gender gap in formal employment, women had higher rates of informal employment than men and hence less access to social security health care services. Among persons with a formal job, 62.9% of the first group (neither Indigenous nor Afro-descendant) are men. In the Indigenous population, the comparable percentage of men is 68.1 and 63.8% in the Afro-descendant community. This is associated with a higher proportion of women than men being self-employed (see Table 7), as well as with the higher proportion of women in the tertiary sector; namely, service industries and trade. For the three population groups, the occupations held by women with the highest frequencies are domestic work, sales clerk and shopkeeper.
Political participation is another dimension that shows persistent gender gaps. These gaps point to labor segregation and the obstacles faced by women to increase their participation in higher-ranking and decision-making positions. The biggest gap is seen in the armed forces. Men continue to predominate in the army, navy and air force. It is important to point out the modifications that are being made to incorporate women into military and air force training, which is why it is necessary to continue to make progress in institutional efforts to enable increased representation of women in the armed forces.9 The distribution by gender still favors men in socio-political participation and managerial positions. It should be noted that the gap between men and women is greater yet for the Indigenous population.
The literature on occupational and sectoral segregation has shown that differences between men and women are not explained by the predictions of neoclassical theory; it is different investments in men’s and women’s skills or different preferences (which are considered exogenous) that explain gender differences in employment [12]. These differences are explained and reinforced by the configuration of the education system and the labor market. The lower level of participation of women in managerial positions and political representation cannot be reduced to a matter of preference but rather ascribed to social and institutional limitations.
Cultural factors show a narrower gap between men and women than does employment. However, it is worth noting that it is more difficult to specify indicators for this dimension of HI than for the others examined. The percentage of people who were not discriminated against for at least one reason in the last 12 months before the survey was analyzed [10]. Values close to one mean that the proportion of men who considered that they were not discriminated against is similar to that of women. This does not mean that discrimination was not experienced, but that there is no significant difference between men and women.
Table 4 shows a summary of the indices for each dimension and each population group, from the geometric mean (Eq. (2)) and the gender equality index (Eqs. (3) and (4)). The dimension with the highest gender inequality is political participation, and the dimension with the lowest gender inequality is that relating to social factors. It should be noted that the three groups are very similar. The GEI is lower for the Indigenous population, which indicates wider gender disparities for this group.
Dimension
Not self-identified as Indigenous or Afro-descendant
Self-identified as Indigenous
Self-identified as Afro-descendant
Societal factors
0.978
0.971
0.980
Labor and economic factors
0.760
0.680
0.736
Political participation
0.452
0.380
0.454
Cultural factors
0.971
0.969
0.884
Gender equality index
0.756
0.702
0.734
Table 4.
Gender equality index by the dimension of horizontal inequality.
Source: Authors, based on microdata from the Extended Questionnaire, Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2020, and main results of the Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación (ENADIS) [10].
The results obtained for Mexico are close to those estimated by the World Economic Forum for the 2020 Global Gender Gap. This index measures differences between men and women in four areas; health, education, economics and politics. According to the 2020 World Economic Forum report, Mexico ranked 25th out of 153 countries, with a value of 0.754. As with the index in this work, a value of one represents perfect equality. The lowest scores—less equality—corresponded to economic participation and opportunity, and the most equality between men and women was found in the areas of education, and health and survival.
4. Two main areas of horizontal inequality: education and employment
From the several areas in which HI manifest, special consideration is given to education and employment, due to the more close links to economic disparities and differences and as a first step to quantify some basic factors of discrimination. It does not imply that gaps in other fields, such as health, political participation or any other are less relevant.
4.1 Educational and schooling gaps
Education is a key element for people’s development. It confers knowledge, skills and abilities that are necessary although not sufficient to participate effectively in society and the economy [13, 14]. The most damaging gap is illiteracy, as it imparts an enormous personal and social disadvantage that marginalizes, isolates and devalues individuals, even in their social environment [15, 16]. Female illiteracy is higher across society, especially among Indigenous groups. Indigenous female illiteracy is 1.3 times that of Indigenous men, and double that of non-Indigenous and Afro-descendant women. The situation is similar for other educational variables the level of schooling, close to 9 years of accumulated education, is low and shows the greater segregation of the Indigenous population, especially the female population, whose schooling barely corresponds to completed primary school, which in turn is related to lower participation in undergraduate or graduate studies (Table 5).
