Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (SBU) criteria for grading assessed studies.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3050",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Finite Element Analysis - New Trends and Developments",title:"Finite Element Analysis",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the past few decades, the Finite Element Method (FEM) has been developed into a key indispensable technology in the modeling and simulation of various engineering systems. 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McCuen",authors:[{id:"58107",title:"Prof.",name:"Saeid",middleName:null,surname:"Eslamian",fullName:"Saeid Eslamian",slug:"saeid-eslamian"},{id:"60787",title:"Ms",name:"Kristin Leigh",middleName:null,surname:"Gilroy",fullName:"Kristin Leigh Gilroy",slug:"kristin-leigh-gilroy"},{id:"60788",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"McCuen",fullName:"Richard McCuen",slug:"richard-mccuen"}]},{id:"18715",title:"Automatic Generation of Land Surface Emissivity Maps",slug:"automatic-generation-of-land-surface-emissivity-maps",signatures:"Eduardo Caselles, Francisco J. Abad, Enric Valor and Vicente Caselles",authors:[{id:"18539",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Caselles",fullName:"Vicente Caselles",slug:"vicente-caselles"},{id:"60670",title:"MSc",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Caselles",fullName:"Eduardo Caselles",slug:"eduardo-caselles"},{id:"60675",title:"Prof.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Valor",fullName:"Enric Valor",slug:"enric-valor"},{id:"60676",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco J.",middleName:null,surname:"Abad",fullName:"Francisco J. Abad",slug:"francisco-j.-abad"}]},{id:"18716",title:"Space Technology as the Tool in Climate Change Monitoring System",slug:"space-technology-as-the-tool-in-climate-change-monitoring-system",signatures:"Rustam B. Rustamov, Saida E. Salahova, Sabina N. Hasanova and Maral H. Zeynalova",authors:[{id:"59174",title:"Dr.",name:"Rustam B.",middleName:null,surname:"Rustamov",fullName:"Rustam B. Rustamov",slug:"rustam-b.-rustamov"},{id:"61253",title:"Dr.",name:"Maral",middleName:null,surname:"Zeynalova",fullName:"Maral Zeynalova",slug:"maral-zeynalova"},{id:"61254",title:"Dr.",name:"Saida",middleName:"Elman",surname:"Salahova",fullName:"Saida Salahova",slug:"saida-salahova"},{id:"61255",title:"Ms.",name:"Sabina",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanova",fullName:"Sabina Hasanova",slug:"sabina-hasanova"}]},{id:"18717",title:"Atmospheric Aerosol Optical Properties and Climate Change in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions",slug:"atmospheric-aerosol-optical-properties-and-climate-change-in-arid-and-semi-arid-regions",signatures:"Tugjsuren Nasurt",authors:[{id:"59873",title:"Prof.",name:"Tugjsuren",middleName:null,surname:"Nas-Urt",fullName:"Tugjsuren Nas-Urt",slug:"tugjsuren-nas-urt"}]},{id:"18718",title:"Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): Why a Robust and Transparent Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) System is Mandatory",slug:"reduced-emissions-from-deforestation-and-forest-degradation-redd-why-a-robust-and-transparent-monito",signatures:"Daniel Plugge, Thomas Baldauf and Michael Köhl",authors:[{id:"58986",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Koehl",fullName:"Michael Koehl",slug:"michael-koehl"},{id:"60532",title:"Mr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Baldauf",fullName:"Thomas Baldauf",slug:"thomas-baldauf"},{id:"60533",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Plugge",fullName:"Daniel Plugge",slug:"daniel-plugge"}]},{id:"18719",title:"Addressing Carbon Leakage by Border Adjustment Measures",slug:"addressing-carbon-leakage-by-border-adjustment-measures",signatures:"Xin Zhou, Takashi Yano and Satoshi Kojima",authors:[{id:"50448",title:"Dr",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",fullName:"Xin Zhou",slug:"xin-zhou"},{id:"61605",title:"Dr.",name:"Satoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Kojima",fullName:"Satoshi Kojima",slug:"satoshi-kojima"},{id:"61606",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Yano",fullName:"Takashi Yano",slug:"takashi-yano"}]},{id:"18720",title:"The Climate Change and the Power Industry",slug:"the-climate-change-and-the-power-industry",signatures:"Peter Kadar",authors:[{id:"62446",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kadar",fullName:"Peter Kadar",slug:"peter-kadar"}]},{id:"18721",title:"Alternative Energy: Is a Solution to the Climate Problem?",slug:"alternative-energy-is-a-solution-to-the-climate-problem-",signatures:"Jesús A. Valero Matas and Juan Romay Coca",authors:[{id:"50788",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Valero-Matas",fullName:"Jesús