Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7788",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Progress in Relativity",title:"Progress in Relativity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This volume deals with extensions of special relativity, general relativity, and their applications in relation to intragalactic and extragalactic dynamics. The book comprises chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in the relativity research area. It provides a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on relativity, opening new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-78985-358-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-357-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-988-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77603",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"progress-in-relativity",numberOfPages:266,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"258de121f66ce548dbf7a88bc569b58e",bookSignature:"Calin Gheorghe Buzea, Maricel Agop and Leo Butler",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7788.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9462,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 22nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 27th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99400",title:"Dr.",name:"Calin Gheorghe",middleName:null,surname:"Buzea",slug:"calin-gheorghe-buzea",fullName:"Calin Gheorghe Buzea",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99400/images/system/99400.jpg",biography:"Dr. Calin Buzea currently works as a medical physicist at the Regional Institute of Oncology in Iasi, Romania. He is an international researcher with more than 25 years of experience in the field of theoretical, computational, and experimental physics. He is also an expert in medical physics with more than 15 years of clinical experience in hospitals. Today, he is focused on the dissemination and development of precision medicine-based radiomics.",institutionString:"National Institute of Research and Development for Technical Physics",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Institute of Research and Development for Technical Physics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"24020",title:"Dr.",name:"Maricel",middleName:null,surname:"Agop",slug:"maricel-agop",fullName:"Maricel Agop",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24020/images/system/24020.JPG",biography:"Dr. Maricel Agop currently works as a professor at \\'Gheorghe Asachi\\' Technical Univeristy of Iasi, Romania. He is an international researcher with more than 30 years of experience in the field of theoretical physics. His expertise pertains to the topics of non-linearity, chaos theory, quantum mechanics, and fractals. Dr. Agop completed his PhD in Physics in 1983 at University \\'Al. I. Cuza\\' Iasi, Romania. He has published more than 200 papers in ISI journals, several books (or book chapters), and participated in national and international conferences and workshops. Dr. Agop is a Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy of Science and Dr.h.c. of \\'Vasile Alecsandri\\' University of Bacau. He is also an editorial board member of several scientific journals.",institutionString:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"191349",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Leo",middleName:null,surname:"Butler",slug:"leo-butler",fullName:"Leo Butler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191349/images/system/191349.jpg",biography:"Dr. Butler is currently an associate professor of Mathematics at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. He completed a degree in economics at the University of Ottawa (1990–1993); worked as a research assistant at the Bank of Canada (1993–1995); and studied mathematics at\nQueen\\'s University (1995–2000) where he obtained an MSc and PhD. He has held positions at Northwestern University, Queen\\'s University, University of Edinburgh, Central Michigan University, and North Dakota State University. His main research interests include Hamiltonian\nmechanics. He currently holds an NSERC Discovery Grant on the topic of thermostat dynamics.",institutionString:"University of Manitoba",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"North Dakota State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1237",title:"Theoretical Physics",slug:"theoretical-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"69976",title:"Quasinormal Modes of Dirac Field in Generalized Nariai Spacetimes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89179",slug:"quasinormal-modes-of-dirac-field-in-generalized-nariai-spacetimes",totalDownloads:573,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The exact electrically charged solutions to the Dirac equation in higher-dimensional generalized Nariai spacetimes are obtained. Using these solutions, the boundary conditions leading to quasinormal modes of the Dirac field are analyzed, and their correspondent quasinormal frequencies are analytically calculated.",signatures:"Joás Venâncio and Carlos Batista",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69976",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69976",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67724",title:"Eight-by-Eight Spacetime Matrix Operator and Its Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86982",slug:"eight-by-eight-spacetime-matrix-operator-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A recent journal article by the authors introduced the eight-by-eight spacetime matrix operator M̂ which played a key role in the formulation of Lorentz invariant matrix equations for both the classical electrodynamic Maxwell field equations and the quantum mechanical relativistic Dirac equation for free space. Those new equations we referred to as the Maxwell spacetime matrix and the Dirac spacetime matrix equations. These matrix equations will be briefly reviewed at the beginning of this chapter. Next we will show how the same matrix operator M̂ plays a central role in the matrix formulation of other fundamental equations in both electromagnetic and quantum theories. These include the electromagnetic wave and charge continuity equations, the Lorentz conditions and electromagnetic potentials, the electromagnetic potential wave equations, and the quantum mechanical Klein-Gordon equation. In addition, a new generalized spacetime matrix equation, again employing the operator M̂, will be described which is a generalization of the Maxwell and Dirac spacetime matrix equations. We will explore time-harmonic plane-wave solutions of this equation as well as the properties of these solutions.",signatures:"Richard P. Bocker and B. Roy Frieden",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67724",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67375",title:"Clarifying Special Relativity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86401",slug:"clarifying-special-relativity",totalDownloads:658,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Special relativity for light requires substantial correction. The notion that time dilates for observers in motion has been disproven theoretically, experimentally, and mathematically. Absolute time is not altered by the motion of objects or human activity. The original concept used distance and light velocity improperly to compute time. When the displacement of objects in relation to the traveling direction of a photon of light is considered properly, both stationary and moving observers compute time for any particular event that is equal. Light photons travel at intrinsic speed c in the propagation direction but have component velocities less than c. Although light velocity c cannot be altered by motion of its source in the propagation direction, photons from a lateral moving source experience a lateral velocity component and angle travel from the source at speed c in that direction. Due to motion of the earth in its orbit, objects that are seen are images from a former location when the light departed. More or less time is required for light to traverse objects in motion than when stationary. This is not due to dilation of absolute time. Fixed light speed ensures that differing distances require differing times for light to travel.",signatures:"Richard Sauerheber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67375",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67375",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68168",title:"Radiation and Energy Flux of Electromagnetic Fields by a Segment of Relativistic Electron Beam Moving Uniformly in Vacuum",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86980",slug:"radiation-and-energy-flux-of-electromagnetic-fields-by-a-segment-of-relativistic-electron-beam-movin",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A finite-length segment of filamentous relativistic electron beam (REB), moving uniformly in vacuum, radiates hybrid electromagnetic waves, compound of potential and vortex electric fields, as well as a vortex magnetic field. The strengths of electric and magnetic fields radiated by the segment edges have the opposite signs. The electromagnetic fields in the wave zone are considered as superposition of the electromagnetic waves radiated by the beginning and the end of the REB segment, which, in particular, leads to formation of the field’s interference components. In both the near and the intermediate zones, there is a flow of electrical energy due to the electric potential field and the field of displacement current.",signatures:"Sergey Prijmenko and Konstantin Lukin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68168",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70225",title:"On the Nonuniqueness of the Hamiltonian for Systems with One Degree of Freedom",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88069",slug:"on-the-nonuniqueness-of-the-hamiltonian-for-systems-with-one-degree-of-freedom",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The