Characteristic
Not Indigenous or Afro-descendant
Self-identify as Indigenous
Self-identify as Afro-descendant
Total
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
Unable to read and write
6.0%
5.9%
6.1%
12.2%
10.5%
13.9%
7.3%
7.3%
7.3%
Undergraduate or graduate degree
16.8%
17.0%
16.6%
8.9%
9.1%
8.7%
17.3%
17.9%
16.7%
Average total years of schooling
8.9
8.9
8.9
7.1
7.2
7.0
8.8
8.9
8.7
Table 5.
Educational characteristics by ethnic group and gender.
Source: Authors, based on microdata from the Extended Questionnaire, Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2021.
4.2 How does work perpetuate gender inequality
Employment is one point in the life history of discrimination, which begins at birth, continues in food supply and nourishment, in access to education and health care services, in political and legal decision-making processes, or economic activities in which women take part; in other words, everything that constitutes the “traps of inequality,” a euphemism in social science jargon. Thus, it is still difficult to identify the reasons why such discrimination persists despite an accumulation of institutionalized policies and actions aimed at eliminating labor discrimination. This, because of the complexity of distinguishing between inequalities based on statistics and the legitimate selection of employees for specific jobs, is observable only when job requirements list non-essential qualities that are mostly found in certain individuals.
Selection processes are complex and there are always doubts about the qualifications of the candidates. Employers seek to minimize these by appealing to discriminatory practices that create “statistical discrimination or at the discretion of the employers” [17, 18, 19, 20]. Since it is difficult for employers to accurately gauge the performance of a job applicant, they tend to judge candidates according to “characteristics that are easy to observe, such as race, sex, or age, assuming that members of certain collective groups will have below-average performance” ([17], p. 68), as well as preferring people from certain schools, of certain political or religious beliefs, or a particular gender.
In Mexico, although there is no direct or formal employment discrimination enacted by discriminatory laws that might express such an ideology as apartheid laws in South Africa did [21], or that would exclude women from certain activities (army, police, firefighters), there is still indirect employment discrimination as a result “of apparently impartial provisions and practices that are detrimental to a large number of members of a specific group” ([17], p. 22; [22]). These standards are exclusionary if they do not account for the situation of certain social groups or categories of workers and the places where they live, such as unfavorable conditions for education or health, or less developed road infrastructure in poorer regions or neighborhoods [17].
Labor discrimination is structural; it permeates the entire social order. All working women suffer the effects of economic, social and political factors that restrict their social, political and labor participation; this is a confirmed fact. These restricting factors include inequality in the ownership of assets—land, financial resources, education, health, food and place of residence, constituents of human capital and, due to their relationship with productivity, income and public and private spending. Labor is the largest income component in almost 80% of households. It constitutes demand for households and individuals and aggregate demand and economic growth. Thus, as long as labor discrimination based on gender and ethnicity persists, a vicious circle is created and reproduced; from labor discrimination to low growth, from low labor productivity to reduced labor income, constricted internal demand, little economic growth and stagnant productivity. It has been found that the larger the population that experiences labor discrimination, the more difficult it is to stimulate the economy and reduce inequality [14, 23, 24].
Indirect employment discrimination pervades the public and private spheres in various forms that involve frequent practices of differential treatment of certain people [22] and constitute the “glass ceiling” of social and labor gender discrimination. These are standards that categorize people based on skin color or hair, body shape and gender and limit the social acceptance and employment opportunities of individuals who do not meet the favored criteria. Labor discrimination based on these opinions is prohibited by law, but the practices persist and are not captured in census statistics or surveys. It is unusual for an employer to say openly that they would not hire a person because they are Indigenous, female, or because they do not dress in accordance with social criteria.