Alberto Valero-Matas",slug:"jesus-alberto-valero-matas"},{id:"60939",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Romay-Coca",fullName:"Juan Romay-Coca",slug:"juan-romay-coca"}]},{id:"18722",title:"Energy Technology Learning - Key to Transform into a Low - Carbon Society",slug:"energy-technology-learning-key-to-transform-into-a-low-carbon-society",signatures:"Clas-Otto Wene",authors:[{id:"58762",title:"Prof.",name:"Clas-Otto",middleName:null,surname:"Wene",fullName:"Clas-Otto Wene",slug:"clas-otto-wene"}]},{id:"18723",title:"What is Green Urbanism? Holistic Principles to Transform Cities for Sustainability",slug:"what-is-green-urbanism-holistic-principles-to-transform-cities-for-sustainability",signatures:"Steffen Lehmann",authors:[{id:"54617",title:"Prof.",name:"Steffen",middleName:null,surname:"Lehmann",fullName:"Steffen Lehmann",slug:"steffen-lehmann"}]},{id:"18724",title:"Methods of Analysis for a Sustainable Production System",slug:"methods-of-analysis-for-a-sustainable-production-system",signatures:"M. Otero, A. Pastor, J.M. Portela, J.L. Viguera and M. Huerta",authors:[{id:"56257",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Portela",fullName:"Jose Maria Portela",slug:"jose-maria-portela"},{id:"61295",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Otero-Mateo",fullName:"Manuel Otero-Mateo",slug:"manuel-otero-mateo"},{id:"61296",title:"Prof.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Pastor-Fernandez",fullName:"Andres Pastor-Fernandez",slug:"andres-pastor-fernandez"},{id:"62751",title:"Mr",name:"José Luís",middleName:null,surname:"Viguera",fullName:"José Luís Viguera",slug:"jose-luis-viguera"},{id:"62752",title:"Prof.",name:"Milagros",middleName:null,surname:"Huerta",fullName:"Milagros Huerta",slug:"milagros-huerta"}]},{id:"18725",title:"The Infrastructure Imperative of Climate Change: Risk-Based Climate Adaptation of Infrastructure",slug:"the-infrastructure-imperative-of-climate-change-risk-based-climate-adaptation-of-infrastructure",signatures:"David B. Conner",authors:[{id:"59055",title:"MSc",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Conner",fullName:"David Conner",slug:"david-conner"}]},{id:"18726",title:"Mainstreaming Climate Change for Extreme Weather Events & Management of Disasters: An Engineering Challenge",slug:"mainstreaming-climate-change-for-extreme-weather-events-management-of-disasters-an-engineering-chall",signatures:"M. Monirul Qader Mirza",authors:[{id:"50291",title:"Dr.",name:"Monirul",middleName:null,surname:"Mirza",fullName:"Monirul Mirza",slug:"monirul-mirza"}]},{id:"18727",title:"Impacts of Climate Change on the Power Industry and How It is Adapting",slug:"impacts-of-climate-change-on-the-power-industry-and-how-it-is-adapting",signatures:"James S McConnach, Ahmed F Zobaa and David Lapp",authors:[{id:"39249",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed F.",middleName:null,surname:"Zobaa",fullName:"Ahmed F. Zobaa",slug:"ahmed-f.-zobaa"},{id:"59173",title:"MSc.",name:"James",middleName:"S",surname:"McConnach",fullName:"James McConnach",slug:"james-mcconnach"},{id:"121166",title:"BSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Lapp",fullName:"David Lapp",slug:"david-lapp"}]},{id:"18728",title:"Protected Landscapes Amidst the Heat of Climate Change Policy",slug:"protected-landscapes-amidst-the-heat-of-climate-change-policy",signatures:"Paul Sinnadurai",authors:[{id:"58314",title:"BSc",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Sinnadurai",fullName:"Paul Sinnadurai",slug:"paul-sinnadurai"}]},{id:"18729",title:"Planning for Species Conservation in a Time of Climate Change",slug:"planning-for-species-conservation-in-a-time-of-climate-change",signatures:"James E.M. Watson, Molly Cross, Erika Rowland, Liana N. Joseph, Madhu Rao and Anton Seimon",authors:[{id:"60415",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Watson",fullName:"James Watson",slug:"james-watson"}]},{id:"18730",title:"Adaptation of Boreal Field Crop Production to Climate Change",slug:"adaptation-of-boreal-field-crop-production-to-climate-change",signatures:"Frederick L. Stoddard, Pirjo S. A. Mäkelä and Tuula Puhakainen",authors:[{id:"62711",title:"Dr.",name:"Fred",middleName:null,surname:"Stoddard",fullName:"Fred Stoddard",slug:"fred-stoddard"}]},{id:"18731",title:"Use of Perennial Grass in Grazing Systems of Southern Australia to Adapt to a Changing Climate",slug:"use-of-perennial-grass-in-grazing-systems-of-southern-australia-to-adapt-to-a-changing-climate",signatures:"Zhongnan Nie",authors:[{id:"54593",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongnan",middleName:null,surname:"Nie",fullName:"Zhongnan Nie",slug:"zhongnan-nie"}]},{id:"18732",title:"Global and Local Effect of Increasing