alternative Hamiltonians for systems with one degree of freedom are solved directly from the Hamilton’s equations. These new Hamiltonians produce the same equation of motion with the standard one (called the Newtonian Hamiltonian). Furthermore, new Hamiltonians come with an extra-parameter, which can be used to recover the standard Hamiltonian.",signatures:"Sikarin Yoo-Kong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70225",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67650",title:"From Relativity to Creation of Temporal (t > 0) Universe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86785",slug:"from-relativity-to-creation-of-temporal-t-0-universe",totalDownloads:821,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"One of the important aspects of science must be the substantiated physical realities, which were built by the fundamental laws of physics that cannot be simply substituted by unsubstantiated virtual reality. In writing this chapter we have mostly based on the constraints of the current laws of physics to illustrate the enigmatic time as the origin for creating our physical space (i.e., temporal universe). The differences between physical reality and virtual reality are that physical reality is existing within the rule of time and supported by the laws of science, while virtual reality is created without the constraints of time and mostly not substantiated by the laws of physics. One of the important aspects of temporal (i.e., t > 0) space is that any emerging science has to be proven to exist within our temporal universe; otherwise it is fictitious and virtual as mathematics is.",signatures:"Francis T.S. Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67650",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66668",title:"Hot Compression Tests Using Total Lagrangian SPH Formulation in Energy-Based Framework",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85930",slug:"hot-compression-tests-using-total-lagrangian-sph-formulation-in-energy-based-framework",totalDownloads:557,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Limitations of the finite element method (FEM) in some cases involving large deformations as in forging or high compression tests are overcome nowadays by meshless methods such as the smoothed particle hydrodynamic (SPH) method. This paper presents a corrected total Lagrangian SPH formulation for problems encountering large deformations in solid mechanics. The continuum is modeled as a Hamiltonian system of particles (energy-based framework). The total Lagrangian formulation proposed overcomes some problems faced by standard SPH in simulating solid mechanic problems such as tensile instability. Numerical applications compared with experimental results are presented to show the capabilities of this novel formulation.",signatures:"Kadiata Ba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66668",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66668",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70570",title:"Dynamics of Biostructures on a Fractal/Multifractal Space-Time Manifold",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90360",slug:"dynamics-of-biostructures-on-a-fractal-multifractal-space-time-manifold",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A theory of space-time is built on a fractal/multifractal variety. Thus, considering that both the spatial coordinates and the time are fractal/multifractal, it is shown that both the energy and the non-differentiable mass of any biostructure depend on both the “state” of the biostructure and a speed limit of constant value. For the dynamics on Peano fractal/multifractal curves and Compton scale resolutions, it is shown that our results are reduced to those of Einstein relativity. In such a context, it has been shown that the “chameleon effect” of cholesterol corresponds to the HDL-LDL state transfer dictated by the spontaneous symmetry breaking through a fractal/multifractal tunnel effect. Then both HDL and LDL become distinct states of the same biostructure as in nuclear physics where proton and neutron are distinct states of the same nucleon.",signatures:"Maricel Agop, Calin Buzea, Decebal Vasincu and Daniel Timofte",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70570",authors:[{id:"99400",title:"Dr.",name:"Calin Gheorghe",surname:"Buzea",slug:"calin-gheorghe-buzea",fullName:"Calin Gheorghe Buzea"},{id:"24020",title:"Dr.",name:"Maricel",surname:"Agop",slug:"maricel-agop",fullName:"Maricel Agop"},{id:"188311",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel V.",surname:"Timofte",slug:"daniel-v.-timofte",fullName:"Daniel V. Timofte"},{id:"198178",title:"Dr.",name:"Decebal",surname:"Vasnicu",slug:"decebal-vasnicu",fullName:"Decebal Vasnicu"}],corrections:null},{id:"68189",title:"Stueckelberg-Horwitz-Piron Canonical Quantum Theory in General Relativity and Bekenstein-Sanders Gauge Fields for TeVeS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88154",slug:"stueckelberg-horwitz-piron-canonical-quantum-theory-in-general-relativity-and-bekenstein-sanders-gau",totalDownloads:716,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A consistent (off-shell) canonical classical and quantum dynamics in the framework of special relativity was formulated by Stueckelberg in 1941 and generalized to many-body theory by Horwitz and Piron in 1973 (SHP). This theory has been embedded into the framework of general relativity (GR), here denoted by SHPGR. The canonical Poisson brackets of the SHP theory remain valid (invariant under local coordinate transformations) on the manifold of GR and provide the basis for formulating a canonical quantum theory. The relation between representations based on coordinates and momenta is given by Fourier transform; a proof is given here for this functional relation on a manifold. The potential which may occur in the SHP theory emerges as a spacetime scalar mass distribution in GR. Gauge fields, both Abelian and non-Abelian on the quantum mechanical SHPGR Hilbert space in both the single particle and many-body theory, may be generated by phase transformations. Application to the construction of Bekenstein and Sanders in their solution to the lensing problem in TeVeS is discussed.",signatures:"Lawrence P. Horwitz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68189",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68189",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68208",title:"Fast Indicators for Orbital Stability: A Survey on Lyapunov and Reversibility Errors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88085",slug:"fast-indicators-for-orbital-stability-a-survey-on-lyapunov-and-reversibility-errors",totalDownloads:772,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We present a survey on the recently introduced fast indicators for Hamiltonian systems, which measure the sensitivity of orbits to small initial displacements, Lyapunov error (LE), and to a small additive noise, reversibility error (RE). The LE and RE are based on variational methods and require the computation of the tangent flow or map. The modified reversibility error method (REM) measures the effect of roundoff and is computed by iterating a symplectic map forward and backward the same number of times. The smoothest indicator is RE since it damps the oscillations of LE. It can be proven that LE and RE grow following a power law for regular orbits and an exponential law for chaotic orbits. There is a numerical evidence that the growth of RE and REM follows the same law. The application to models of celestial and beam dynamics has shown the reliability of these indicators.",signatures:"Giorgio Turchetti and Federico Panichi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68208",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68208",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70530",title:"BH M87: Beyond the Gates of Hell",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90482",slug:"bh-m87-beyond-the-gates-of-hell",totalDownloads:563,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The supermassive black hole located in the galaxy M87 (BH M87) is four times larger than our solar system. If it is spherically symmetric, then a capsule free falling from a distance of 1 light year would cross BH M87’s event horizon within some tens of years. Continuing that journey, any unfortunate astronomer traveling within the capsule would remain alive for a few further tens of hours; if the capsule were equipped with a powerful engine and could slow down, their lifetime inside the horizon beyond “the gates of Hell” would be slightly extended. How is this so? What are the other properties of the interior of BH M87? Maintaining the assumption of spherical symmetry of the exterior of BH M87, we briefly discuss some simple but intriguing properties of its interior, a region that turns out to be highly anisotropic, both expanding and contracting at the same time.",signatures:"Pawel Gusin, Andy T. Augousti and Andrzej Radosz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70530",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70530",authors:[{id:"243700",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Radosz",slug:"andrzej-radosz",fullName:"Andrzej Radosz"},{id:"254451",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy T.",surname:"Augousti",slug:"andy-t.