Examples of this kind of discrimination can be seen in movies and advertising, which apply selection standards that cannot be used in other sectors, as they would violate anti-discrimination laws. Although movies and advertising are not typical of the world of work, they do display evidence of discrimination and latent social prejudices, and expose the spread and reproduction of social complexes; as such they are an X-ray of society. They are also a domain of ethnic and gender discrimination and an expression of male hierarchy. The world of sports is similar, having systematically discriminated against women’s access to certain sports. Where progress has been made (e.g., soccer, wrestling, boxing, tennis, among others), women athletes’ income is lower and the sports enjoy little publicity. Puyana and Horbath [23] describe these indirect practices of ethnic discrimination in the labor market in more detail.
Another example of multiple discrimination is given by cultural patterns that, like the racialization of beauty, draw a subtle connection between physical attributes and character and morality, placing an entire community or gender in a lower position on the social scale. To move up the social ladder, money is not enough. It is essential to have class; to know how to dress, speak, how to behave [25]. These establish relationships of submission and complementarity that encapsulate the lack of respect given to the worldviews of women and of Indigenous peoples [3]. These practices are exposed, for example, in the statements of a legislator and president of Comisión de Derechos Humanos who, in rejecting the request of some Indigenous women for better-paid work, advised them to stick to domestic work, making handicrafts, and growing prickly pears [26].10 Another example was the (informal) proposal that the number of children per family is limited as a condition of eligibility for social programs such as Cruzada contra el hambre, or to limit support based on the number of children, as these would encourage larger families [30].
The distribution of economic activity by gender shows patterns in the allocation of economic and reproductive labor. The term “reproductive labor” refers to family care-giving and domestic housework, “whose main characteristics are not having remuneration through a salary (although it could be debated whether or not there is another type of remuneration), that it is an eminently female job and that it remains invisible even to those who carry it out” ([31], p. 67).
Reproductive work, which is relegated to the domestic, non-productive area in classical and neoclassical economic theory [3, 31], constitutes the core of gender inequalities. Yet this is not the result of a choice, but rather of a social allocation that is related to the multiple restrictions faced by women; “these restrictions result from the formal and informal rules that largely determine the behavior patterns, expectations and labor and professional aspirations of men and women, and also structure the operation of labor markets” ([11], p. 5). The 2020 Mexican Census reveals marked differences by gender, with the percentage of employed men in each population group exceeding that of women. The employment rate of Indigenous men is more than double that of women. The proportion of Indigenous men seeking employment was also higher. The higher economic participation of men is also reaffirmed by the greater percentage of men seeking employment. In the case of the first group (neither Indigenous nor Afro-descendant) and of Afro-descendants, these percentages are triple those of women seeking employment, and the in case of the Indigenous community the proportion is 4.7 times as great. The higher rates of economic activity in turn explain the higher percentage of retired and pensioned men (Table 6).
Employment status
Not self-identified as Indigenous or Afro-descendant (%)
Self-identified as Indigenous (%)
Self-identified as Afro-descendant (%)
Total
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
Employed
52.3
67.1
38.6
51.2
69.0
34.7
57.0
71.6
42.8
Looking for work
1.9
2.9
0.9
1.7
2.8
0.6
1.7
2.5
0.9
Pensioner or retired
4.0
5.0
3.1
2.5
3.4
1.7
3.5
4.4
2.6
Student
15.1
15.3
14.8
12.5
12.7
12.3
12.0
11.6
12.3
Homemaker
20.0
1.5
37.1
24.5
2.0
45.4
19.3
1.8
36.2
Unable to work
1.4
1.6
1.2
2.1
2.5
1.7
1.4
1.6
1.2
Unemployed
5.0
6.1
3.9
5.3
7.3
3.5
5.0
6.1
4.0
Table 6.
Employment status by ethnic group, 12 years and older. The percent by employment status.
Source: Authors, based on microdata from the Extended Questionnaire, Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2020.