Land Surface Albedo as a Geo-Engineering Adaptation/Mitigation Option: A Study Case of Mediterranean Greenhouse Farming",slug:"global-and-local-effect-of-increasing-land-surface-albedo-as-a-geo-engineering-adaptation-mitigation",signatures:"Pablo Campra",authors:[{id:"51429",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Campra",fullName:"Pablo Campra",slug:"pablo-campra"}]},{id:"18733",title:"Innovations in Agricultural Biotechnology in Response to Climate Change",slug:"innovations-in-agricultural-biotechnology-in-response-to-climate-change",signatures:"Kathleen L. Hefferon",authors:[{id:"50245",title:"Prof.",name:"Kathleen",middleName:null,surname:"Hefferon",fullName:"Kathleen Hefferon",slug:"kathleen-hefferon"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"59",title:"Recent Hurricane Research",subtitle:"Climate, Dynamics, and Societal Impacts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"603bbf36aa423b62f05802dabb4a4b6b",slug:"recent-hurricane-research-climate-dynamics-and-societal-impacts",bookSignature:"Anthony Lupo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/59.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18289",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Lupo",slug:"anthony-lupo",fullName:"Anthony Lupo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"396",title:"Climate Change",subtitle:"Geophysical Foundations and Ecological Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91533aaf574321169cf86308e82808bf",slug:"climate-change-geophysical-foundations-and-ecological-effects",bookSignature:"Juan Blanco and Houshang Kheradmand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/396.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-blanco",fullName:"Juan Blanco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"590",title:"Climate Variability",subtitle:"Some Aspects, Challenges and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"599b9dbbee726fa03324cdbb7cbabc52",slug:"climate-variability-some-aspects-challenges-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Abdel Hannachi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/590.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78969",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel",surname:"Hannachi",slug:"abdel-hannachi",fullName:"Abdel Hannachi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1402",title:"Climate Change",subtitle:"Research and Technology for Adaptation and Mitigation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e90423b1dd2e255705177b4413f1d7de",slug:"climate-change-research-and-technology-for-adaptation-and-mitigation",bookSignature:"Juan Blanco and Houshang Kheradmand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1402.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-blanco",fullName:"Juan Blanco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1546",title:"Atmospheric Model Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30315ea16bedb67eebd4fb0e9f38f968",slug:"atmospheric-model-applications",bookSignature:"Ismail Yucel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1546.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100229",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Yucel",slug:"ismail-yucel",fullName:"Ismail Yucel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"396",title:"Climate Change",subtitle:"Geophysical Foundations and Ecological Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91533aaf574321169cf86308e82808bf",slug:"climate-change-geophysical-foundations-and-ecological-effects",bookSignature:"Juan Blanco and Houshang Kheradmand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/396.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-blanco",fullName:"Juan Blanco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"78510",title:"Effectiveness and Stability of Treatment with Orthodontics Clear Aligners: What Evidence?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99998",slug:"effectiveness-and-stability-of-treatment-with-orthodontics-clear-aligners-what-evidence",body:'Orthodontic developments, especially during the last years, have been accompanied by a significant increase in the esthetic demands of the patients [1]. With the significant recent improvements in computer-aided design/computer-aid-ed manufacturing (CAD/CAM) and dental materials, there has been an increase in the demand for plastic systems [2]. Clear aligners provide an esthetic and comfortable treatment experience, facilitate oral hygiene, cause less pain as compared to fixed orthodontic appliances, and reduce the number and duration of appointments [3, 4, 5]. The aligner therapy also involves a lower incidence of demineralization, enamel abrasion, periodontal lesions, and mucosal irritations [6].