-augousti",fullName:"Andy T. Augousti"},{id:"254452",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",surname:"Gusin",slug:"pawel-gusin",fullName:"Pawel Gusin"}],corrections:null},{id:"70270",title:"Dark Matter within the Milky Way",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90267",slug:"dark-matter-within-the-milky-way",totalDownloads:692,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dark matter is an invisible substance that seems to make almost 85% of all the mass and roughly 26% of mass-energy content of our Universe. We briefly present the history of its discovery, and we discuss the main attempts to resolve the problem of the origin of dark matter. Those attempts are as follows: dark matter particles (WIMPs), unseen astrophysical objects (MACHOs), or interactions of dark matter with ordinary (luminous) matter. We also introduce a different approach claiming no need for existence of the dark matter (MOND) and recent findings about the ultra-diffuse galaxies. Finally we present 21-cm line observations of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way made by using 3 m in diameter radio telescope in the Astronomical Observatory of the Jagiellonian University. These studies yield rotational curve of our galaxy. Rotational curve we obtained is compared to those present in literature and constitutes a proof of presence of dark matter in the Milky Way.",signatures:"Aleksander Kaczmarek and Andrzej Radosz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70270",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68063",title:"The Early Universe as a Source of Gravitational Waves",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87946",slug:"the-early-universe-as-a-source-of-gravitational-waves",totalDownloads:621,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter we consider the issues of the origin and evolution of relic gravitational waves (GW), which appear as a result of quantum fluctuations of the scalar field and the corresponding perturbations of the space-time metric at the early inflationary stage of the evolution of the universe. The main provisions of the inflationary paradigm and the methods of the construction of current cosmological models on its basis are considered. The influence of relic gravitational waves on the anisotropy and polarization of the relic radiation and the importance of estimating such an effect on the verification of cosmological models are discussed as well.",signatures:"Vladimir Gladyshev and Igor Fomin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68063",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70295",title:"Periodic Solution of Nonlinear Conservative Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90282",slug:"periodic-solution-of-nonlinear-conservative-systems",totalDownloads:875,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Conservative systems represent a large number of naturally occurring and artificially designed scientific and engineering systems. A key consideration in the theory and application of nonlinear conservative systems is the solution of the governing nonlinear ordinary differential equation. This chapter surveys the recent approximate analytical schemes for the periodic solution of nonlinear conservative systems and presents a recently proposed approximate analytical algorithm called continuous piecewise linearization method (CPLM). The advantage of the CPLM over other analytical schemes is that it combines simplicity and accuracy for strong nonlinear and large-amplitude oscillations irrespective of the complexity of the nonlinear restoring force. Hence, CPLM solutions for typical nonlinear Hamiltonian systems are presented and discussed. Also, the CPLM solution for an example of a non-Hamiltonian conservative oscillator was presented. The chapter is aimed at showcasing the potential and benefits of the CPLM as a reliable and easily implementable scheme for the periodic solution of conservative systems.",signatures:"Akuro Big-Alabo and Chinwuba Victor Ossia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70295",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1613",title:"Theoretical Concepts of Quantum Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9c6e9ac171d39eecb718608fb626430",slug:"theoretical-concepts-of-quantum-mechanics",bookSignature:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1613.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101263",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",surname:"Pahlavani",slug:"mohammad-reza-pahlavani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2138",title:"Measurements in Quantum Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3487ee0a57a3bb9087dcf65c25e1b73d",slug:"measurements-in-quantum-mechanics",bookSignature:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2138.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101263",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",surname:"Pahlavani",slug:"mohammad-reza-pahlavani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3513",title:"Advances in Quantum Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bbea1c081216f267a4480707f4ead9cf",slug:"advances-in-quantum-mechanics",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3513.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1615",title:"Advances in Quantum Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"292f0a763e50627eed224ef40ec75962",slug:"advances-in-quantum-theory",bookSignature:"Ion I. 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1. Introduction
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Neuropathic pain (NP) is a common type of pain disease with a prevalence of 1–2% in the total population [1, 2]. Although it is less common than nociceptive pain caused by degeneration of the spine and bones, neuropathic pain is often more severe, accompanied by severe emotional reactions, and the clinical efficacy is not ideal. The problems caused by neuropathic pain in the declined quality of life and the loss of working capacity have caused enormous burdens on patients, families, and our society. The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines neuropathic pain as “the pain that arises as a direct consequence of a lesion or diseases affecting the somatosensory system.” According to the location of the damage to the nervous system, neuropathic pain can be divided into peripheral and central types. Typical symptoms include hyperalgesia, allodynia, spontaneous pain, paresthesia, and other positive signs, as well as negative signs such as sensory loss and shallow reflex disappear [3].
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It is now widely accepted that neuropathic pain is caused by a common change in the sensitivity of peripheral and central nervous system signaling. Peripheral mechanisms may include ectopic and spontaneous discharges, pseudo synaptic conduction, changes in ion channel expression, sympathetic neuron sprouting into dorsal root ganglia, and sensitization of nociceptors. The central mechanism also plays an important role in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain, especially the processing and integration of information in the high-level centers such as the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum, which are closely related to the chronic pain and the emergence of many typical symptoms and signs [3]. In the past, studies on the central mechanism of neuropathic pain were mostly limited to clinical observations and animal experiments. However, in recent years, with the development of neuroimaging techniques, especially the maturity of functional magnetic resonance, researchers have been able to explore the structure and function of the brain in multiple levels, providing new ideas for the study of the underlying changes of central nerves system in neuropathic pain.
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2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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Magnetic resonance imaging is an imaging technique based on the principle of nuclear magnetic resonance. According to the difference of research purposes, it can be roughly divided into two categories: structural imaging and functional imaging. The purpose of structure imaging is mainly to study the anatomical structure of brain tissue and the structural fiber connection between different brain regions. The main techniques are conventional brain structure imaging and voxel-based morphological measurement (VBM), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), etc. VBM can provide regions of interest for brain function changes. DTI can be used to analyze the anatomical basis of functional connectivity in brain regions and therefore belongs to the generalized fMRI. The narrow sense of fMRI mainly refers to a technique for studying brain function activities by monitoring changes in cerebral blood flow. The purpose is to explore the neural activity of each brain region under different physiological or pathological conditions. According to the differences in research methods, it can be divided into task-state fMRI and resting-state fMRI.
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2.1 VBM
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VBM is a technique for analyzing brain magnetic resonance images at the voxel level. It can quantitatively calculate the changes in local gray and white matter density and volume, so as to accurately display the morphological changes of brain structure. Neuropathic pain can cause changes in the plasticity of the brain structure, such as variation in the gray matter density of the cortex in the brain region. The degree of gray matter density in some brain regions is also related to various clinical indicators such as the length of disease and pain intensity. These changes can be studied with VBM [4].
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By tracking follow-up of patients with herpes zoster (HZ), Cao et al. compared the differences in gray matter volume between patients with acute herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). They found that the PHN brain showed decreased gray matter volume in the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the occipital lobe but increased in the cerebellum and the temporal lobe. These changes may be correlated with HZ-PHN chronification [5]. In several trigeminal neuralgia studies, the reduction of the volume of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the increase of the volume of the temporal cortex were found. Li et al. also considered that the increase in the volume of the upper and middle gyrus was proportional to the duration of trigeminal neuralgia [6, 7].