Differences between men and women in the distribution of employment status are evident in the percentage of people whose main occupation is that of carrying out household tasks. The percentages are quite different. While 2 or fewer out of every 100 men reported household tasks as their main occupation, for women, the proportion is 37 out of 100. The figures are similar for Afro-descendant women (36 out of 100), and higher for Indigenous women (45 out of 100).11
Table 7 shows the distribution of employment and occupational status as a proportion of the number of people who reported their activity. The largest proportion of people in the three groups and by gender is as an employee or worker, although more women than men report that they are self-employed, which is associated with lower demand for women’s labor and with work options that allow them to continue reproductive work. Self-employment is a way to deal with the lack of job opportunities, a problem that is more accentuated for Indigenous women.
Type of job
Not self-identified as Indigenous or Afro-descendant (%)
Self-identified as Indigenous (%)
Self-identified as Afro-descendant (%)
Total
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
employee or worker
65.6
63.7
68.7
48.6
46.1
53.4
60.2
59.3
61.6
laborer (day laborer or employed laborer)
4.1
6.0
1.0
8.5
11.9
2.4
4.7
6.9
1.2
paid labor helper
4.2
4.4
3.8
6.9
7.1
6.3
5.0
5.2
4.7
supervisor or employer
3.3
3.7
2.7
2.2
2.3
2.1
3.9
4.1
3.4
self-employed
20.4
19.9
21.1
25.5
23.7
28.7
22.2
20.5
25.0
unpaid worker
2.3
2.2
2.6
8.2
8.9
7.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
Table 7.
Type of job by ethnic group, among employed persons. Percentage by type of job.
Source: Authors, based on microdata from the Extended Questionnaire, Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2020.
It is worth highlighting the higher percentage of unpaid workers among Indigenous and Afro-descendant persons. The proportion of Afro-descendants who are unpaid is almost double the proportion in the first group (neither Indigenous nor Afro-descendant), and for the Indigenous population, the difference is triple.
5. Conclusions
Gender discrimination was examined through the concept of HI. The analysis confirms the initial expectations: gender discrimination exists despite policies aiming to reduce or to control it. Furthermore, the study shows women’s inequality exists within the three self-identified population groups Indigenous population, the Afro-descendant community, and the rest of the Mexicans registered as such in the Population Census 2020. Both qualitative and quantitative exploration yield evidence of the existence of gender gaps that persist and exacerbate each other in each social group, and in each of the dimensions of HI (political participation, economic aspects, societal aspects and cultural status).
Gender discrimination has historical roots, and these run deeper for Indigenous and Afro-descendant women, resulting in slower progress and recognition of their social and economic participation. A greater gap is identified for Indigenous and Afro-descendant women than for men within the same ethnic groups in terms of education, economic participation and political representation. It should be noted that these disparities are wider in the Indigenous group. The results show that gender discrimination, as a specific type of discrimination, intensifies ethnic discrimination.
The Indigenous and Afro-descendant populations were defined for this study by a self-identification criterion in the Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2020. Census information was used to estimate the gender equality index, which measures discrimination in four of the main areas in which discrimination manifests and suggests particular policy actions to address it. Individual indices were estimated for each dimension of gender inequality finding higher inequality economic sphere and in political representation than in cultural and social factors. The persistence of greater women inequality in these spheres’ points to a hierarchical social structure that continues to exclude women from all population groups from benefits and opportunities of social and economic development. By doing so, it makes it more difficult, if not impossible, to reduce overall inequality.
It should be noted that the calculation of the gender equality index in this study was conditioned by the availability and structure of the data provided by the 2020 Census and ENADIS [10] (our complementary source to explore differences in discrimination between men and women in each of the ethnic groups). The results suggest that future research in this area should consider increasing the number of individual indicators for each dimension of HI using additional complementary sources. Further studies should also include data for a previous period, to make comparisons with data from the present time. However, the greatest limitation is the information available for the Afro-descendant community.