The concept of clear aligners was introduced by Kesling in 1946 with a tooth positioner fabricated by thermoplastic material molding technology and designed for minor tooth movements during the finishing stages of orthodontic treatment. In 1993, Sheridan and colleagues developed a technique of giving new clear retainers to the patient at each visit, incorporating interproximal reduction to provide the necessary space for tooth movement [3, 7]. With further advancement in orthodontic technology, Align Technology introduce the clear aligner treatment (CAT) rendering Kesling’s concept a feasible orthodontic treatment option [8]. A series of removable polyurethane aligners were introduced as an esthetic alternative to fixed labial appliances. Scanned images are converted to physical models by using different stereolithography (STL) techniques to fabricate a series of aligners that sequentially reposition the teeth. Each aligner is programmed to move a tooth or a small group of teeth 0.25–0.33 mm every 14 days [9, 10]. Align Technology provides orthodontists with ClinCheck (Align Technology Inc., Santa Clara, Calif) models, which reflect the treatment outcomes. The aligners incrementally shift the teeth into place based on the outcome the orthodontist expects to achieve [11].
The primary focus of the clear aligner system was initially to solve cases of low and moderate crowding and to close small spaces [1]. However, it has continually evolved through the development of new aligner materials, attachments on teeth, as well as new auxiliaries, such as “Precision Cuts” and “Power Ridges” to address a wider range of malocclusions and to enable additional treatment biomechanics [2, 5, 12].
Despite the available body of literature pertaining to aligner technology, only a few investigations have focused on the efficacy of clear aligner therapy in controlling orthodontic tooth movement. Furthermore, the stability after treatment has not been thoroughly investigated.
The purpose of this chapter was to update the knowledge of the available evidence about effectiveness and stability of clear aligners and to answer the following clinical research question: “Are clear aligners effective in controlling the orthodontic movement in non-growing subjects and what about stability of this treatment modality?”
A systematic search in the medical literature produced between January 2015 and January 2021 was performed to identify all peer-reviewed articles potentially relevant to the review’s question.
The following databases have been used: CENTRAL, MEDLINE, MEDLINE in Process, Embase and Cochrane Library databases.
The search strategy comprised use of the following terms: (invisalign OR clear aligners OR aligners OR transparent aligners) AND (effectiveness OR efficacy) AND (dental changes OR treatment outcome) AND (stability).
Additionally, a manual search was conducted in orthodontic journals of interest, such as The Angle Orthodontist, the American Journal of Orthodontics and the European Journal of Orthodontics. Title and abstract screening was performed to select articles for full text retrieval.
The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were used:
Study design: meta-analysis, systematic reviews, randomized and non-randomized clinical trials, prospective and retrospective studies were included.
Participants: non growing patients.
Intervention: articles that studied dental movement of cases treated with clear aligners.
Results: the efficacy of clear aligners in performing dental movements and the stability of treatment, superimposing virtual models or radiographs.
We excluded for our study articles older than 6 years, samples with growing patients, articles written in a language other than English, in-vitro studies, author opinions, letters to the editor, isolated cases, series of cases, surgical cases, or reports of patients with syndromes.
The grading system described by the Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (SBU) [13] was used to assess the methodological quality and the level of evidence of the articles (Tables 1 and 2).
Grade A—high value of evidence |
All criteria should be met: |
Randomized clinical study or a prospective study with a well-defined control group |
Defined diagnosis and endpoints |
Diagnostic reliability tests and reproducibility tests described |
Blinded outcome assessment |
Grade B—moderate value of evidence |
All criteria should be met: |
Cohort study or retrospective case series with defined control or reference group |
Defined diagnosis and endpoints |
Diagnostic reliability tests and reproducibility tests described |
Grade C—low value of evidence |
One or more of the conditions below: |
Large attrition |
Unclear diagnosis and endpoints |
Poorly defined patient material |
Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (SBU) criteria for grading assessed studies.
Level | Evidence | Definition |
---|---|---|
1 | Strong | At least two studies assessed with level “A” |
2 | Moderate | One study with level “A” and at least two studies with level “B” |
3 | Limited | At least two studies with level “B” |
4 | Inconclusive | Fewer than two studies with level “B” |
Definitions of evidence level.