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2.2 DTI
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Modern brain science believes that the human brain is a complex and efficient network called the brain network. Each region of the brain is responsible for relatively independent functions and has a large number of structural and functional connections with each other. The brain network is formed based on this separation and integration principle. White matter fiber bundle is the material basis for connecting the various nodes of the network for information transmission. Any damage to the structure or function of the white matter fiber bundles may affect the information transmission of the brain and cause disease manifestation. DTI is currently the only noninvasive method for effectively observing and tracking white matter fiber bundles. Because of the directionality of the white matter fiber bundles, the internal water molecules are dispersed in a direction-dependent manner, which is called anisotropic. By tracking of the movement direction of water molecules, DTI can reflect the dispersion characteristics of water in white matter fibers and reveal the influence of neuropathic pain on the connection state of brain network structure.
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In many DTI studies, trigeminal neuralgia is the most studied type of neuropathic pain. In the case of primary trigeminal neuralgia caused by neurovascular compression, the degree of damage of the trigeminal white matter fiber can be estimated by DTI, thereby assessing the prognosis of microvascular decompression [8]. The diffusion of water molecules from the trigeminal root and root entry zone can help to classify the TN in order to select a more appropriate treatment [9]. In the study of postherpetic neuralgia, researchers also found that there exists altered microstructure integrity of white matter in multiple brain regions in patients with PHN, and these changes increase in size as the duration of the pain increases [10].
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2.3 fMRI
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Blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI technique is currently the most widely used fMRI imaging method [11]. The normal functional activity of neurons requires a stable supply of oxygen provided by hemoglobin in the blood, wherein oxyhemoglobin exhibits diamagnetism in the magnetic field due to the shielding effect of oxygen atoms, while deoxyhemoglobin exhibits paramagnetism. In this way, differences in oxygenated blood and deoxygenated magnetic susceptibility can be captured by magnetically sensitive weighted MR images using BOLD fMRI technique [12]. When neurons are excited, the oxygen consumption of these neurons and their surrounding tissue increases, causing a transient decrease in blood oxygen content. This change in the ratio of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin causes a downward initial tilt angle of the BOLD signal. Due to the continued demand for oxygen, the blood flow there will increase rapidly, and excessive compensation will make the proportion of oxygenated hemoglobin increase and the BOLD signal go up. When the neurons stop exciting and the demand for oxygen is reduced, BOLD will have a negative signal after the stimulus and then gradually return to the baseline. Therefore, by measuring the changes of BOLD signal, fMRI can detect the activation of various regions of the brain and can analyze the temporal correlation of activation or inhibition of different brain regions by simultaneously recording the time series, thereby establishing functional connections of the brain in a specific state [13, 14].
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According to the design type of fMRI research, it can be divided into task state and resting state. Task-state fMRI can detect brain regions closely related to certain functions or stimuli by comparing the fMRI images of subjects with and without tasks. It belongs to the study of functional separation of brain regions. By task-state fMRI, a large amount of data has been obtained about the locations and activations of brain regions in neuropathic pain. Resting-state fMRI refers to the data collection when the subject is lying still, the whole body is relaxed, the external stimuli are excluded, and the awake state is maintained. The obtained information is considered to reflect the spontaneous activities in baseline state of the central nervous system. These spontaneous activities not only consume a lot of energy (60–80% of the total energy consumption of the brain) but also have an inherent spatial pattern called the resting brain functional network, which belongs to the study of functional integration between different brain regions of the brain [15, 16]. Studies have shown that many neurologically related diseases, including neuropathic pain, can have a characteristic impact on this resting brain functional network [17, 18], whereas the study of this brain functional network change is more conducive to the clarification of the disease mechanism and the improvement of the diagnosis and treatment level of neuropathic pain [15].
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3. fMRI study of the central mechanism of neuropathic pain
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3.1 Pain perception in the brain and the process of information transmission
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The brain’s perception of pain has been one of the most interesting topics in the field of neuroimaging. Since the initial stage of fMRI technology, there have been a large number of related studies. With the in-depth study of the processing and transmission of pain information, the concept of “pain matrix” has gradually formed, which means that pain is achieved through the division of work between multiple regions of the brain, just like a network structure. The pain matrix mainly includes the thalamus, insula, primary somatosensory cortex (S1), secondary somatosensory cortex (S2), anterior cingulate cortex, periaqueductal gray (PAG), amygdala, etc. (Figure 1) [20, 21, 22]. Significant functional changes will occur in various brain regions within this pain matrix when suffering from acute nociceptive pain [23].
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Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of pain matrix [19].
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fMRI can be used not only in humans but also in animals such as rats and monkeys. Among these, spared nerve injury (SNI) rats can produce persistent and stable symptoms such as hyperalgesia, allodynia, and spontaneous pain, which are commonly used in the study of neuropathic pain. Komaki et al. studied the resting-state fMRI changes in the SNI rat model and studied the node efficiency of some regions of interest and the functional connections between regions of interest by graph theory. They found that the centrality and node efficiency of the S1 region in the opposite side of the injured limb were significantly lower after injury, while the functional connection between the ACC and the posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus was significantly enhanced. This phenomenon may be related to the regulation of secondary nociceptor function by glial cells in the thalamus [24], and mononuclear/macrophage and T lymphocytes may also be involved in [25].
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The results of the above studies indicate that although many brain regions involved in pain perception overlap in their respective functions, their functional connections are regularly changing [26]. The lateral thalamus, S2, and insula may be involved in the perception of pain information, and excessive activation of the posterior parietal and prefrontal cortex (PFC) promotes cognitive attention to nociceptive stimuli. Different parts of the ACC are involved in the adaptation or emotional response to pain. Motion control areas (such as basal ganglia, SMA, cerebellum) are involved in the functional regulation of the pain-suppression system and the avoidance behavior of pain. The amygdala plays an important role in the processing of nociceptive information processing and participates in the regulation of medial prefrontal cortex and spinal cord excitability [27, 28]. Abnormal amygdala function is associated with the formation of neuropathic pain, and the destruction of the amygdala can reduce the incidence of neuropathic pain [29]. Through the study of these regular changes, we can deepen the understanding of pain information processing in the brain, and it also helps to define the neurobiological basis of the formation of various typical symptoms of neuropathic pain.
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3.2 Chronic process of neuropathic pain
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The normal perception of pain and avoidance response is an important physiological protection mechanism. The chronic process of pain is the cause of neuropathic pain and the root of refractory disease. In the past, the understanding of the chronic process of neuropathic pain mostly stayed in the sensitization of nociceptors, the axonal buds of sensory neurons, etc. The understanding of advanced central structures and functional changes in the cerebral cortex was still limited. Nevertheless, fMRI is a powerful tool for studying the process of chronic pain. Both clinical observation and animal experiments have found that chronic process of neuropathic pain is associated with large-scale brain function changes and morphological remodeling [30].