It is necessary to extend the analysis and understanding of gender discrimination. The importance and relevance of this problem, which affects more than half of the world’s population, including Mexico, demand that the intensity and variety of the factors that determine and perpetuate gender discrimination be measured. Like all discrimination, but to a greater degree, gender discrimination affects the foundations of society and impedes its collective and comprehensive development because the larger the discriminated population is, the more difficult it will be to speed out economic growth and and reduce income and wealth concentration. Today, women still face structural disadvantages, as they did centuries ago, that are rooted in theoretical conceptions that prevail over economic and rational concepts and fail to recognize women’s essential participation and contribution in all spheres of society. If society does not promote substantive equality that would eliminate all gender inequality in all areas, it will maintain its traditional repressive character.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the important suggestions and comments of the anonymous reviewers that helped to improve the analysis and to focalize the arguments.
\n',keywords:"discrimination, gender inequality, horizontal inequality, Indigenous and Afro-descendant population, Mexico",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79506.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79506.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79506",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79506",totalDownloads:75,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 11th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"November 29th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 29th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mexico is a highly unequal country. Among the inequalities that impede the social cohesion of a country, gender inequality is of paramount importance, affecting more than half of the population. Based on the concept of Horizontal Inequality (HI) the chapter analyzes discrimination against women in three population groups comprising the 125.5 million Mexican society: 23 million Indigenous population, the 2.5 Afro-descendant population and the 101 million remaining. Horizontal Inequality explains discrimination for reasons of ethnicity, gender, religion, and language, among others identity facts that are not of free decision and from which there is no group way out. Only individuals can escape from discrimination. It is expressed in different areas of social activity such as politics, economics, justice, social services and culture. To measure the magnitude of gender inequality, using information from Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020, a Gender Equality Index is constructed which measures the level of equality or inequality for each of the areas and factors of HI. The study shows the persistence of gender disparities, how generalized and heterogeneous it is. It proves that inequality differs between the ethnic groups and in the intensity of the factors that perpetuate it, with greater depth for indigenous and afro-descendant women and especially in political and economic participation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79506",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79506",signatures:"Alicia Puyana Mutis and Cinthia Márquez Moranchel",book:{id:"10914",type:"book",title:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Erick Guerrero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-283-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-282-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-284-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The specificity of gender discrimination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. What is horizontal inequality?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Measuring horizontal inequality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 The size of the indigenous and Afro-descendant population by gender",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 The gender equality index",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 What does gender equality reveal about gender discrimination in Mexico?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Two main areas of horizontal inequality: education and employment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Educational and schooling gaps",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 How does work perpetuate gender inequality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Stewart F. Horizontal Inequalities and Intersectionality. 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Impacto social y económico del analfabetismo: modelo de análisis y estudio piloto. Santiago: Documentos de Proyectos ECLAC; 2010'},{id:"B16",body:'Narro J, Moctezuma D. “Analfabetismo en México: una deuda social”, Realidad, Datos y Espacio. Revista Internacional de Estadística y Geografía. 