The selection of articles included in this review is shown in the PRISMA flow chart (Figure 1). Study selection procedure was comprised of title-reading, abstract-reading, and full-text-reading stages. After exclusion of not eligible studies, the full report of publications considered eligible for inclusion by the authors was assessed. Eleven studies were included in the qualitative synthesis.
Flow chart according to the PRISMA statement.
Of the eleven included articles, there were five retrospective studies [6, 14, 15, 16, 17], two prospective studies [7, 11], two randomized controlled trials (RCT) [18, 19], two systematic reviews [2, 20] and one meta-analysis [20]. Most of the included studies evaluated mild to moderate malocclusions except for one [17] that involved first premolar extraction cases. The majority of studies used the Invisalign® system except two studies that used Nuvola® system [15] and F22 aligners [14].
Data collected from each of the included articles are described in Tables 3 and 4. Nine of the covered studies assessed predictability of tooth movements comparing post-treatment patient models to the predicted digital planned tooth movement models [2, 6, 7, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Two studies assessed the stability of the clear aligner therapy [19, 20].
Study | Study design | Participants | Intervention | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|
Buschang et al. 2015 [11] | Prospective clinical trial | 27pts |
|
|
Lombardo et al. 2017 [14] | Retrospective case series | 16 pts. F22 aligners |
|
|
Tepedino et al. 2018 [15] | Retrospective case series | 39 pts. First phase of treatment made of 12 aligners by Nuvola® aligner system |
|
|
Charalampakis et al. 2018 [16] | Retrospective case series | 20 pts. Class I patients treated with Invisalign and needed refinement |
|
|
Lopez et al. 2019 [2] | Systematic review | 20 studies |
|
|
Dai et al. 2019 [17] | Retrospective case series | 30 pts. First premolar extraction treatment with Invisalign |
|
|
Zhou et al. 2020 [7] | Prospective clinical trial | 20 pts. arch expansion with Invisalign aligners |
|
|
Al-Nadawi et al. 2020 [18] | Randomized clinical trial | 80 pts. three aligner wear protocols: 7 day, 10 day, and 14 day. |
|
|
Riede et al. 2021 [6] | Retrospective case series | 30 pts. Aligner treatment (Invisalign®) with the current material (SmartTrack®) |
|
|
Design, participants, type of intervention, and results of studies included in the qualitative analysis.
pts, patients; OGS, Objective Grading System; IPR, interproximal reduction; CBCT, Cone beam computed tomography.
Study | Study design | Participants | Intervention | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|
Zheng et al. 2017 [20] | Systematic review and meta-analysis |
| Scientific evidence |
|
Graf et al. 2021 [19] | Double-center trial | 33pts |
|
|
Studies assessing treatment stability of clear aligners.
pts, patients.
According to the SBU tool (Tables 1 and 2), among the selected studies, the methodological quality was low for four studies [6, 11, 16, 17], moderate for four others [7, 14, 15, 19] and high for one study [18] (Table 5). Thus, conclusions with a moderate level of evidence could be drawn from the review process.
Study (first author, year) | Evidence level |
---|---|
Buschang, 2015 [11] | C |
Lombardo, 2017 [14] | B |
Tepedino, 2018 [15] | B |
Charalampakis, 2018 [16] | C |
Dai, 2019 [17] | C |
Zhou, 2020 [7] | B |
Al-Nadawi, 2020 [18] | A |
Riede, 2021 [6] | C |
Graf, 2021 [19] | B |
Evidence grade according to Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care.
In this review, we aimed to provide data on the effectiveness and stability of treatment with clear aligners. The level of evidence was moderate as we identified one study with level «A» and four studies with level «B».
The effectiveness of clear aligners was judged by the predictability of tooth movement which varies with the type of tooth and the type of movement. Lopez et al. [2] found that the expression of the programmed movement was not fully accomplished with Invisalign®.
Concerning
Many studies showed that intrusion was the most unpredictable movement especially for the maxillary central and lateral incisors [16, 21]. Invisalign has a bite-block effect, because 2 aligners of 0.38-mm width are interposed between posterior teeth throughout treatment. Unexpected intrusion of the molars would cause the incisors to appear extruded on the posttreatment models after superimposition [16]. In fact, according to Grunheid et al. [22], mandibular incisors tend to be positioned more occlusally than predicted. The bite-block effect may make open bites easier to treat with Invisalign [16].
Concerning
Molar distalization was recorded as the highest accuracy with no need for attachments. Simon et al. [25] also reported a high accuracy (88%) of the bodily movement of upper molars when a distalization movement of at least 1.5 mm was prescribed.