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Zhang et al. found that the connection strength of the brain’s default network in patients with chronic neuropathic pain was significantly different from that of healthy controls, mainly as the weakening connections in characteristic areas of the default network itself (clamping back in the middle, back, inferior parietal lobule) and motor-related areas (superior parietal lobule, auxiliary sports area) [31]. Hubbard et al.’s task-state fMRI study of SNI rats found that when they stimulated the injured limbs in the injury (4 weeks after surgery), the activity of the contralateral somatosensory cortex (S1, S2), the posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus, and the dorsal striatum was enhanced compared with pre-injury and the control groups, whereas the activity of areas associated with painful emotional responses, such as contralateral insula, medial thalamus, and ipsilateral ACC, was inhibited. Resting-state fMRI study showed an enhanced functional connection between the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the dorsal striatum. At the same time, molecular biology study found that the expression of dopamine 1A receptor and κ opioid receptor in NAc was downregulated. Moreover, the degree of functional compromise is proportional to the degree of downregulation of dopamine receptor gene expression. Inhibition of NAc’s functional activity (injection of lidocaine) significantly reduced pain in SNI model animals [32]. At the late stage of injury (20 weeks after surgery), ACC, prefrontal, insula, basal ganglia, and S1 activity was significantly enhanced, while activity in the medial thalamus and PAG areas was inhibited [33]. It can be seen that the formation of neuropathic pain is related to the inhibition of the function of the descending regulation system of pain [34]. ACC activity is inhibited in the early stages of nerve injury, and with the chronic process of pain, ACC activity is gradually enhanced, which may be related to the unpleasant emotional experience of neuropathic pain [29, 35, 36].
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A recent resting-state fMRI study found that several major components of the limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, striatum, and medial prefrontal cortex, are associated with neuropathic pain formation and maintenance [37]. Although SNI rats showed significant changes of activity degree in some brain regions in the early stage of pain, the functional connection between brain regions was not significantly different from that in rats receiving physiological pain stimulation. It can be considered as a normal response of pain matrix to noxious stimuli. However, with the extension of model establishment time, significant changes in the brain functional network occur, and the remodeled brain network has a specific topology. The vast majority of changes in long-term functional connections (97%) occurred within the edge system, and between the edge system and the nociceptive network, while there were no functional connection changes in the nociceptive network [38]. The limbic system neural network adjusts the reward and punishment, appetite, aversion, etc. to generate emotions and behaviors that can adapt to the pain state, so that the brain network gradually adapts to this pain state and the pain tends to be chronic.
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3.3 Hyperalgesia and allodynia
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The concept of hyperalgesia and allodynia is often confused, but in fact their formation mechanisms are different. Hyperalgesia refers to a phenomenon in which the pain threshold caused by tissue damage is reduced and the response to noxious stimulation is abnormally enhanced and prolonged. Maihofner et al. found that mechanical pain sensitivity led to abnormal activation of S1, S2, parietal association cortex (PA), insular, superior frontal cortex (SFC), and inferior frontal cortex (IFC) [39], whereas patients with hyperalgesia will have abnormal activation of S1, S2, PA, medial frontal cortex (MFC), ACC, and contralateral SFC and IFC [40]. Zambreanu et al. found that in resting state, patients with no spontaneous pain but hyperalgesia would have abnormal functional activities in multiple regions of the midbrain reticular formation in the brainstem region, namely, nucleus cuneiformis (NCF), rostral superior colliculi (SC), and PAG [41]. The resting-state fMRI of the SNI rat model showed a significant increase in the functional connection between the hippocampus and the striatum, and the intensity was inversely correlated with the mechanical pain threshold of SNI rats.
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The clinical manifestation of allodynia is that non-noxious stimuli (such as light touch, mild rubbing, non-noxious cold stimuli) can cause pain, which is a manifestation of “misreading” of somatosensory information. Peripheral sensory nerves are classified into three types: Aβ, Aδ, and C fibers. Normally, the tactile signal is transmitted through the Aβ fiber to the mechanical stimulation zone of the spinal cord. However, in neuropathic pain, Aβ fibers may be abnormally linked to the pain transmission pathway, leading to symptoms such as allodynia [42, 43]. Task-state fMRI is the ideal tool for studying allodynia. Localization and functional connectivity of brain regions associated with allodynia can be achieved by comparing the states of no stimulation, stimulating pain hypersensitivity, and stimulating the same part of the contralateral body. Clinical studies have shown that somatic stimulation signals are amplified by the thalamic and thalamic-parietal circuits, causing excessive activation of the lateral pain sensory system and attention network (posterior parietal lobe). Unlike the response of the thalamic-parietal system, the role of ACC and medial prefrontal lobe in allodynia is more complicated. First, different parts of ACC respond differently to nociceptive stimuli. The central part of ACC was significantly activated during peripheral nerve injury-induced allodynia, whereas there was no significant change in the degree of activation in pain hypersensitivity caused by Wallenberg’s lateral infarction. This may be due to the fact that the central part of ACC receives signals from the spinal thalamus bundle and Wallenberg’s syndrome causes damage to the spinal thalamic bundle; nevertheless peripheral neuropathic pain does not. However, in most neuropathic pains, whether peripheral or central, the axons of ACC are shown to have a reduced degree of activation when allodynia is induced. The brain regions activated by different stimulating components are also different. Cold and mechanical stimulation can cause significant activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and basal ganglia, and the degree of activation is related to the functional status of ACC [33], and insula signal significantly enhances during stimulation [44].
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A similar phenomenon was also found in fMRI study of the SNI animal model by Komaki et al. According to the physiological characteristics of each nerve fiber, the Aβ fiber can be selectively excited by a current of 2000 Hz, 2.2 mA. When the hind paws of normal rats were administered with 2000 Hz, 2.2 mA DC stimulation, it caused only significant activation of the S1 region; however, when the same intensity of current was used to stimulate the pain-sensing hypersensitivity zone of SNI rats, it was found that not only S1, ACC, and thalamus were also significant activated [45].
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3.4 Spontaneous pain
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Spontaneous pain is generally difficult to study with fMRI. Because it is difficult to obtain a comparison of pain and painlessness in the same patient under clinical conditions, this type of clinical study is still rare. A few studies include spinal cordectomy for cancer pain [46], persistent neuropathic pain before and after local anesthesia [47], and central pain before and after motor cortex stimulation [48]. A common finding of these studies is the reduction in local blood flow in the thalamus, that is, the decrease in thalamic activity, which is restored after pain relief. This depression of lateral thalamic function is found both in peripheral and central neuropathic pain [49].
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In the study of trigeminal neuralgia and sphenopalatine neuralgia with typical spontaneous pain characteristics, it was found that the functional connection between the ipsilateral hypothalamus and the contralateral S1 and the ipsilateral wedge was weakened during the pain attack and remission. However, compared with the pain relief period, the functional connection between the hypothalamus and the S1, anterior wedge, and cerebellum is much less during the onset of pain [50].
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3.5 Characteristic changes of brain function in different types of neuropathic pain
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In addition to the common changes in neuropathic pains, different types of neuropathic pain also have characteristic changes. By studying these changes, it is helpful to clarify its pathogenesis, and it is also possible to screen out specific neuroimaging markers for the diagnosis and evaluation of diseases (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Characteristic ROIs of trigeminal neuralgia [51].