2012;3(3):5-16'},{id:"B17",body:'ILO. La hora de la igualdad en el trabajo. Informe global con arreglo al seguimiento de la Declaración de la OIT relativa a los principios y derechos fundamentales en el trabajo. In: Proceedings of 91st Annual Conference of the ILO. Geneva: International Labour Office; 2003'},{id:"B18",body:'ILO. La igualdad en el trabajo: afrontar los retos que se plantean. Informe global con arreglo al seguimiento de la Declaración de la OIT relativa a los principios y derechos fundamentales en el trabajo. In: Proceedings of 91st Annual Conference of the ILO. Geneva: International Labour Office; 2007'},{id:"B19",body:'ILO. La igualdad en el trabajo: un objetivo que sigue pendiente de cumplirse. Informe global con arreglo al seguimiento de la Declaración de la OIT relativa a los principios y derechos fundamentales en el trabajo. In: Proceedings of 100th Annual Conference of the ILO. Geneva: International Labour Office; 2011'},{id:"B20",body:'OECD. The Price of Prejudice: Labour Market Discrimination on the Grounds of Gender and Ethnicity. París: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD); 2008'},{id:"B21",body:'Leibbrandt M, Woolard I, Finn A, Argent J. Trends in South African Income Distribution and Poverty since the Fall of Apartheid. París: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD); 2010'},{id:"B22",body:'Ecosoc. Observación general N° 20. La no discriminación y los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales (artículo 2, párrafo 2 del Pacto Internacional de los Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales). Geneva: Consejo Económico y Social de la ONU; 2009'},{id:"B23",body:'Puyana A, Horbath J. Elementos de discriminación estructural y brechas de desigualdad laboral hacia los pueblos indígenas mexicanos. Santiago, Chile: Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discriminación, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean; 2019'},{id:"B24",body:'Stewart F. Justice, Horizontal Inequality and Policy in Multiethnic Societies. Mexico: Seminar given at Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales (FLACSO); 2013'},{id:"B25",body:'Moreno FM. Racismo y belleza [video]. 2015. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9zAsou7Id0'},{id:"B26",body:'Espinosa M. Relevan de la comisión a diputada que aconsejó a indígenas “no dejar de vender sus nopalitos” [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.proceso.com.mx/437136/relevan-comision-a-diputada-dijo-a-indigenas-dejen-vender-sus-nopalitos'},{id:"B27",body:'Hopenhayn M, Bello Á. Tendencias generales, prioridades y obstáculos en la lucha contra el racismo, la discriminación racial, la xenofobia y las formas conexas de intolerancia. América Latina y el Caribe. Santiago de Chile: Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe; 2000'},{id:"B28",body:'Yanes P. Urbanización en los pueblos indígenas y etnización de las ciudades. Hacia una agenda de derechos y políticas públicas. In: Yanes P, Molina V, González Ó, editors. Ciudad, pueblos indígenas y etnicidad. Mexico: Dirección General de Equidad y Desarrollo Social, Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México; 2004. pp. 225-248'},{id:"B29",body:'Moreno Figueroa M, Saldívar E. “We Are Not Racists, We Are Mexicans.” Privilege, nationalism and post-race ideology in Mexico. Critical Sociology. 2015;42(4-5):515-533'},{id:"B30",body:'Chávez V. Panistas denuncian a Rosario Robles por discriminación [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/politica/panistas-denuncian-a-rosario-robles-por-discriminacion.html'},{id:"B31",body:'Brunet I, Santamaría C. La economía feminista y la división sexual del trabajo. Culturales. 2016;IV(1):61-86'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"The identification of Indigenous people by language began with the 1990 population census; it was not until 2015 that Afro-descendants were identified."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"These agreements are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and on Civil and Political Rights (1966); the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979); Declaration on the Right to Development (the fourth contains the recommendations); the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1986) and the 2007 United Nations Declaration on Indigenous Peoples."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"The objective of the Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020 is to produce information on the size, structure and spatial distribution of the population, as well as its main socioeconomic and cultural characteristics, in addition to obtaining the housing count and its characteristics. The periodicity is decennial. The Census used two instruments to collect data on dwellings and their inhabitants: the Basic Questionnaire, with which the exhaustive enumeration was carried out and which consisted of 38 questions; and the Extended Questionnaire, which was carried out in a probabilistic sample of nearly 4 million dwellings, was composed of 103 questions, including those of the Basic Questionnaire [6]."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"The ethnicity referred to as Afro-descendant throughout the study for brevity encompasses self-identification as Afro-Mexican, Black or Afro-descendant."