Several studies agreed that derotation of rounded teeth especially canines was difficult to achieve with aligners [16, 22, 26]. An amount of rotation greater than 15° has been identified as a risk factor for decreased accuracy for rotational prediction [25]. Interproximal contacts of rotated canines might also be considered a significant predictor for the diminished efficacy of tooth movement, especially in the absence of interproximal reduction of the enamel (IPR) [26]. The direction of derotation has been also documented to influence the accuracy of the maxillary canine, with distal movement demonstrating less accuracy than mesial [21]. This is possibly due to the actual contact area between canine and premolar and the potential challenges of providing enamel reduction in this area.
It has been recommended to plan overcorrections, especially if rotations exceed 15°, to use attachments, and to reduce staging to less than 1.5° per aligner [8, 16, 25]. However, although various types or shapes of attachment grips or practices of interproximal enamel reduction have been reported as potential prognostic factors for better efficacy of rotational tooth movement, this does not necessarily translate into an identified substantial effect in practice [26].
Concerning
According to Lopez and al. [2], Invisalign® was also able to alter intercanine, interpremolar, and intermolar width in the presence of crowding. Kravitz et al. [23] recommended to treat cases with severe lower crowding mostly by interproximal reduction (IPR) instead of dentoalveolar expansion. This recommendation comes from the finding that retraction is more accurate than dentoalveolar expansion of the lower anterior teeth. The expansion of the mandibular intercanine width also poses the greatest risk of relapse following treatment [29].
Concerning the effectiveness of the occlusal contacts with clear aligners, the study by Izhar et al. [10] found that the software models do not accurately reflect the patient’s final occlusion immediately at the end of active treatment. Kassas et al. [30] also stated that clear aligners were not sufficient for providing ideal occlusal contacts. The deterioration in occlusal contacts was caused by the thickness of aligners, which interferes with the settling of the occlusal plane.
As far as the malocclusion type is concerned, the study by Graf et al. [19] showed that Invisalign® treatments are able to significantly reduce malocclusions in adult patients. The study found that all types of sagittal malocclusion (class I, class II, and class III) were ‘greatly improved’ with a rate of 77.44%. Graf and al. [19] also concluded that conventional attachments and the combination with optimized attachments equally led to treatment effectiveness regarding the total PAR score reduction with equally achieved effectiveness in mild, moderate, and rather severe cases. However, for Class II malocclusion, Patterson et al. [31] reported that there was no significant Class II correction or overjet reduction with elastics for an average of 7-month duration in the adult population. Additional refinements may be necessary to address problems created during treatment mainly posterior open bite.
One study of our review by Dai et al. [17] assessed the effectiveness of Invisalign in first premolar extraction treatment. According to this study, first molar anchorage control and central incisor retraction were not fully achieved as predicted. Only medium anchorage control was achieved as the first molars actually moved mesially. The G6-optimized attachment showed similar control in first molar angulation and mesiodistal translation as did 3- and 5-mm horizontal rectangular attachments. On the other hand, setting a distal tipping of 6.6 mm on the first molars might help clinically maintain the tooth angulation, leading to bodily tooth movement. According to the same study [17], the incisors inclined lingually under the retraction force. Accordingly, the use of power ridges or attachments as well as overcorrection by setting greater buccal crown inclination during the virtual setup should be considered to achieve optimal incisor torque control.
Current evidence does not support the clinical use of aligners as a treatment modality that is equally effective to the gold standard of braces [32]. However, clear aligners have advantage in segmented movement of teeth and shortened treatment duration, but are not as effective as braces in producing adequate occlusal contacts, controlling teeth torque, and retention [5, 33].
Many variables influence the accuracy of dental movements, but very few studies have analyzed these parameters in treatments with clear aligners. According to Tepedino et al. [15], several factors determine successful tooth movement such as the attachment’s shape and position, the aligner’s material and thickness, the amount of activation present in each aligner, and the techniques used for the production of the aligners. Treatment outcomes depend also on the patient’s characteristics, bone density and morphology, crown and root morphology of the teeth, as well as on factors related to the clinician. Orthodontists have to incorporate their expert knowledge in determining proper sequencing of tooth movements, tooth attachment design and placement, and prescribing overcorrection when needed for difficult tooth movements to increase efficiency and achieve better treatment outcomes [22, 34]. Patient compliance is also mandatory to achieve good results by wearing the aligners 22 hours a day or more [28].