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Neurovascular compression has long been considered to be the cause of primary trigeminal neuralgia. The 3D TOF MRA and 3D FIESTA sequences can clearly show the positional relationship between the nerves and blood vessels in the root enter zone (REZ) [52, 53, 54]. However, nerve compression is not the direct cause of trigeminal neuralgia. There are also many individuals in the population who have neurological compression but no clinical symptoms of trigeminal neuralgia [55]. Lin et al. found that there were no damage and functional changes in the white matter fibrin myelin or axons in patients with nerve compression but asymptomatic in their DTI study [56]. DeSouza found that the fractional anisotropy (FA) of REZ in patients with trigeminal neuralgia was 22% lower than that of the healthy side and 27% lower than that of healthy controls. Other white matter microstructural measurements of patients such as radial diffusivity (RD), axial diffusivity (AD), and mean diffusivity (MD) were higher than those of healthy controls, indicating demyelinating lesions without axonal injury may be an important factor in the pathogenesis of trigeminal neuralgia [57]. They then compared changes in white matter fiber connections in the REZ region before and after microvascular decompression. It is found that FA, MD, RD, and AD all recovered in the normal direction after treatment and the degree of recovery was proportional to the degree of pain relief [58]. It is suggested that nerve compression by blood vessels is only the inducement of trigeminal neuralgia, and the occurrence and maintenance of pain may be related to abnormal white matter fibers at REZ.
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The task-state fMRI conducted by Moisset initially explored the effect of the trigger point of patients with trigeminal neuralgia on brain functional activity. They found that when the pain was onset, spinal trigeminal nucleus (SpV), thalamus, S1, S2, ACC, insular, premotor cortex, motor cortex, frontal nucleus, putamen, etc. were clearly activated in patients with trigger points. In patients without trigger points, the brain regions abovementioned were also activated except SpV, brainstem, and ACC. It can be considered that the structural or functional changes at these three regions may be related to the formation of the trigger point [59]. There are still a small number of studies on resting-state fMRI in patients with trigeminal neuralgia. Athinoula et al. found a weaker functional connection between amygdala and insula and S2 in a comparative study of migraine and trigeminal neuralgia [60]. Wang et al.’s study showed a significant reduction in local consistency activity in the amygdala, hippocampus, and cerebellum in patients with trigeminal neuralgia [61].
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The cause of residual limb pain or phantom pain after amputation has been controversial. Some people think that the sudden introduction of nerve afferents from the limbs will cause the expansion or displacement of the sensory cortex, which is called the incompatible remodeling of the cortex [62, 63]. This theory has been proposed for more than 20 years, but it is difficult to be verified before the rise of fMRI technology [64, 65]. Lotze et al. conducted a task-state fMRI study and found that cortical remodeling in patients with phantom limb pain is not limited to S1 but also includes some auxiliary sports areas [66]. For example, when the lips move, the activation degree of the representative region of the broken limb in M1 is also significantly enhanced, indicating that the lip represents region expands and displaces to the cortex of broken limb [67]. Moreover, the degree of displacement of the cortex to the representative area of the isolated limb is positively correlated with the degree of pain [68]. After mirror therapy, cortical displacement can be partially restored, and the pain intensity can be reduced [69].
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Cauda et al. found that the functional connections between the ventral posterior nucleus (VP) and the medial dorsal nucleus (MD) and the cerebral cortex were weakened in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy [70]. Cifre observed a weakened connection between resting thalamus and insula in patients with fibromyalgia [71]. In patients with postherpetic neuralgia, the reward circuit consisting of the striatum, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus and the circuits composed of striatum, thalamus, and insular leaves have very close functional connection [72]. With the advancement of fMRI data analysis methods and machine learning techniques, these seemingly cluttered functional connectivity features are highly likely to be used as neuroimaging markers for the diagnosis of neuropathic pain. In other studies of nervous system diseases, some scholars have successfully used fMRI technology to construct a resting brain functional network model for patients with Alzheimer’s disease. And with the using of multimode variable analysis method, the sensitivity and specificity of early screening of Alzheimer’s disease in the general population is up to 90% [73].
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4. The value of fMRI in the clinical treatment of neuropathic pain
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In the past, the examination and evaluation of neuropathic pain relied mainly on medical history, symptoms, and signs and lacked tools for quantitative assessment. Even with the von Frey fiber test, the same stimulation site and strength often result in a lack of consistency [74]. The reason is that the activity of the nerve is disturbed by many factors. Inclusion of peripheral and central sensitization, genetics, cognition, and emotional response during testing will affect the signal transmission of noxious stimuli to the painful sensation area of the brain [75]. In addition, the subjective tendencies of participants and examiners may also cause serious bias. However, fMRI technology may provide us with qualitative and quantitative observations [76]. For example, PoCG’s corresponding somatosensory representative area can help clinicians determine the pain site, and the degree of activation can also reflect the intensity of pain [51]. The local activity consistency of rostralanterior part of ACC in patients with postherpetic neuralgia was significantly correlated with the anxiety and depression scores [77, 78].
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fMRI can also be used to observe the effects of treatments on brain function or to assess the therapeutic effects of neuropathic pain. For example, after the application of opioids to achieve pain relief, an increase in ACC activation can be found. Thalamic electrical stimulation can significantly increase the activation of the rostralanterior part of ACC and the basal part of frontal cortex. These two sites are generally in a state of functional inhibition in patients with chronic neuropathic pain. A study of drug therapy for trigeminal neuralgia has shown that lamotrigine can reduce the pain level of patients by reducing the excitability of the prefrontal, parietal, and temporal lobe and inhibit allodynia [79].
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As a method for treating neuropathic pain, neuromodulation technology has been applied for decades. However, whether it is invasive spinal cord electrical stimulation, deep brain stimulation, or noninvasive transcranial magnetic stimulation, there is a problem of inefficiency. The reason may be due to individual differences in the effects of disease on the brain functional network. fMRI can accurately capture the brain regions with abnormal functions and combine the analysis of functional connections in the brain to determine the regions of interest for neuromodulation, which is used to guide the target area of transcranial magnetic stimulation or the placement of epidural stimulation electrodes [80, 81]. It is helpful to improve the efficacy of neuromodulation techniques.
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5. Limitations and future direction of fMRI research in NP
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Most of the previous studies were limited by the fMRI data analysis method. They can only analyze for a single factor, or only focus on brain regions or functional connections with significant differences, while ignoring the complexity and synergy of the brain function network as a whole structure. And the conclusions drawn lack clinical utility and provide limited assistance in the diagnosis and prediction of diseases.
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In recent years, with the increasing maturity of machine learning technology, machine learning and pattern recognition technology are being used more and more for fMRI data analysis. By using machine learning technology to process the massive characteristic data generated by fMRI, multiple dimensions such as gray matter volume, diffusion of water molecules, and functional connectivity can be used simultaneously [82]. In the future, this research method of overall analysis of brain function networks can realize pattern recognition of different disease states. It can make fMRI technology better serve the clinic and provide assistance for the diagnosis and prognosis analysis of neuropathic pain.