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"For whom it is not possible to identify their ethnic composition."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"According to the Extended questionnaire of the Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020, in 2020, Mexico’s total population amounted to 125.5 million people. The estimates obtained with the data from the Extended questionnaire correspond to inhabited private dwellings and their occupants, therefore, they are lower than the results of the Basic Questionnaire that also includes collective dwellings, the Mexican Foreign Service and the homeless population [6]. It is with the information from the expanded questionnaire that the identification of the three ethnic groups is possible."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"Job segregation by gender in the labor market refers to different distributions in branches of the economy and occupations by gender (horizontal segregation), and differential participation of men and women in higher-level occupations (vertical segregation)."},{id:"fn8",explanation:"According to the ENUT, 2014, women spent an average of 11.8 h per week on cultural activities, sports, games and hobbies, while men spent 18.5 h; that is, 56.8% more than women."},{id:"fn9",explanation:"In 2007, a principle of gender equality in the armed forces was enacted. Out of 39 military schools, 19 admitted women with full participation, including training for roles such as military engineer and pilot. On April 5, 2018, legislators endorsed an Army and Air Force Education Act to apply to both men and women, granting them equal opportunities and treatment."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"Hopenhayn and Bello [27], Yanes [28] and Moreno Figueroa [25] and Moreno Figueroa and Saldívar [29] delve into the placement of the Indigenous population in a subordinate position."},{id:"fn11",explanation:"According to the results of the Encuesta sobre Uso del Tiempo (ENUT) 2014, women dedicated an average of 46.9 h a week to household tasks and caregiving, while men spent an average of 15.7 h."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alicia Puyana Mutis",address:"apuyana@flacso.edu.mx",affiliation:'
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Kemkin",authors:[{id:"103490",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor'",middleName:null,surname:"Kemkin",slug:"igor'-kemkin",fullName:"Igor' Kemkin"}]},{id:"63981",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81402",title:"Paleoecology and Sedimentary Environments of the Oligo-Miocene Deposits of the Asmari Formation (Qeshm Island, SE Persian Gulf)",slug:"paleoecology-and-sedimentary-environments-of-the-oligo-miocene-deposits-of-the-asmari-formation-qesh",totalDownloads:703,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Asmari Formation is composed of limestones, marly limestones, and marls, whose subsurface thickness in this region is about 148 m. Two assemblage zones have been recognized through the distribution of large foraminifera in the study area, indicating a Late Oligocene (Chattian)-Early Miocene (Aquitanian) age. The gradual facies changes and the lacking of turbiditic deposits show that the Asmari Formation was deposited in a carbonate ramp environment. Based on the depositional textures and petrographical studies, characterizing gradual shallowing upward trends of an open marine carbonate ramp, three distinct depositional settings have been recognized: lagoon, barrier, and open marine. MF1 was characterized by the occurrence of hyaline benthic and planktonic foraminifera representing distal middle ramp and below the storm wave base of other ramp. Paleolatitudinal reconstructions based on skeletal grains suggest that carbonate sedimentation of the Asmari Formation took place in tropical waters within the photic zone.",book:{id:"7392",slug:"new-insights-into-the-stratigraphic-setting-of-paleozoic-to-miocene-deposits-case-studies-from-the-persian-gulf-peninsular-malaysia-and-south-eastern-pyrenees",title:"New Insights into the Stratigraphic Setting of Paleozoic to Miocene Deposits",fullTitle:"New Insights into the Stratigraphic Setting of Paleozoic to Miocene Deposits - Case Studies from the Persian Gulf, Peninsular Malaysia and South-Eastern Pyrenees"},signatures:"Seyed Hadi Sajadi and Roya Fanati Rashidi",authors:null},{id:"36318",doi:"10.5772/35865",title:"Ground Penetrating Radar: A Useful Tool for Shallow Subsurface Stratigraphy Characterization",slug:"ground-penetrating-radar-a-useful-tool-for-shallow-subsurface-stratigraphy-characterization",totalDownloads:4134,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Giovanni Leucci",authors:[{id:"106172",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Leucci",slug:"giovanni-leucci",fullName:"Giovanni Leucci"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"36319",title:"Orbital Control on Carbonate-Lignite Cycles in the Ptolemais Basin, Northern Greece - An Integrated Stratigraphic Approach",slug:"orbital-control-on-carbonate-lignite-cycles-in-the-ptolemais-basin-northern-greece-an-integrate",totalDownloads:2674,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"M.E. Weber, N. Tougiannidis, W. Ricken, C. Rolf, I. Oikonomopoulos and P. Antoniadis",authors:[{id:"104271",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael E.",middleName:null,surname:"Weber",slug:"michael-e.