One study from this review with a high level of evidence [18] evaluated the impact of wear protocol on the accuracy of clear aligners. It has concluded that fourteen-day changes were statistically significantly more accurate in some posterior movements mainly maxillary intrusion, distal-crown tip and buccal-crown torque, and in mandibular intrusion and extrusion.
As in all types of orthodontic treatment, stability is one of the most important issues to discuss regarding clear aligners. According to the systematic review by Zheng et al. [20], only one study compared the post-retention dental changes between patients treated with Invisalign and those treated with conventional fixed appliances. They found that the change in the total alignment score in the Invisalign group was significantly larger than that for the Braces group. There were significantly larger changes in maxillary anterior alignment in the Invisalign group than in the conventional bracket group. Tamer et al. [5] also reported that maxillary anterior leveling relapsed in the Invisalign group. On average, the posttreatment models lost twice as many points for alignment than the respective ClinCheck models. In other words, a full finishing phase of treatment may be needed to achieve the results indicated in the ClinCheck model [11].
The type and degree of tooth movement, the duration of active treatment and the retention protocol are among major influencing factors of posttreatment stability and relapse. The study by Graf et al. [19] is the first one to assess the stability of clear aligners outcome throughout a retention period of 10 months. The retention protocol involved a mandibular multistrand fixed retainer (0.0155 inch; stainless steel, 24 K gold plated) bonded on each lingual surface from canine to canine and a removable modified Hawley retainer for the upper arch (with mandatory Adams clasps on first molars). The study showed that the treatment outcome can be stable throughout this retention protocol. It has also concluded that treating patients with respect to their physiological boundaries and maintaining their original arch form would be key to treatment stability. Overexpansion of the dental arch, especially in the lower arch and in adult patients, is a potential risk for stable results.
There is current evidence with a moderate level of certainty regarding the effectiveness of clear aligner therapy for certain tooth movements. Clear aligners can safely straighten dental arches in terms of leveling and derotating the teeth, except for canines and premolars. The crown tipping can be easily performed. However, important limitations include arch expansion through bodily tooth movements, extraction space closure, corrections of occlusal contacts, and larger antero-posterior and vertical discrepancies. The use of additional attachments might be more effective for various types of movement, such as bodily expansion of the maxillary posterior teeth, canine and premolar rotational movements, incisors torque control and extrusion of maxillary incisors. Overcorrections might also improve the effectiveness of orthodontic movement. However, overcorrections are not as simple for all movements and need to be made on a case-by-case basis depending on the goal of treatment.
Studies on effectiveness of clear aligners had methodological heterogeneity as they assessed predictability of different types of tooth movements for different teeth by using different materials like Invisalign, F22 aligner and Nuvola system. Retention and stability studies regarding aligners also remain limited in the literature. Therefore, further well-designed and reported researches are required on this subject.
Special thanks to the department of Orthodontics of the Faculty of the dentistry of the University Hassan II of Casablanca. We would also like to acknowledge the support of Professor Farid Bourzgui for the realization of this work and for sharing and discussing the initial idea of the project.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65331",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83731",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2724,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:"For centuries, aromatic herbs and spices have been added to different foods to improve the flavor and organoleptic properties. 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In all of the tests, only the EtOAc extract showed a potent antioxidant effect.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"44805",doi:"10.5772/56424",title:"Discovery, Development, and Regulation of Natural Products",slug:"discovery-development-and-regulation-of-natural-products",totalDownloads:8286,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"3320",slug:"using-old-solutions-to-new-problems-natural-drug-discovery-in-the-21st-century",title:"Using Old Solutions to New Problems",fullTitle:"Using Old Solutions to New Problems - Natural Drug Discovery in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Juergen Krause and Gailene Tobin",authors:[{id:"162495",title:"Dr.",name:"Juergen",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"juergen-krause",fullName:"Juergen Krause"}]},{id:"48052",doi:"10.5772/59468",title:"Intranasal Drug Administration — An Attractive Delivery Route for Some Drugs",slug:"intranasal-drug-administration-an-attractive-delivery-route-for-some-drugs",totalDownloads:4694,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:null,book:{id:"4539",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-from-molecules-to-medicine",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - From Molecules to Medicine"},signatures:"Degenhard Marx, Gerallt Williams and Matthias Birkhoff",authors:[{id:"71452",title:"Dr.",name:"Degenhard",middleName:null,surname:"Marx",slug:"degenhard-marx",fullName:"Degenhard Marx"},{id:"72854",title:"Mr.",name:"Matthias",middleName:null,surname:"Birkhoff",slug:"matthias-birkhoff",fullName:"Matthias Birkhoff"},{id:"172384",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerallt",middleName:null,surname:"Williams",slug:"gerallt-williams",fullName:"Gerallt Williams"}]},{id:"41155",doi:"10.5772/52508",title:"Data Analysis Approaches in High Throughput Screening",slug:"data-analysis-approaches-in-high-throughput-screening",totalDownloads:6479,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"3086",slug:"drug-discovery",title:"Drug Discovery",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery"},signatures:"Asli N. Goktug, Sergio C. Chai and Taosheng Chen",authors:[{id:"71406",title:"Dr.",name:"Taosheng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"taosheng-chen",fullName:"Taosheng Chen"},{id:"120804",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"C.",surname:"Chai",slug:"sergio-chai",fullName:"Sergio Chai"},{id:"165635",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Asli",middleName:"Nur",surname:"Goktug",slug:"asli-goktug",fullName:"Asli Goktug"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66259",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7491,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:135,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"67588",title:"Preformulation Studies: An Integral Part of Formulation Design",slug:"preformulation-studies-an-integral-part-of-formulation-design",totalDownloads:4059,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"When a promising new chemical entity is synthesized, it needs transformation to appropriate formulation in order to show a better and desirable action at appropriate site. Preformulation study is a phase which is initiated once the new molecule is seeded. In a broader way, it deals with studies of physical, chemical, analytical, and pharmaceutical properties related to molecule and provides idea about suitable modification in molecule to show a better performance. Study of these parameters and suitable molecular modification can be linked to generation of effective, safer, stable, and reliable pharmaceutical formulation. Therefore, preformulation study is an approach for generation of pharmaceutical formulation which utilizes knowledge and area application of toxicology, biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, and analytical chemistry. The highlighted chapter is framed with a vision to provide an in-depth knowledge about pharmaceutical formulation development.",book:{id:"8331",slug:"pharmaceutical-formulation-design-recent-practices",title:"Pharmaceutical Formulation Design",fullTitle:"Pharmaceutical Formulation Design - Recent Practices"},signatures:"Pinak Patel",authors:null},{id:"37165",title:"Modern Medicine and Pharmaceutics",slug:"modern-medicine-and-pharmaceutics",totalDownloads:4471,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Purusotam Basnet",authors:[{id:"98426",title:"Prof.",name:"Purusotam",middleName:null,surname:"Basnet",slug:"purusotam-basnet",fullName:"Purusotam Basnet"}]},{id:"37170",title:"Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for Medicinal Products",slug:"good-manufacturing-practices-gmp-for-medicinal-products",totalDownloads:32651,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Jaya Bir Karmacharya",authors:[{id:"155087",title:"Mr.",name:"Jaya",middleName:"Bir",surname:"Karmacharya",slug:"jaya-karmacharya",fullName:"Jaya Karmacharya"}]},{id:"66222",title:"Bioavailability and Bioequivalence Studies",slug:"bioavailability-and-bioequivalence-studies",totalDownloads:3351,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In vivo bioavailability studies are performed for new drug to establish essential pharmacokinetic parameters including rate of absorption, extent of absorption, rates of excretion and metabolism and elimination half-life after a single and multiple dose administration. These essential pharmacokinetic parameters are useful in establishing dosage regimens. Bioequivalence used to assess the expected in vivo biological equivalence of two proprietary preparations of drug products. If two drugs are bioequivalent, it means that they are expected to be same for all intents and purposes. In determining bioequivalence between two drugs such as a reference drug or brand and potential to be test drug or marketed generic drug. Pharmacokinetic studies are conducted whereby each of the drugs is administered in a cross over study to healthy volunteer’s subjects. Plasma is obtained at regular intervals and assayed for parent drug or metabolite concentration to compare the two drugs. For comparison purpose of two formulations, the plasma concentration data are used to assess key pharmacokinetic parameters. If 90% confidence interval for the ratio of the geometric least square means of peak plasma concentration, area under curve of test and reference drugs are within 80–125%, then bioequivalence will be established.",book:{id:"8331",slug:"pharmaceutical-formulation-design-recent-practices",title:"Pharmaceutical Formulation Design",fullTitle:"Pharmaceutical Formulation Design - Recent Practices"},signatures:"Divvela Hema Nagadurga",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"217",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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