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6. Conclusion
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A large number of brain regions associated with neuropathic pain have been discovered by fMRI technology, and there has been some data accumulation for changes in functional connectivity between brain regions. However, how to analyze and process these fMRI data and make a reasonable explanation for better understanding the underlying disease mechanism as well as treatment improvement is the key to further expand the value of fMRI application in the future.
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\n\n',keywords:"functional magnetic resonance imaging, brain region, brain network, neuropathic pain",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69182.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69182.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69182",totalDownloads:909,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"April 16th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 16th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 30th 2019",datePublished:"November 27th 2019",dateFinished:"September 21st 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In the past, neuropathic pain has been lacking in ideal imaging research methods, which not only limits our research on the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain but also seriously affects the prognosis of treatments. With the rapid development of fMRI technology, more and more scholars have begun to use fMRI technology in the study of neuropathic pain in recent years. This provides a new idea for revealing the underlining mechanisms of neuropathic pain and improving the clinical treatment concepts. In this chapter, we summarized the recent studies of fMRI in neuropathic pain so that readers can better understand the research status and future research directions.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69182",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69182",signatures:"Zhi Dou and Liqiang Yang",book:{id:"8125",type:"book",title:"Medical Imaging",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8125.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-872-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-871-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-724-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"302075",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Dou",fullName:"Zhi Dou",slug:"zhi-dou",email:"douzhi@xwhosp.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"310181",title:"Dr.",name:"Liqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Liqiang Yang",slug:"liqiang-yang",email:"yangliqiangxwpain@outlook.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 VBM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 DTI",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 fMRI",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. fMRI study of the central mechanism of neuropathic pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Pain perception in the brain and the process of information transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Chronic process of neuropathic pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Hyperalgesia and allodynia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Spontaneous pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5 Characteristic changes of brain function in different types of neuropathic pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. The value of fMRI in the clinical treatment of neuropathic pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Limitations and future direction of fMRI research in NP",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Jensen TS, Gottrup H, Sindrup SH, et al. The clinical picture of neuropathic pain. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2001;429(1-3):1-11\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Chong MS, Bajwa ZH. Diagnosis and treatment of neuropathic pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 2003;25(5 Suppl):S4-S11\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Vranken JH. Elucidation of pathophysiology and treatment of neuropathic pain. Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. 2012;12(4):304-314\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Henry DE, Chiodo AE, Yang W. Central nervous system reorganization in a variety of chronic pain states: A review. PM & R : The Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation. 2011;3(12):1116-1125\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Cao S, Qin B, Zhang Y, et al. Herpes zoster chronification to postherpetic neuralgia induces brain activity and grey matter volume change. American Journal of Translational Research. 2018;10(1):184-199\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Wang Y, Cao DY, Remeniuk B, et al. Altered brain structure and function associated with sensory and affective components of classic trigeminal neuralgia. Pain. 2017;158(8):1561-1570\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Li M, Yan J, Li S, et al. Reduced volume of gray matter in patients with trigeminal neuralgia. Brain Imaging and Behavior. 2017;11(2):486-492\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Chai W, You C, Zhang W, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of microstructural alterations in the trigeminal nerve due to neurovascular contact/compression. Acta Neurochirurgica. 2019;161(7):1407-1413\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Willsey MS, Collins KL, Conrad EC, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging reveals microstructural differences between subtypes of trigeminal neuralgia. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2019;6(19):1-7\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Chen F, Chen F, Shang Z, et al. White matter microstructure degenerates in patients with postherpetic neuralgia. Neuroscience Letters. 2017;656:152-157\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Ogawa S, Lee TM, Nayak AS, et al. Oxygenation-sensitive contrast in magnetic resonance image of rodent brain at high magnetic fields. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 1990;14(1):68-78\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Logothetis NK. The neural basis of the blood-oxygen-level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging signal. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 2002;357(1424):1003-1037\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1990;87(24):9868-9872\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Ogawa S, Menon RS, Tank DW, et al. Functional brain mapping by blood oxygenation level-dependent contrast magnetic resonance imaging. A comparison of signal characteristics with a biophysical model. 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Shape shifting pain: Chronification of back pain shifts brain representation from nociceptive to emotional circuits. Brain. 2013;136(9):2751-2768\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Apkarian AV, Baliki MN, Geha PY. Towards a theory of chronic pain. Progress in Neurobiology. 2009;87(2):81-97\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Hua Z, Hao W, Duoduo L, et al. Default mode network altered in chronic pain caused by cervical spondylosis. Chinese Journal of Rehabilitation Theory and Practice. 2015;21(1):69-73\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Chang PC, Pollema-Mays SL, Centeno MV, et al. Role of nucleus accumbens in neuropathic pain: Linked multi-scale evidence in the rat transitioning to neuropathic pain. Pain. 2014;155(6):1128-1139\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Hubbard CS, Khan SA, Xu S, et al. Behavioral, metabolic and functional brain changes in a rat model of chronic neuropathic pain: A longitudinal MRI study. NeuroImage. 2015;107:333-344\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Maarrawi J, Mertens P, Peyron R, et al. Functional exploration for neuropathic pain. Advances and Technical Standards in Neurosurgery. 2011;37:25-63\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Davis KD, Taylor KS, Anastakis DJ. Nerve injury triggers changes in the brain. The Neuroscientist. 2011;17(4):407-422\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Vertes RP. Interactions among the medial prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and midline thalamus in emotional and cognitive processing in the rat. Neuroscience. 2006;142(1):1-20\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Berger SE, Baria AT, Baliki MN, et al. Risky monetary behavior in chronic back pain is associated with altered modular connectivity of the nucleus accumbens. BMC Research Notes. 2014;7:739\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Baliki MN, Chang PC, Baria AT, et al. Resting-sate functional reorganization of the rat limbic system following neuropathic injury. Scientific Reports. 2014;4:6186\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Maihofner C, Schmelz M, Forster C, et al. Neural activation during experimental allodynia: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2004;19(12):3211-3218\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Maihofner C, Handwerker HO. Differential coding of hyperalgesia in the human brain: A functional MRI study. NeuroImage. 