-weber",fullName:"Michael E. Weber"}]},{id:"36325",title:"Sedimentary Tectonics and Stratigraphy: The Early Mesozoic Record in Central to Northeastern Mexico",slug:"sedimentary-tectonics-and-straigraphy-the-early-mesozoic-record-in-central-to-northeastern-mexico",totalDownloads:2556,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Jose Rafael Barboza-Gudino",authors:[{id:"103498",title:"Dr.",name:"José Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Barboza-Gudiño",slug:"jose-rafael-barboza-gudino",fullName:"José Rafael Barboza-Gudiño"}]},{id:"36321",title:"Pliocene Mediterranean Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy: A Synthesis and Application to the Paleoenvironmental Evolution of Northwestern Italy",slug:"pliocene-mediterranean-foraminiferal-biostratigraphy-a-synthesis-and-application-to-the-paleoenviro",totalDownloads:2698,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Donata Violanti",authors:[{id:"103001",title:"Prof.",name:"Donata",middleName:null,surname:"Violanti",slug:"donata-violanti",fullName:"Donata Violanti"}]},{id:"66289",title:"Chemostratigraphy of Paleozoic Carbonates in the Western Belt (Peninsular Malaysia): A Case Study on the Kinta Limestone",slug:"chemostratigraphy-of-paleozoic-carbonates-in-the-western-belt-peninsular-malaysia-a-case-study-on-th",totalDownloads:634,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The Peninsular Malaysia is divided into Western, Central, and Eastern tectonostratigraphic belts based on major geological and geophysical phenomena. The Kinta Limestone is a Paleozoic succession located within the Western Belt. Due to structural and tectonothermal complexity, the sedimentological and paleontological works in these carbonates have proven to be problematic unless combined with geochemical approach. Thus, the current study has integrated stratigraphical, sedimentological, and geochemical studies to assess the lithofacies variations and to interpret the depositional environments. An intensive fieldwork has been carried out in order to assess the extent of metamorphism and to locate the less altered sections for further studies. Three boreholes have been drilled on N-S transect of the Kinta Valley recovering a 360 m core. The core description, the mineralogical analysis, and the geochemical analyses including major and trace elements and organic carbon contents have allowed for a significant advancement of the knowledge existing on this basin. The obtained results have indicated that the Kinta Limestone is chiefly composed of carbonate mudstones, siltstones, shales, and minor cherty units. It preserves the main sedimentary features from metamorphism, especially in the northern part of the Kinta Valley. The detrital siliciclastic debris is minimum in the limestones. The overall dominance of fine-grained textures, the lacking of detrital siliciclastic deposits, presence of bedded cherts, and high organic carbon content outlined by geochemistry and the occurrence of uncommon benthic fauna have suggested the deposition in a slope environment with low energy and low oxygen content. The lithological changes from carbonate to siliciclastic deposits have outlined the occurrence of sea level fluctuations in the Paleozoic. The various analyses combined with chemostratigraphy, an independent of type locality and stratotype, enable to interpret the depositional environment of the Kinta Limestone. Thus, it can be useful to correlate to other formations in or similar types of basins in the southeast Asia.",book:{id:"7392",slug:"new-insights-into-the-stratigraphic-setting-of-paleozoic-to-miocene-deposits-case-studies-from-the-persian-gulf-peninsular-malaysia-and-south-eastern-pyrenees",title:"New Insights into the Stratigraphic Setting of Paleozoic to Miocene Deposits",fullTitle:"New Insights into the Stratigraphic Setting of Paleozoic to Miocene Deposits - Case Studies from the Persian Gulf, Peninsular Malaysia and South-Eastern Pyrenees"},signatures:"Haylay Tsegab and Chow Weng Sum",authors:null},{id:"36324",title:"Paleocene Stratigraphy in Aqra and Bekhme Areas, Northern Iraq",slug:"paleocene-stratigraphy-in-aqra-and-bekhme-areas-northern-iraq",totalDownloads:3762,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Nabil Y. Al-Banna, Majid M. Al-Mutwali and Zaid A. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",biography:"Dr. Emad Shalaby is a professor of biochemistry on the Biochemistry Department Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. He is a member of seven international specialized scientific societies, besides his local one, and\nhe has won seven prizes.",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:617,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/20066",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"20066"},fullPath:"/chapters/20066",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()