2005;28(4):996-1006\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Zambreanu L, Wise RG, Brooks JC, et al. A role for the brainstem in central sensitisation in humans. Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Pain. 2005;114(3):397-407\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Komori K, Nonaka T, Okada A, et al. Absence of mechanical allodynia and Abeta-fiber sprouting after sciatic nerve injury in mice lacking membrane-type 5 matrix metalloproteinase. FEBS Letters. 2004;557(1-3):125-128\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Ji RR, Kohno T, Moore KA, et al. Central sensitization and LTP: Do pain and memory share similar mechanisms? Trends in Neurosciences. 2003;26(12):696-705\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Becerra L, Morris S, Bazes S, et al. Trigeminal neuropathic pain alters responses in CNS circuits to mechanical (brush) and thermal (cold and heat) stimuli. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2006;26(42):10646-10657\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Komaki Y, Hikishima K, Shibata S, et al. Functional brain mapping using specific sensory-circuit stimulation and a theoretical graph network analysis in mice with neuropathic allodynia. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:37802\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Di Piero V, Jones AK, Iannotti F, et al. Chronic pain: A PET study of the central effects of percutaneous high cervical cordotomy. Pain. 1991;46(1):9-12\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Hsieh JC, Belfrage M, Stone-Elander S, et al. Central representation of chronic ongoing neuropathic pain studied by positron emission tomography. Pain. 1995;63(2):225-236\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Garcia-Larrea L, Peyron R, Mertens P, et al. Electrical stimulation of motor cortex for pain control: A combined PET-scan and electrophysiological study. Pain. 1999;83(2):259-273\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Peyron R, Garcia-Larrea L, Gregoire MC, et al. Haemodynamic brain responses to acute pain in humans: Sensory and attentional networks. Brain. 1999;122(Pt 9):1765-1780\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Yang FC, Chou KH, Fuh JL, et al. Altered hypothalamic functional connectivity in cluster headache: A longitudinal resting-state functional MRI study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 2015;86(4):437-445\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Dou Z, Zhang X, Yang L, et al. Alternation of regional homogeneity in trigeminal neuralgia after percutaneous radiofrequency thermocoagulation: A resting state fMRI study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(42):e5193\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Montano N, Conforti G, Di Bonaventura R, et al. Advances in diagnosis and treatment of trigeminal neuralgia. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management. 2015;11:289-299\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Maarbjerg S, Wolfram F, Gozalov A, et al. Significance of neurovascular contact in classical trigeminal neuralgia. Brain. 2015;138(2):311-319\n'},{id:"B54",body:'Docampo J, Gonzalez N, Munoz A, et al. Neurovascular study of the trigeminal nerve at 3 t MRI. The Neuroradiology Journal. 2015;28(1):28-35\n'},{id:"B55",body:'Zakrzewska JM, Linskey ME. Trigeminal neuralgia. BMJ. 2014;348:474-483\n'},{id:"B56",body:'Lin W, Chen YL, Zhang QW. Vascular compression of the trigeminal nerve in asymptomatic individuals: A voxel-wise analysis of axial and radial diffusivity. Acta Neurochirurgica. 2014;156(3):577-580\n'},{id:"B57",body:'DeSouza DD, Hodaie M, Davis KD. Abnormal trigeminal nerve microstructure and brain white matter in idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia. Pain. 2014;155(1):37-44\n'},{id:"B58",body:'DeSouza DD, Davis KD, Hodaie M. Reversal of insular and microstructural nerve abnormalities following effective surgical treatment for trigeminal neuralgia. Pain. 2015;156(6):1112-1123\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Moisset X, Villain N, Ducreux D, et al. Functional brain imaging of trigeminal neuralgia. European Journal of Pain. 2011;15(2):124-131\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Hadjikhani N, Ward N, Boshyan J, et al. The missing link: Enhanced functional connectivity between amygdala and visceroceptive cortex in migraine. Cephalalgia. 2013;33(15):1264-1268\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Wang Y, Zhang X, Guan Q , et al. Altered regional homogeneity of spontaneous brain activity in idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 2015;11:2659-2666\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Flor H. Cortical reorganisation and chronic pain: Implications for rehabilitation. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2003;5(41):66-72\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Foell J, Bekrater-Bodmann R, Diers M, et al. Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain: Brain changes and the role of body representation. European Journal of Pain. 2014;18(5):729-739\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht S, et al. Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation. Nature. 1995;375(6531):482-484\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Jutzeler CR, Curt A, Kramer JL. Relationship between chronic pain and brain reorganization after deafferentation: A systematic review of functional MRI findings. NeuroImage. Clinical. 2015;9:599-606\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Dettmers C, Adler T, Rzanny R, et al. Increased excitability in the primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area in patients with phantom limb pain after upper limb amputation. Neuroscience Letters. 2001;307(2):109-112\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Lotze M, Flor H, Grodd W, et al. Phantom movements and pain. An fMRI study in upper limb amputees. Brain. 2001;124(11):2268-2277\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Gustin SM, Wrigley PJ, Henderson LA, et al. Brain circuitry underlying pain in response to imagined movement in people with spinal cord injury. Pain. 2010;148(3):438-445\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Diers M, Christmann C, Koeppe C, et al. Mirrored, imagined and executed movements differentially activate sensorimotor cortex in amputees with and without phantom limb pain. Pain. 2010;149(2):296-304\n'},{id:"B70",body:'Cauda F, Sacco K, D’Agata F, et al. Low-frequency BOLD fluctuations demonstrate altered thalamocortical connectivity in diabetic neuropathic pain. BMC Neuroscience. 2009;10:138\n'},{id:"B71",body:'Cifre I, Sitges C, Fraiman D, et al. Disrupted functional connectivity of the pain network in fibromyalgia. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2012;74(1):55-62\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Liu J, Hao Y, Du M, et al. Quantitative cerebral blood flow mapping and functional connectivity of postherpetic neuralgia pain: A perfusion fMRI study. Pain. 2013;154(1):110-118\n'},{id:"B73",body:'Craddock RC, Holtzheimer PE, Hu XP, et al. Disease state prediction from resting state functional connectivity. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2009;62(6):1619-1628\n'},{id:"B74",body:'Tracey I. Getting the pain you expect: Mechanisms of placebo, nocebo and reappraisal effects in humans. Nature Medicine. 2010;16(11):1277-1283\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Basbaum AI, Bautista DM, Scherrer G, et al. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell. 2009;139(2):267-284\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Bosshard SC, Baltes C, Wyss MT, et al. Assessment of brain responses to innocuous and noxious electrical forepaw stimulation in mice using BOLD fMRI. Pain. 2010;151(3):655-663\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Vogt BA, Finch DM, Olson CR. Functional heterogeneity in cingulate cortex: The anterior executive and posterior evaluative regions. Cerebral Cortex. 1992;2(6):435-443\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Vogt BA, Sikes RW. The medial pain system, cingulate cortex, and parallel processing of nociceptive information. Progress in Brain Research. 2000;122:223-235\n'},{id:"B79",body:'Scrivani S, Wallin D, Moulton EA, et al. A fMRI evaluation of lamotrigine for the treatment of trigeminal neuropathic pain: Pilot study. Pain Medicine. 2010;11(6):920-941\n'},{id:"B80",body:'De Ridder D, Vanneste S, Van Laere K, et al. Chasing map plasticity in neuropathic pain. World Neurosurgery. 2013;80(6):901-905\n'},{id:"B81",body:'De Ridder D, Elgoyhen AB, Romo R, et al. Phantom percepts: Tinnitus and pain as persisting aversive memory networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2011;108(20):8075-8080\n'},{id:"B82",body:'Glasser MF, Coalson TS, Robinson EC, et al. A multi-modal parcellation of human cerebral cortex. Nature. 2016;536(7615):171-178\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Zhi Dou",address:"douzhi@xwhosp.org",affiliation:'
Department of Pain Management, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
Department of Pain Management, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
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\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/19775",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"19775"},fullPath:"/chapters/19775",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()